co min-lin v cm kang-polla round 6

8/12/2019 CO Min-Lin v CM Kang-Polla Round 6

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DDI 2012

Sacrifice the sacrifice

The aff is a gigantic double turn. Their attempt to enunciate meaning to the ependiture ! to rescue us

from the catastrophe of nuclear "ar ! is an e#en more perfect reflection of the logic of utilit$.Their efforts to obtain the #alue of %sur#i#al& collapses the parado of sacrifice and returns the

aff to the "orld of utilit$ and the purel$ profane. Nothing can be sal#aged ! the aff must be

destro$ed in its totalit$

Elisabeth 'rnould, lecturer at Johns Hopkins University, The Impossible Sacrifice of Poetry: ataille an! the "ancian #riti$ue of

Sacrifice,% &iacritics '()', 1(()To better un!erstan! the conte*t of its sacrifice, it is no+ necessary to recall +hat is for ataille the e*perience +hose most nearlye*treme manifestation is represente! by imbau!-s self.immolation) The /inner e*perience,/ accor!in0 to the !efinition 0iven by thebook bearin0 this name, /respon!s to the necessity in +hich I fin! myself..human e*istence +ith me..of challen0in0 everythin0 1ofputtin0 everythin0 into $uestion +ithout permissible rest/ 1/r2pon! 3 la n2cessit2 o4 5e suis .. l-e*istence humaine avec moi ..!e mettretout en cause 1en $uestion6 sans repos a!missible/6 7IE 89 EI ;e it) ataille, in fact, is not even intereste! in the /unkno+n)/ ather, he is intereste!in the mystery of its mechanism, in +hat persists as +itness to its +ith!ra+al) It is, one coul! say, the kno+le!0e an!, in effect,nonkno+le!0e, of the unkno+n, /non.savoir,/ that makes up +hat ataille calls the e*perience) 1This e*perience has nothin0 to !o+ith the Sartrean e*perience, the e*istential e*perience that comes to kno+ an! to kno+ itself by +ay of self.pro!uction: it is not thee*perience +hose e*istence pro!uces its essence)6 imbau!-s sacrifice of poetry is the ans+er of the ataillian e*perience to thispara!o* of an unkno+n impervious to any form of e*perience) Every other mo!ality of e*perience that ataille proposes in InnerE*perience is unable to preserve its alterity) ?ysticism subor!inates its rapture to the revelation of a !ivine foun!ation, the ima0es ofpoetry 0ive too familiar a form to its mystery, an! eroticism al+ays en!s up limitin0 its !esire to the con5u0al possession of its ob5ect)The inner e*perience an! the primary forms of its rapture are insufficient) Their initial sacrifice remains all too partial since itconserves..in its mystic, poetic, or erotic !estruction of meanin0..the possibility of enunciatin0 the meanin0 of this !estruction) It isthus necessary to ima0ine, +ith ataille, a secon! sacrifice, a /sacrifice to the secon! !e0ree,/ able to present, in its repeate!immolation, the abolition of the /meanin0 of !estruction/ still conserve! in the initial sacrifice) Such a sacrifice, +hich ataille calls/a sacrifice in +hich everythin0 is a victim/ 1/un sacrifice o4 tout est victime/6 7IE ;'9 EI @;e upon the sacrificial moment +hen the bloo! of the victim bears +itness to the reality orfinitu!e of !eath, he insists here, analo0ically, upon the pain of the imbal!ian renunciation) It is this pain that testifies to theauthentic character of the poetic !eath an! its silence) An! for its part, it is this silence that 0uarantees the reality of an unkno+n+hose fatal truth shoul! be neither spirituali>e! nor verbali>e!) ut the privile0e 0iven to the silent an! lethal efficacy of a suppose!ly/total/ sacrifice must be interro0ate!)

*ur alternati#e is to affirm the spirit of the aff "ithout an$ of the fear. +i#ing up on politics is the onl$

route to di#init$. It is impossible to lo#e that "hich is subordinated

Beor0es ,ataille, The unfinishe! system of nonkno+le!0e, e!) Stuart Cen!all, 2001, p) =;.=("othin0 is more necessary or stron0er in us than rebellion) De are no lon0er able to love anythin0, to respect anythin0, thatbears the mark of subor!ination) "evertheless, as a +hole, the +orl! from +hich +e come, from +hich +e become +hat +e are, lives in interminableprostration: this ori0in fore+arns us, if +e allo+ ourselves to be le! +ithout !istrust by our most assure! feelin0s, +e mi0ht slip from autonomous an!capricious moo!s to fleetin0 5u!0ments, the verbalism of +hich subor!inates the min!s of those that form them) A mechanism of +or!s in the name of the

principle of insubor!ination, this is no less contrary to rebellion a0ainst subor!ination than naively yiel!in0 be. fore a soverei0n po+er) #oul! the entirety ofthe past have been enslave! An! +oul! history be prou! of the hate or envy that covers our refusals The most bur!ensome misery inherent in our con!ition

re$uires that +e never be limitlessly !isintereste!.or +ithout trickery.an! that, lastly, ri0or, bitterly re$uire! of us, is still insufficient) The human min!


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DDI 2012

has too many !eep fol!s in +hich it +oul! be useless to lin0er: because the truths that are !iscovere! there mislea! us no lessthan honest appearances !o) In these !ifficult con!itions, +e can only lau0h or co+er, but an insi!ious lau0h is more sincerethan tremblin0: at least it means that +ehaven-t any asylum an! that +e 0aily refuse to be at risk) ha! to say that first) In fact, I can only makethe /claim/ to rebel. lion that is connecte!, from near or afar, to that +hich conceals the fol!s of a human soul from the unavo+able, but I lau0h an! I thinkthat the rebellious min! lau0hs +ith me9 it +as a !ay of tremblin0 from this interminable +ei0ht: I am lau0hin0, as I sai!, a happy lau0h, but my ar!or

soverei0nly +ants to be /insi!ious)/ The proper sense of rebellion is not to allo+ oneself to submit easily) I can put myself in $uestion, !oubtmy 0oo! faith) ut I cannot let the subor!inate! min! recall the authority that inclines it to+ar! me) Here I take up the claim to rebellion rather

+eakly, reco0ni>in0 nothin0 soverei0n above me1as my solitu!e measures the obscurity of the universe to the vanishin0 point6 an! no lon0er+aitin0 for a response from the uninterrupte! silence)

T ! Frame"or-

'


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DDI 2012

1N

Interpretation/ The 'ffirmati#e must present and defend the h$pothetical implementation of a plan that

increase the in#estment in transportation infrastructure in the nited States.

iolation The$ don&t let us "eigh the impacts of the 'ffirmati#e and their 'ffirmati#e is not enacted b$

the SF+

3Its4 is a possessi#e pronoun used to specif$ the SF+

'rgamon 5 6oppel 071Shlomo Ar0amon, &ept) of #omputer Science, Illinois Institute of Technolo0y, ?oshe Coppel, &ept) of?athematics an! #omputer Science, ar.Ilan University amat Ban, Jonathan Fine, &ept) of En0lish, ar.Ilan University amatBan, an! Anat achel Shimoni) =G'8, Ben!er, Benre, an! Dritin0 Style in Formal Dritten Te*ts, Pa0e ,http:GGlin0co0)iit)e!uG!ocG0en!erte*t)p!f6

In both fiction an! non.fiction, +e fin! male authors usin0 more post.hea! noun mo!ification +ith an ofphrase 10ar!en ofroses%6) In fiction, male authors $uantify thin0s more often by usin0 car!inal numbers in a noun phrase) This phenomenonis neutrali>e! in non.fiction possibly !ue to the 0reater $uantification inherent to most non.fiction 0enres) Similarly, the0reater use of attributive a!5ectives by male authors in non.fiction +ritin0 is attenuate! in fiction +ritin0, likely !ue toconventions of the 0enre) Finally, as note! earlier, the pronoun its, +hich serves to specify the i!entity or properties of athin0, occurs +ith far 0reater fre$uency in male.authore! te*ts, both fiction an! non.fiction)

T89 SF+ IS IN :'S8IN+T*N

9ncarta 20001Encarta nline Encyclope!ia http:GGencarta)msn)com6The fe!eral 0overnment of the Unite! States is centere! in Dashin0ton %

ote Neg/

1; lan Focus *ur Frame"or- 9stablishes a stable threshold for "hich the negati#e can garner

lin-s and compare impacts. 'lternati#e frame"or-s that don&t ma-e the resolution= topic= or

plan the focus of the debate onl$ leads to udge inter#ention

If debate is not grounded in topical discussion of the affirmati#e= clash "ill diminish and the acti#it$ "ill

end.

Speice 5 ?$le 07 @Speice Former Dake Forest &ebater K Lyle Bra!uate Assistant at Dake Forest, Patrick, Jim, Tra!itionalPolicy &ebate: "o+ ?ore Than Ever%, Oceans Policy Adrifte the role of a0reement inpolitical contest, or the basic accor! that is necessary to !iscor!) The mistake that the ambi0uists make here is a common one)The mistake is in thinkin0 that a0reement marks the en! of contest..that consensus kills !ebate) ut this is true only if thea0reement is perfect..if there is nothin0 at all left to $uestion or contest) In most cases, ho+ever, our a0reements are hi0hlyimperfect) De a0ree on some matters but not on others, on 0eneralities but not on specifics, on principles but not on theirapplications, an! so on) An! this kin! of limite! a0reement is the startin0 con!ition of contest an! !ebate) As John #ourtney?urray +rites: De hol! certain truths9 therefore +e can ar0ue about them) It seems to have been one of the corruptions ofintelli0ence by positivism to assume that ar0ument en!s +hen a0reement is reache!) In a basic sense, the reverse is true) Therecan be no ar0ument e*cept on the premise, an! +ithin a conte*t, of a0reement) 1?urray R(, 6 In other +or!s, +e cannotar0ue about somethin0 if +e are not communicatin0 : if +e cannot a0ree on the topic an! terms of ar0ument or if +e have utterly

!ifferent i!eas about +hat counts as evi!ence or 0oo! ar0ument) At the very least, +e must a0ree about +hat it is that is bein0!ebate! before +e can !ebate it ) For instance, one cannot have an ar0ument about euthanasia +ith someone +ho thinkseuthanasia is a musical 0roup) ne cannot successfully sta0e a sit.in if one-s tar0et au!ience simply thinks everyone is restin0 orif those !oin0 the sittin0 have no complaints)"or can one !emonstrate resistance to a policy if no one kno+s that it is a policy )In other +or!s, contest is meanin0less if there is a lack of a0reement or communication about +hat is bein0 conteste!) esisters,!emonstrators, an! !ebaters must have some share! i!eas about the sub5ect an!Gor the terms of their !isa0reements) Theparticipants an! the tar0et of a sit.in must share an un!erstan!in0 of the complaint at han!) An! a !emonstrator-s au!ience mustkno+ +hat is bein0 resiste!) In short, the contestin0 of an i!ea presumes some a0reement about +hat that i!ea is an! ho+ onemi0ht 0o about intelli0ibly contestin0 it) In other +or!s, contestation rests on some basic a0reement or harmony)

7. Topicspecific education *nl$ debates about the plan translate into education about Transportation

infrastructure. There "ould be no reason to s"itch topics e#er$ $ear if not for resolution based

education. The$ ma-e the negati#e research burden infinite.

Con#entional s"itchside debate is best for education and a"areness. Thus= it is best for democrac$.

uir (7=Star ?uir, A &efense of the Ethics of #ontemporary &ebate,% Penn State University Press, ol) '(, pp) '@@.'R;)In a comple* society, e!ucators are face! +ith !ifficult challen0es preparin0 future 0enerations to make +ise choices) As atool to e!ucate the populace in makin0 these choices,aca!emic !ebate has lon0 been char0e! +ith sophistry the !ebater,!efen!in0 both si!es of a 0iven issue, accuse! of hypocrisy an! insincerity) These char0es are not to be taken li0htly, forthe activity of !ebate is representative of our !emocratic ethic , an! the morality that attaches to it is a fun!amental part ofour political inheritance.Practice! by over ';, stu!ents nation+i!e s+itch.si!e tournament !ebatin0 no+ lar0ely


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DDI 2012

characteri>es the hi0h school an! colle0e !ebate e*perience) These stu!ents re0ularly ar0ue both si!es of si0nificant issueslike abortion, homelessness, space e*ploration, arms control, economic !evelopment, an! the environment) In one roun!they mi0ht !efen! a +omanMs ri0ht to choose an abortion9 in the ne*t they mi0ht ar0ue a fetusMs ri0ht to life) Theo!oreoosevelt, +ritin0 in his autobio0raphy in R8,!istruste! this practice of assi0nin0 si!es arbitrarily: Dhat +e nee! is toturn out of our colle0es youn0 men +ith ar!ent convictions on the si!e of the ri0ht9 not youn0 men +ho can make a 0oo!ar0ument for either ri0ht or +ron0 as their interest bi!s themThere is no effort to instill sincerity an! intensity ofconviction) n the contrary, the net result is to make the contestants feel that their convictions have nothin0 to !o +ith theirar0uments) E!ucational practices like !ebate are not !evelope! in isolation, but are the pro!uct of a0e.ol! practices an!philosophies that !eserve perio!ic reconsi!eration) The separation of commitment from techni$ue, of conviction from Var0ument, is the source of a historically 0roun!e! ar0ument bet+een suasory appeals an! philosophical introspection)S+itch .si!e !ebate is essential in raisin0 consciousness about alternative points of vie+ , but it also may !iminish theinternal reflection necessary to foun! a moral point of vie+ in a fra0mente! +orl!. The follo+in0 !iscussion a!!resses thisphilosophical tension +ithin an activity that many political theorists +oul! i!entify as the heart of a !emocratic society)Historical roots of thistension aree*plore!in !ifferin0 conceptions of !ebate as a 0ame, an! a !efense of contemporarypractices is then 0roun!e! in a perspective on !ebate as moral e!ucation)

E. Its a #oter for fairness and education.

*il D'

;


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DDI 2012

*il 1N Shell

'ssert the lin- to the *il D' ! The$ decrease *il consumption because the$ reect the ependiture of the

car ! that&s their stoe-l e#idence

9mpirics pro#e S demand dri#es oil price s"ings

6ing et al 121Cathleen Cin0, Ph&, Principal, ates Dhite Economic #onsultin0, Dashin0ton, Ai &en0, Ph&, ?ana0er, atesDhite Economic #onsultin0, Dashin0ton, &avi! ?et>, ?Sc, Associate, In!ustrial Economics, January '', An EconometricAnalysis of il Price ?ovements: The ole of Political Events an! Economic "e+s, Financial Tra!in0, an! ?arket Fun!amentals,%http:GG+++)bates+hite)comGme!iaGpncGGme!ia))p!f6

For e*ample, on April '8, '@, oil prices increase! by W');) This increase +as associate! +ith political events that raise! 0lobalsupply concerns) ene>uela prepare! to nationali>e four lar0e heavy oil pro5ects to the !etriment of private oil companies, an! this+as e*pecte! to re!uce investment an! lea! to a !ecline in pro!uction) n the same !ay, international observers !ispute! electionresults in "i0eria, hi0hli0htin0 the threat of instability in the +orl!Ms ei0hth lar0est e*porter after attacks by militants ha! shutabout one.fifth of oil pro!uction) (; y contrast, on July 8, '=, oil prices fell by W')(R) This !ecline +as attribute! to +eakeconomic ne+s bolsterin0 concerns about shrinkin0 US ener0y !eman!) n that mornin0, a US Labor &epartment report sho+e! alar0e increase in 5obless claims , an! a US ureau of Economic Analysis report sho+e! that B&P 0re+ at a +eaker. thane*pecte!pace in the secon! $uarter of '= ) (( oth of these reports +ere consistent +ith a re!uction in ener0y !eman! ) The events that

occurre! on these t+o !ays illustrate the !ifferences bet+een the 0eneral types of events !rivin0 oil price movements before an!after July , '=)

?ib$an econom$ reco#ering no" but drop in oil prices "ill gut gro"th

Aeuters, @GG12, Sees Libya economic 0ro+th !oublin0 this year%, http:GGarticles)chica0otribune)comG''[email protected]+sGsns.rtimf.libya.up!ate.'l'e=iaRae.''@XXlibya.imf.mission.muammar.0a!!afi

Libya-s economy is likely to reboun! sharply this year from a !eep contraction in ' as the country rebuil!s from civil+ar an! oil pro!uction recovers to levels last seen !urin0 ?uammar Ba!!afi-s rule, the International ?onetaryFun!sai!on Tues!ay) In a report on Libya-s economy resultin0 from an I?F mission in ?ay but publishe! only no+, the fun!forecast 0ro+th +ill skyrocket ()( percent in '' follo+in0 a contraction of ( percent last year ) Bro+th ne*t year islikely to slo+ to (); percent an! 8)' percent in ' as the effects of the +ar on the economy +ane, the I?F a!!e!) Suchimpressivereboun!s in 0ro+th are not unusual in countries emer0in0 from conflict +hen the economy is booste! byrebuil!in0 pro5ects an! pent.up private !eman!) The I?F statement on Libya comes as the country a+aits the outcome of a

historic vote on Satur!ay to elect a national assembly) Dhile Libya-s 0overnmentcan affor! the current hi0h rates ofspen!in0 in the short term, the I?F estimate! that it is not sustainable over the lon0er term an! +ill push the bu!0et into!eficit from ';) /A more thorou0h analysis of sustainability base! on the present value of financial assetsan! future oile*traction in!icates that from '', public spen!in0 +ill e*cee! the sustainable, lon0.term level by over percent ofB&P,/ the fun! a!!e!) The I?F also +arne! that continue! political uncertainty, insecurity an! the possibility of a !rop in0lobal oil prices +ere all risks to Libya-s economic outlook) Last +eek aroun! half of Libya-s oil e*portin0 capacity +asshut !o+n an! pro!uction cut by about 8, barrels per !ay 1bp!6 from about )8 million bp! after protests by 0roups!eman!in0 autonomy for eastern Libya, the source of most of the country-s oil) The oil price at +hich Libya-s bu!0et isbalance! is aboutWR per barrel in '', an increase from W;= a barrel in ', an! is set to e*cee! W a barrel from'8, the I?F sai!) rent cru!e prices tra!e! at about WR@ a barrel on Tues!ay) A !eeper crisis in the euro >one an! sharperslo+!o+n in the +orl! economy coul! push 0lobal oil prices lo+er , +hich +oul! be pose challen0es for Libya-s oil!epen!ent economy , the I?F sai!)

*il re#enues -e$ to ?ib$an stabilit$I, G';G12Libya boosts oil output but !an0ers lurk%, http:GG+++)upi)comGusinessX"e+sGEner0y.esourcesG''GG';GLibya.boosts.oiloutput.but.!an0ers.lurkGUPI.'=@8'@;';'(G

/Security is key to pro!uction increases but oil revenue is key to achievin0 stability) /Dhile the situation in the oil fiel!sseems to be fairly secure, in the cities it is more uncertain) ?any former rebel fi0hters are still arme! an! the process offormin0 a national security force is movin0 for+ar! slo+ly) /The 0overnment is in !esperate nee! of fun!s to stabili>e thecountry an! has, in its oil in!ustry, a ma5or potential source ,/ the analysis note!) /Ho+ever, the country also has a ma5or

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http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafihttp://articles.chicagotribune.com/2012-07-10/news/sns-rt-imf-libya-update-2l2e8ia9ae-20120710_1_libya-imf-mission-muammar-gaddafi


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unemployment problem, +ith almost a $uarter of the population out of +ork) / Political tensions in Libya +ill remain untiloil revenues increase, provi!in0 the fun!s for infrastructure pro5ects necessary to provi!e employment)/ Libya has oilreserves of () billion barrels, the lar0est in Africa) The rebel alliance that !rove Ba!hafi from po+er in an ei0ht.monthrevolution in ' has splintere! an! several militias, base! on particular clans an! re0ions, remain heavily arme!) Theyhave repeate!ly clashe! +ith each other an! the ne+ interim 0overnment, the Destern.backe! "ational Transitional#ouncil) It +as plun0e! into crisis this +eek +hen mass protests broke out in en0ha>i over the close ties some "T#officials ha! +ith Ba!hafi-s re0ime) Ba!hafi loyalists have reappeare! recently an! fou0ht 0un battles +ith "T# forces)The marau!in0 militias, vyin0 for influence an! po+er in the post.Ba!hafi era, have become the bi00est threat to securityan! stability as the "T# stru00les to e*ert its authority) The militias are scarin0 forei0n oil companies into !elayin0 thereturn of their technicians +ho are vital to keepin0 the oil in!ustry functionin0) /De-re no+ bet+een t+o bitter options,/

"T# #hairman ?ustafa Ab!el Jalil !eclare! in en0ha>i recently) /De !eal +ith these violations strictly or +e split an! there +ill bea civil +ar)/ The combination of Libya-s location on the southern shore of the ?e!iterranean an! its /s+eet/ oil .. li0ht an! lo+ in sulfurcontent, +hich makes it easy to process .. has ma!e it attractive to consumers, particularly refineries in carbon.conscious Europe) An!+ith Europe facin0 the loss of aroun! ;, barrels of Iranian oil a !ay follo+in0 the European Union-s !ecision ?on!ay to impose anoil embar0o on Iran over its contentious nuclear pro0ram, Libyan oil is all the more attractive to EU states) /In the li0ht of Iran-sthreatenin0 stance over the Strait of Hormu> the relative strate0ic value of Libyan cru!e is increase!, 0iven its location outsi!e the0ulf,/ *for! Analytica note!) Tehran has threatene! to close the narro+, '.mile strait at the southern en! of the 0ulf throu0h +hichone.fifth of the +orl!-s oil supply passes !aily, if the Unite! States an! the EU enforces the oil embar0o) U)S) Presi!ent arack bama

approve! a campai0n to choke off Iran-s oil e*ports, +hich supplies some = percent of its state revenues, on &ec) 8 ) Dhen Ba!hafi+as topple!, oil pro!uction ha! fallen from the pre.conflict level of )( million barrels per !ay to less than , bp!)Since then the Libyans have built that back to million bp!, months earlier than e*pecte!)

Stabilit$ -e$ to ?ib$an disarmament and pre#ent regional arms eplosion

#on+ay:addington 12G1(G11Pursuin0 a Ph& throu0h the University of Johannesbur0) ?y thesis e*amines the role of resource scarcity, specifically +ater, in shapin0 normativeapproaches to contemporary an! future +arfare) I complete! an ?A at the University of C+aYulu."atal, e*aminin0 the potential role1s6 of privatemilitary an! security contractors in peacekeepin0 activities) I tau0ht various business ethics relate! courses for the School of ?ana0ement Stu!ies atUCY" from '; to ', http:GG+++)consultancyafrica)comGin!e*)phpoptioncomXcontentKvie+articleKi!R@:the.arms.proliferation.threat.of.post.0a!!afi.libya.Kcati!(:conflict.terrorism.!iscussion.papersKItemi!'(;

The "ational Transitional #ouncil that currently 0overns Libya is, in fact, merely the overseer of a collection of loosely ali0ne!committees, !istribute! across the country an! separate! by a ran0e of 0eo0raphic, i!eolo0ical, reli0ious, an! tribal alle0iances) At the

local level then, there e*ists the threat that post.conflict recovery in Libya coul! collapse into violence9 a possibility 0reatlyenhance! by the vast amounts of unsecure! +eaponry scattere! aroun! the country, often in the han!s of 0roups of fi0hters

+ho are +aitin0 to see +hat the post.Ba!affi future hol!s before they !eci!e to han! over their +eapons) #ritical post.conflict processes of !isarmament, !emobilisation, an! reinte0ration 1&&6 are hampere! by the lack of cohesion +ithinthe "T# an! +ill not be easy to achieve +ithout continue! international support ) e0ional stability is also threatene! byproliferation of +eaponry , particularly in the Sahel re0ion) Libya shares lan! bor!ers +ith Al0eria, #ha!, E0ypt, "i0er,Su!an, an! Tunisia) Biven the enormous scale of these bor!ers, the remote nature of the terrain, an! the 0enerally poorcapabilities of the countries in the re0ion, bor!er security is e*tremely !ifficult to ensure) The political makeup of there0ion also len!s itself to insurrections an! allo+s the 0ro+th of non.state actors such as Al Zae!a in the Islamic ?ah0reb1AZI?6) The terrorist or0anisation threat taken to0ether +ith the unkno+n status of LibyaMs ?A"PA&s has 0arnere! thebulk of Destern 1me!ia6 attention) "ot only !oes AZI? stan! to 0ain from the availability of +eapons, munitions an!other material, but so too !o other non.state or0anisations such as Al Shabaab in Somalia an! oko Haram in "i0eria)Beneral #arter Ham of AFI#? has su00este! that oko Haram mi0ht have be0un cooperatin09 this is si0nifie! by !eclarations byAZI? lea!ers for support of oko Haram, alon0 +ith reports of cross.trainin0 efforts an! tactical chan0es by oko Haram to emulateAZI? an! Al Shabaab)16

?ib$a is a flashpoint for a ::IIIStephen ?endman, @G(G11eno+ne! author an! esearch Associate of the #enter for esearch on Blobali>ation 1#B6, Libya . Flashpoint For Dorl!#onflict%, http:GGrense)comG0eneralRGlibya)htmScott tol! Pro0ressive a!io "e+s Hour listeners that he-s +arne! for months about Libya bein0 a flashpoint for escalate! 0eneral+ar , similar to ho+ DD I be0an) Blobal esearch foun!erGe!itor ?ichel #hossu!ovsky has similar concerns, inclu!in0 in his ne+ E.booktitle!, /To+ar!s a Dorl! Dar III Scenario,/ callin0 to!ay-s +orl! /at a critical crossroa!s)/ #itin0 t+o ma5or inci!ents, Japan-s Fukushima!isaster an! imperial +ar on Libya, he calle! /1t6hese t+o seemin0ly unrelate! events))))of crucial importance in un!erstan!in0both the nuclear issue as +ell as the on0oin0 US."AT sponsore! +ar)/Fukushima-s implications an! fallout 0o lar0ely une*plaine!)

@
http://www.consultancyafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=917:the-arms-proliferation-threat-of-post-gaddafi-libya-&catid=60:conflict-terrorism-discussion-papers&Itemid=265http://www.consultancyafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=917:the-arms-proliferation-threat-of-post-gaddafi-libya-&catid=60:conflict-terrorism-discussion-papers&Itemid=265http://www.consultancyafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=917:the-arms-proliferation-threat-of-post-gaddafi-libya-&catid=60:conflict-terrorism-discussion-papers&Itemid=265http://www.consultancyafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=917:the-arms-proliferation-threat-of-post-gaddafi-libya-&catid=60:conflict-terrorism-discussion-papers&Itemid=265


8/16

DDI 2012In fact, e*cept for occasional misreportin0, America-s me!ia no+ entirely i0nore them, inclu!in0 +arnin0s from Helen #al!icott an! others thatevery commercial reactor is a tickin0 time bomb /atomic bomb factory)/ ?oreover, #hossu!ovsky sai! /1n6uclear ener0y is not a civilianeconomic activity) It is an appen!a0e of the nuclear +eapons in!ustry +hich is controlle! by the so.calle! !efense contractors)/ In fact, secret/atomic.bomb research facilities 1are6 hi!!en insi!e Japan-s civilian nuclear po+er plants,/ an! perhaps also in America-s)It maynot have been coinci!ence that Libya-s +ar +as launche! +ithin !ays of Fukushima-s !isaster) It-s no+ !ramatically escalate! aspart of America-s broa!er ?i!!le EastG"orth AfricaG#entral Asia conflict, encroachin0 recklessly close to #hina an! ussia-sbor!ers) Their concerns , in fact, may tri00er counter.responses that coul! !an0erously spin thin0s out of control )In fact, the +arbama +on-t call +ar potentially coul! tri00er a /Dorl! Dar III scenario )/ It +orries #hossu!ovsky, Scott an! others enou0h to hi0hli0ht it onair an! in print) It-s repeate! in this article, citin0 another recent one !iscussin0 arbara Tuchman-s R(' book, /The Buns of Au0ust,/ on ho+ DD I be0an an!its early +eeks)nce starte!, it escalate! out of control !isastrously, involvin0 !o>ens of countries !irectly an! in!irectly) ?oreover, before it en!e!, over 'million !ie!, at least that many more +ere +oun!e!, an! a 0eneration of youn0 men +ere erase! before nuclear an! to!ay-s other mass !estruction +eapons an!technolo0ies e*iste!)ver a half century a0o, it +orrie! Einstein enou0h to say: /I kno+ not +ith +hat +eapons Dorl! Dar III +ill be fou0ht, but Dorl! DarI +ill be fou0ht +ith sticks an! stones/ if civili>ations survive to !o it) Biven the possibility of Libya tri00erin0 escalate! 0eneral or 0lobal+ar, that scenario to!ay is real, especially in li0ht of a / RR(plan to bomb Libya usin0 tactical nuclear +eapons )/ It +as shelve! atthat time, but never eliminate! as a possibility a0ainst any nation) In fact, the ush a!ministration claime! the preemptive ri0ht to use nuclear+eapons, inclu!in0 a0ainst non.nuclear states, base! on alle0e! national security concerns) bama recklessly maintains the same policy even

thou0h America hasn-t ha! an enemy since Japan surren!ere! in Au0ust R;) "onetheless, the prospect of escalatin0 +ar +ith nuclear orother mass !estruction +eapons su00ests fri0htenin0 possibilities, inclu!in0 a potential DD III scenario ) It-s no less implausibleno+ than DD I seeme! in early R)

ase

=


9/16

DDI 2012

'utomobilit$

'utomobilit$ is sustainable ! "e ha#e enough oil to last hundreds of $ears

,ast 2-1Joseph ast, presi!ent an! #E of The Heartlan! Institute, The Future of Automobility: #ars an! Trucks in the 'st#entury,% ?ay , ', http:GGheartlan!)or0Gpolicy.!ocumentsGfuture.automobility.cars.an!.trucks.'st.century6

Are there enou0h minerals an! fossil fuels in the +orl! to sustain the 0ro+in0 fleet of privately o+ne! cars an! trucks &otren!s in air $uality an! auto emissions re$uire that +e phase out our reliance on cars an! trucks De foun! the follo+in0:Ample supplies of fossil fuels an! other minerals e*ist: Supplies of petroleum are sufficient to last years, an! suppliesof natural 0as an! coal, +hich can rea!ily be converte! into substitutes for oil, are sufficient to last ' an! ,== years,respectively) Even the Dorl!+atch Institute, lon0 a source of !ooms!ay forecasts, conclu!e! in RR' that /scarcity ofmineral !eposits !oes not appear likely to constrain the pro!uction of most important minerals in the foreseeable future)/Air $uality is improvin0: et+een RR an! RR;, the number of /ba! air !ays/ 1+hen air $uality faile! to meet fe!eralstan!ar!s6 fell @ percent in "e+ Qork, 8 percent in Los An0eles, R percent in #hica0o, an! (8 percent in ?il+aukee)Ambient air concentrations of five of the si* /criteria/ air pollutants tracke! by EPA have fallen !ramatically since R@;)

'utomobilit$ has massi#e benefits to indi#iduals and societ$

,ast 2-1Joseph ast, presi!ent an! #E of The Heartlan! Institute, The Future of Automobility: #ars an! Trucks in the 'st

#entury,% ?ay , ', http:GGheartlan!)or0Gpolicy.!ocumentsGfuture.automobility.cars.an!.trucks.'st.century6

) #ars an! trucks pro!uce tremen!ous benefits to in!ivi!uals an! to society) The benefits of private o+nership of cars an!trucks are often overlooke! because they are +oven into the +arp an! +oof of our !aily lives) These benefits inclu!e: #arsan! trucks are 0enerally faster an! less e*pensive than alternatives because they provi!e uninterrupte! !oor.to.!oor!elivery of people an! pro!ucts) Short trips taken in private cars cost less than travelin0 by trains or buses +hen the valueof travelers- time is taken into account) #ars e*pan! our choice of +here to live an! +ork by makin0 commutin0 faster an!less e*pensive) The car +as lar0ely responsible for the rise in home o+nership from percent to (( percent in the last ;years) #ars, trucks, an! buses e*pan! e!ucational an! shoppin0 opportunities by puttin0 a lar0er number of schools, shops,an! markets +ithin a convenient !istance of our homes, thereby e*pan!in0 our choices an! inspirin0 innovation an!efficiency amon0 competin0 schools an! stores) Trucks an! vans re!uce the prices of virtually all consumer an! pro!ucer0oo!s by lo+erin0 shippin0 costs an! by makin0 it possible to !eliver small amounts of pro!ucts to retailers at fre$uentintervals 1thereby re!ucin0 the nee! for stora0e facilities6 or !irectly to customers) Automobility pro!uces an important

political benefit by empo+erin0 the in!ivi!ual a0ainst 0overnments an! others +ho +oul! seek to limit his or her civil an!economic free!oms)

R


10/16

DDI 2012

,attle+u$

,ataille is fascist ! he celebrates "ar for "ars sa-e

:olin ()1ichar! Dolin, Professor of History at the #U"Q Bra!uate #enter, Left Fascism: Beor0es ataille An! The BermanI!eolo0y,% RR(, http:GGcourses)ucs!)e!uGnbrysonGBra!uate['ea!in0sGatailleLeftFascism)p!f6

?oreover, the cultural attitu!es of both Spen0ler an! ataille are linke! by an aesthetics of violence that is hi0hlycharacteristic of the front 0eneration)% In a key passa0e in The &ecline of the Dest, Spen0ler, !epictin0 the life.+orl!% ofbloo! an! instinct that ha! been represse! by the Faustian spirit of mo!ernity, observes: Dar is the primary politics ofeverythin0 that lives an! so much so that in the !e ths battle an! life are one, an! bein0 an! +ill.to.battle e*pireto0ether)%'M Similarly, for Jun0er, Dar is an into*ication beyon! all bon!s) It is a fren>y +ithout cautions an! limits,comparable only to the forces of nature)%'Rataille 1the meanin0 of his name in French shoul! be recalle!6, too, isconvince!, that conflict is life) ?anMs value !epen!s upon his a00ressive stren0th) A livin0 man re0ar!s !eath as thefulfillment of life9 he !oes not see it as a misfortune) ) , , I ?QSELF A? DA)%8As Jay observes in this connection: ona !eeper level, the +ar 7Dorl! Dar I< seemsto have e*ercise! a certain positive fascination 7on atailley, of measureless e*pen!iture ofener0y, +hich the fervor of combat presupposes) #ombat is 0lorious in that it is al+ays beyon! calculation at somemoment)%88For the same reasons, ataille eulo0i>es those premo!ern +amer societies in +hich pure, uncalculate!violence an! ostentatious forms of combat hel! P s+ay)% For un!er such con!itions, +ar +as not ma!e subservient to thevul0ar en!s of enterprise an! accumulation, as is the case for mo!ern.!ay imperialism, but serve! as a 0lorious en! in itself)Qet, in the early R8s, it +as precisely this aestheticist celebration of violence for violenceMs sake,% or +ar for +arMssake,% that en5amin vie+e! as the essence of mo!em fascism) As he remarks in a +ell kno+n passa0e: Fiat ars . pereatmun!us,% says fascism, an!, as ?arinetti a!mits, e*pects +ar to supply the artistic 0ratification of a sense perception thathas been chan0e! by technolo0y) ) ) ) ?ankin!, +hich in HomerMs time +as an ob5ect of contemplation for the lympian0o!s, no+ is one for itself) Its self. alienation has reache! such a !e0ree that it can e*perience its o+n !estruction as anaesthetic pleasure of the first or!er) This is the situation of politics +hich fascism is ren!erin0 aesthetics)\M In atailleMs

thou0ht +ar serves as the harbin0er of a cultural transfi0uration in +hich the primacy of self.subsistent sub5ectivity +oul!be replace! by the values of an unavo+able% or ecstatic community%: that is, a community that +oul! no lon0er be0overne! by the 0oals of a visual culture% . transparency, self.i!entity, etc) . but instea!, those of self. laceration,!ifference, an! finitu!e) In fact, this ataille.inspire! pro0ram of an ecstatic community has been $uite e*plicitly carrie!forth an! e*plore! in the political +ritin0s of ?aurice lanchot 1La #ommunautk inavouable9 R=86 an! Jean.Luc "ancy1La #ommunautk !boeuvrke9 R=;6)

The transgresses elements of the aff reestablish homogeneit$ H

:olin ()1ichar! Dolin, Professor of History at the #U"Q Bra!uate #enter, Left Fascism: Beor0es ataille An! The BermanI!eolo0y,% RR(, http:GGcourses)ucs!)e!uGnbrysonGBra!uate['ea!in0sGatailleLeftFascism)p!f6

Ho+ever, as a result of the ethos of trans0ression that is propa0ate! in atailleMs +ork . a $uasi.aestheticist valori>ation of

trans0ression for trans0ressionMs sake . one encounters serious normative lacunae) ne mi0ht even 0o so far as to say,echoin0 Tony Ju!t, that aspects of atailleMs thou0ht are re!olent of a more 0eneral an! lon0.stan!in0 vacuum at the heartof public ethics in France,% the marke! absence of a concern +ith public ethics or political morality)%8= I have alrea!yspoken of his +ork as an unsurpassable normative point of reference for much of post. structuralism) Here, anti.normativism% itself becomes normative,% insofar as re5ection of the norm% becomes itself a source of normativity) Inrecent years, as poststructuralists have be0un me!itatin0 on the problem of ho+ one +oul! 0o about constitutin0 a non.totalitarian political community . a communautk inavouable 1lanchot6 or !ksoeuvrke 1J.L) "ancy6, as it has been calle! .it is, unsurprisin0ly, to atailleMs +ork that they have imme!iately turne!)8R Qet, as ernar!.Henri L#vy has cautione! inrelation to this avo+e!ly illiberal, ne+ or0anicism% or communitarian. ism%: r0anicism) "aturalism) efusal of


11/16

DDI 2012

universal values) &enial of values purely an! simply) )))It is on these bases, on this mute foun!ation, that one !eploys acover of horror that is more somber an! infinitely more clamorous) ) ) ) I +ill have attaine! my ob5ective +hen I havesuccee!e! in convincin0 that fascism is not in the first instance barbarism9 that is it not essentially an! to be0in +ith theapocalypse9 that it !oes not al+ays an! of necessity mean storms of iron an! bloo!) Instea!, it is in the first instance a typeof society, a mo!el of community, a manner of thinkin0 an! of or0ani>in0 the social bon!) It is precisely atailleMsecstatic mo!el of community, his manner of thinkin0 an! of or0ani>in0 the social bon!,% that I +ish to call into $uestion)It is a mo!el that, fun!amentally an! un!eniably, seeks to establish the normative basis of social action on an aestheticfoun!ation) As such its 0ui!in0 ethos +oul! be an aesthetics of trans0ression) atailleMs ecstatic community +oul! also bean aesthetic community: it +oul! be a community in +hich the type of social action that +oul! be value! above all +oul!be action that yiel!e! no return,% action that . in the manner of art for artMs sake . ha! no en! beyon! itself)


12/16

DDI 2012

Sol#enc$

'ffirming bic$cles doesn&t stop automobilit$

,hm et. al 0)1Steffen ^hm, Lecturer in ?ana0ement at the University of Esse*9 #ampbell Jones, &irector of the #entre forPhilosophy an! Political Economy an! Senior Lecturer in #ritical Theory an! usiness Ethics at the University of Leicester9 #hrisLan!, teaches at the University of Esse*, his research has pre!ominantly been concerne! +ith the constitutive role of technolo0y in

pro!ucin0 human sub5ectivity9 ?at Paterson, Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of tta+a, #ana!a9Intro!uction: Impossibilities of automobility% in A0ainst Automobility,% The E!itorial oar! of the Sociolo0ical evie+ '(, p)'6Such !ifficulties an! !epen!encies are, of course, not uni$ue to a re0ime of automobility built aroun! cars) The representation of anyform of mobility as autonomous is similarly impossible) Even +alkin0 1at least in mo!ern con!itions6 re$uires e*ternal labour toconstruct paths, clear lan!, etc) ut 0iven the sense that the later chapters in the book, in particular Fincham an! ?iller, posit thepossibility of re0imes of automobility not premise! on cars, the $uestion that remains is +hether such re0imes are themselvespossible) It seems to us that any re0ime of automobility +oul! be inherently impossible, precisely because automobility as such isconceptually impossible) There +ill al+ays be !epen!encies complete autonomy of movement is an illusion)

,ic$cling is as dependent on oil as the car ! manufacturing consumes massi#e amounts of energ$ and

bic$cles use toic materials that are not rec$clable

c6a$ 121An!re+ ?cCay, Driter for Transition oice, Peak cyclin0 ikes are oil hun0ry beasts,% Peak il, ?ay @, '',http:GGpeakoil)comGconsumptionGpeak.cyclin0.bikes.are.oil.hun0ry.beastsG6It is true that once you buy a bicycle, the !ay.to.!ay maintenance is ne0li0ible asi!e from a fe+ subtle t+eaks here an! there) Fuelcosts !epen! on ho+ an! +hat you !eci!e to eat) ut in terms of construction bicycles arenMt $uite as 0reen as they first look an! itMscertain that at some point in the future mo!ern bicycle pro!uction +ill cease to e*ist) Steel.alloy frames an! rims, rubber tires an!tubes, steel +ires for brake an! 0ear cables an! all the other components are mass pro!uce! in factories that consume a hu0e amountof ener0y) Another environmental concern is, +here !o 0oo! bikes 0o to !ie ubber tires eventually +ear out an! are impossible torecycle +ithout hu0e ener0y inputs) ?ore than likely they en! up in lan!fills +here there is risk of slo+ly leachin0 heavy metals an!other pollutants into the 0roun!+ater) There are no natural or0anisms that can !ecompose vulcani>e! rubber an! so it takes centuriesfor tires to break !o+n !ue to physical processes) Steel components break !o+n much faster +ith o*i!ation but can also leach to*insinto the environment) Environmental concerns asi!e, +here !i! the mo!ern bicycle come from an! +here is it hea!in0 The so.calle!safety bicycle% +as invente! in the late ==s an! le! to the first of many popular booms in cyclin0) It +as the first bicycle thatresemble! the mo!ern !ay bicycle, employin0 rubber tires, a chain connectin0 the back +heel to a crank shaft an! e$ual si>e! +heels

combine! +ith a lo+er frame that ma!e it easy for people to learn ho+ to ri!e) y the =Rs !omestically pro!uce! bicycles ha!overtaken imports an! by R "e+ Yealan! alone ha! @ bicycle factories) y the late R8s "e+ Yealan! ha! one bicycle for everysi* people +ith more thabn =, bicycles importe! an! many more ma!e locally bet+een R an! the R;s) Then, as caro+nership increase! in the R;s the popularity of cyclin0 !ecline!) Another important step in bicycle evolution came in the R@s+hen the ten spee! +as intro!uce!) As oil prices crept up aroun! the +orl! cyclin0 a0ain became an attractive alternative +ith ten0ears makin0 it much easier to climb hills an! cycle into the +in!) &urin0 this perio! R[ of all bikes sol! in "e+ Yealan! +ere!omestically ma!e but after the liftin0 of import restrictions in the late R=s cheap Asian imports price! local manufacturers out ofthe market) To!ay almost all of our bicycles are importe! from overseas) They are ma!e in hi0hly automate! factories that consumehu0e amounts of ener0y such as this #annon!ale factory in the Unite! States) It is obvious that in the comin0 years as hi0h fuel pricesbe0in to bite more an! more people +ill turn a0ain to bicycles as their main form of transport much like the !ays before in!ivi!ual caruse became affor!able in the R;s) In fact +e are alrea!y seein0 that as cities put in place cyclin0 infrastructure such as a @ percentincrease in cyclin0 in Lon!on in ') ut +hat is also obvious as hi0h oil prices push up the price of other commo!ities is thatmo!ern mass.pro!uce! bicycle manufacturin0 canMt an! +onMt e*ist in the future) It is likely +e see a resur0ence in local bicycle

manufacturin0, the same as +hat +ill happen in many other sectors)V

'


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DDI 2012

'bleism

,ic$cle culture is ableist

:S, 121Dinter Sno+fall lo0, June =th, '', http:GGthe+intersno+fall)+or!press)comG''G(G=Gri!e.a.bike.asshole.or.ableism.is.the.tra0ic.fla+.of.bicycle.cultureG6ThereMs still a problem: not everyone can ri!e a bicycle) Some people have chronic pain, an illness, or an in5ury that prevents

them from ri!in0) Some people simply !onMt have the physical ener0y to ri!e lon0 !istances) icycle.base! environmentalactivism a!vocates a personal consumer choice to buy an! use a specific type of technolo0y, but that personal consumer choiceis not an option for everyone because that technolo0y is not a viable tool for everyone) Qet a ma5or part of bicycle culture is afirm belief in the moral superiority of those +ho use bicycles, an! often there is an accompanyin0 belief that it is ok to violentlyharass those that !o not use bicycles) Some people are assholes +ho think it is 0reat that their SUMs use oil stolen frommur!ere! bro+n people in another country an! !estroy the environment, but +hat about folks +ho +ant 5ustice an! a healthyenvironment but canMt navi0ate the +orl! they live in +ithout a motor.po+ere! vehicle Those folks have to !eal +ith limite!choices !ue to !isability or an atypical bo!y 1or a necessity to 0o !istances that are too far for bicyclin06, an! also have to !eal+ith insultin0 messa0es an! harassment from bicycle activists tellin0 them that they are irresponsible an! less morally valuable)That ableism is the tra0ic fla+ of bicycle culture) ur culture has other problems, like miso0yny, obno*ious snobby !u!es inbike shops, racism, an! fatphobia, but those problems are inci!ental an! can be overcome) Events like the nake! bike ri!e sho+that +e can create a safe, empo+erin0, an! fun space to en5oy ri!in0 bikes to0ether) ut ableism is inte0ral to ho+ +e haveconstructe! a culture aroun! bicycles, it is built into +hy +e think bikes are so important) Zuestionin0 ableism threatens the

ma0ical +orl!.transformin0 ima0e +e have built aroun! bikes, it threatens to reveal bicycles as 5ust another technolo0y, 5ustanother option)

'bleism "ithin transportation infrastructure discourse ustifies eugenics and genocide

Sam ,agenstos 2-, Professor at the University of ?ichi0an, E*.Harvar! La+ Prof, ' 7Subor!ination, Sti0ma, an! &isability,%ir0inia La+ evie+, ol) =(, "o) 8, p)8@.;, 0scholar< @G(G'Ervin0 BoffmanMs notion of sti0ma is a useful tool here) Althou0h sti0ma% refers collo$uially to animus an! pre5u!ice, Boffmanuse! the term to refer to a broa!er problem) He !escribe! the con!ition as an un!esire! !ifferentness% from +hat society !eemsto be normal% or e*pecte!) ; 8 Un!er BoffmanMs approach, the core aspect of sti0ma occurs +hen prevailin0 social practicestreat particular un!esirable% traits as universally !iscre!itin0) As Boffman emphasi>e!, those +ho !eal +ith sti0mati>e! personsten! to impute a +i!e ran0e of imperfections on the basis of the ori0inal one)% ; As a result, people +ith sti0mati>e! traitsare not consi!ere! to be amon0 the normals% for +hom society, an! its institutions, are !esi0ne!) ; ; This sti0ma is as much

about so.cial attitu!es as about the traits themselves9 even if an in!ivi!ual can cure% a sti0mati>e! trait, she may still not beaccepte! in the community of normals)% ; ( BoffmanMs construct of sti0ma% provi!es a useful tool in 0ivin0 content to mysubor!ination.base! un!erstan!in0 of !isability ri0hts la+ for at least t+o reasons) First, BoffmanMs analysis stron0ly influence!the thou0hts of many of the !isability ri0hts activists on +hose +ork I rely) ; @ Secon!, that analysis provi!es a +ay ofconnectin0 the animus. an! stereotype.base! !iscrimination e*perience! by many people +ith !isabilities +ith their moresystemic ne0lect in the !esi0n of the environment) It therefore provi!es a +ay of treatin0 the three basic manifestations of!isability !iscrimination un!er a sin0le rubric, an! it provi!es a +ay of pre!ictin0 +hich types of impairments are likely to beassociate! +ith systematic !eprivation of opportunities) ecause Boffman +rote primarily about in!ivi!ual interactions bet+eenthe normals% an! the sti0mati>e!,% his notion of sti0ma most !irectly helps to !escribe the pre5u!ice an! stereotypes people+ith !isabilities e*perience in such interactions) ; = It is especially useful in e*plainin0 the sprea! effect,% un!er +hich animpairment to a particular life function is seen as universally !isablin0) ; R ut BoffmanMs analysis of sti0ma helps to !escribethe society.+i!e ne0lect of people +ith !isabilities as +ell) ( In particular, it helps to e*plain people +ith !isabilities as +ell) ( In particular, it helps to e*plain +hy people +ith some impairments are likely to be systematically ne0lecte! by social

!ecisions, an! +hy those people are likely to be the same people as those +ho e*perience animus an! stereotypin0) ( Ifsti0ma means that an in!ivi!ual is not consi!ere! to be one of the normals,% then people +ith sti0mati>e! impairments arelikely not to be a part of the social norm% consi!ere! by those +ho !esi0n the social an! physical environment) Even if theenvironmentMs !esi0ners% !o not harbor pre5u!ice! or stereotype! thou0hts about people +ith sti0mati>e! con!itions, they arelikely not to consi!er their nee!s in the same +ay that they consi!er the nee!s of those +ho are normal)% &isability ri0htsa!vocates have lon0 ma!e this precise point about !isability)% ( ' They have ar0ue! that the entire physical an! socialor0ani>ation of life% is fre$uently structure! as thou0h everyone +ere physically stron0, as thou0h all bo!ies +ere shape! thesame, as thou0h everyone coul! +alk, hear, an! see +ell, as thou0h everyone coul! +ork an! play at a pace that is notcompatible +ith any kin! of illness or pain, as thou0h no one +ere ever !i>>y or incontinent or simply nee!e! to sit or lie !o+n)

8


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( 8 This phenomenon is most obvious in the built environment) Architects !esi0n structures +ith a mo!el of the normal% userin min!, an! that mo!el has typically been a person +ithout any !iscernible impairments) ( This assumption of able.bo!ie!ness as the norm% ( ; can be seen in buil!in0s +ith unnecessary stairs, !oor+ays that are too narro+ to accommo!ate+heelchairs, an! entrances that fail to provi!e any !etectable +arnin0 for people +ith visual impairments) ut the phenomenonof ne0lect e*ten!s beyon! the !ecisions that have constructe! our physical architecture) It affects our patterns of socialor0ani>ation as +ell) Amon0 other thin0s, it affects the structure of 5obs an! the means by +hich businesses an! 0overnments!eliver services) ( ( Dhy have those +ho constructe! our social an! physical environment faile! to consi!er people +ith!isabilities as amon0 the normal% users ne e*planation mi0ht look to the very history of pre5u!ice an! stereotypes note! by#on0ress) For much of our history, people +ith a variety of physical an! mental !isabilities +ere shunte! asi!e, hi!!en, an!i0nore!)% ( @ People +ith impairments ran0in0 from epilepsy to blin!ness to mental retar!ation +ere se0re0ate! from thecommunity in a collection of con0re0ate institutions) ( = Such se0re0ation perpetuate7!< un+arrante! assumptions thatpersons so isolate! are incapable or un+orthy of participatin0 in community life)% ( R Even amon0 those +ho +ere notinstitutionali>e!, people +ith !isabilities fre$uently !i! not +ork, patroni>e businesses, or use 0overnment services outsi!e of thehome) @ 1In some cases, they +ere re$uire! by la+ to stay at home9 as late as R@, some ma5or American 5uris!ictions stillmaintaine! u0ly la+s% that prohibite! unsi0htly% people_a cate0ory that encompasse! people +ith !isabilities_fromappearin0 in public) @ 6 A person !esi0nin0 a particular buil!in0, pro!uction process, or 5ob !escription coul! thus befor0iven for failin0 to think of people +ith !isabilities as potential customers or +orkers) The !esi0ner mi0ht have ha! noparticular ne0ative attitu!es to+ar! the !isable!)% In!ee!, it mi0ht never have entere! her min! that people +ith !isabilitiesmi0ht +ish to use her buil!in0 or +ork in her business9 she mi0ht simply have ha! no available mo!el of people +ith !isabilitiesas or!inary people +ith or!inary nee!s an! tastes) @ ' Al. thou0h people +ith !isabilities have become more an! more

inte0rate! into society at lar0e in the last t+o !eca!es, the history of e*clusion may have a particularly lon0 tail)% uil!in0s an!processes !esi0ne! +ithout people +ith !isabilities in min! may be use! for many years to come) An! pre5u!ice an! stereotypes_ +hich have themselves been fe! by the absence of people +ith !isabilities from the lar0er community @ 8_may lin0er evenlon0er) @ The historic e*clusion of people +ith !isabilities from normal% society has interacte! in comple* an! reciprocal+ays +ith broa!er i!eolo0ical currents) Lennar! &avis has ar0ue! that the notion of norms% !ates only to the !evelopment of ascience of statistics in the early nineteenth century) @ ; Until then, &avis conten!s, the place no+ occupie! by the norm% +ashel! by the notion of an i!eal,% +hich +as un!erstoo! to be unattainable by any human) @ ( ut the ne+foun! concept of anorm, unlike that of an i!eal, implie7!< that the ma5ority of the population must or shoul! someho+ be part of the norm)% @ @Early statisticians ma!e this point e*pressly: They ar0ue! that social institutions shoul! be built aroun! the broa! mi!!le 0roupof persons +ho fit the social norm) @ = As &avis !emonstrates, their ar0uments both provi!e! 5ustification for, an! !re+stren0th from, an i!eolo0y that accor!e! a morally privile0e! position to the mi!!le class) @ R ?ore !arkly, they fe! theeu0enic i!eolo0y that le! to the institutionali>ation an! sterili>ation of many people +hom +e no+ label !isable!)% = Thenineteenth.century notion that institutions shoul! be !esi0ne! for the norm% persists) ut our vision of normal% human

attributes has become increasin0ly i!eali>e!, as the eu0enics movement 1+hich sou0ht to norm the nonstan!ar!% = 6 mayhave been the first to !emonstrate) ob ImrieMs account of mo!ernist architecture points out the effect that such an i!eolo0y ofthe norm% has ha! on our built environment) In seekin0 to make form follo+ function, an! to tie buil!in0s back to the scale ofthe human bein0,% mo!ernists harbore! a particularly able.bo!ie! vision of +ho the human bein0% +as) = ' Imrie illustratesthis vision by pointin0 to Le #orbusierMs ?o!ular,% +hich utili>e! the proportions of the 1able6 bo!y to enable the architect tocreate the built spaces)% = 8 The ?o!ular,% a !ia0ram of a muscular si*.foot tall man, +as the person for +hom functionalityin buil!in0 !esi0n an! form +as bein0 !efine!)% = ?any inaccessible features of to!ayMs buil!in0s, Imrie ar0ues, trace!irectly to mo!ernismMs e*clusion of people +ith !isabilities from its i!eali>e! version of the norm)% = ; As +e move to ane+ millennium, +e seem to believe as stron0ly as ever that everyone shoul! fit an i!eal% bo!y type) Althou0h there are surelya variety of reasons for this !evelopment, the most notable are a consumerGa!vertisin0 culture that i!eali>es beauty an! a+i!esprea! belief in the ability of mo!ern me!icine to enhance our mental an! physical lives) = ( As a result, the i!eolo0icalcurrents that e*clu!e people +ith !isabilities from our notion of the norm% stubbornly remain +ith us) The sti0ma attache! to!isability% thus both represents the le0acy of a history of e*clusion an! reflects a series of broa!er i!eolo0ical !evelopments)

Dhatever the un!erlyin0 reason for its persistence, ho+ever, that sti0ma can help us to un!erstan! the means by +hich!isability.base! subor!ination is transmitte!) ?ore importantly, sti0ma can serve an evi!entiary function: It can help us i!entifycases +here impairments are likely to be associate! +ith systematic !eprivation of opportunities) Seen in this li0ht, the!isability% cate0ory embraces those people +ho e*perience impairment.base! sti0ma_that is, those people +ho, because ofpresent, past, or perceive! impairments, are consi!ere! by society to be outsi!e of the norm)% As #arol Bill puts it, !isability isa mar0inali>e! status that society assi0ns to people +ho are !ifferent enou0h from ma5ority cultural stan!ar!s to be 5u!0e!abnormal or !efective in min! or bo!y)% = @ Althou0h I +oul! ar0ue that sti0ma i!entifies an! e*plains_but !oes notnecessarily !efine_!isability base! subor!ination, BillMs analysis substantially overlaps my o+n) In this vie+, !isability% is a0roup status, but it is not one !efine! by anythin0 inherent in the members of the 0roup) ather, the attitu!es an! practices that


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e*clu!e people +ith !isabilities% from many opportunities to participate in society are the very ones that create the !isability%cate0ory) Althou0h in!ivi!uals em.brace! by the cate0ory have vastly !ifferent impairments an! limitations 1in!ee!, some haveno impairment or limitation at all6, +hat is crucial is that society treats them as essentially similar) = = In Den!ellMs +or!s,7+


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9nerg$ onsumption

Increased bic$cle use increase o#erall energ$ consumption ! better health means a longer life and more

energ$ use

lrich 0)1Carl T) Ulrich, ice &ean of Innovation an! the #I# Professor of Entrepreneurship an! e.#ommerce at the DhartonSchool of the University of Pennsylvania, The Environmental Para!o* f icyclin0,% '(,

http:GG!ionysus)psych)+isc)e!uGlitGTopicsGEnvironmentGulrich.cyclin0.enviro.5ul()p!f6

It is a*iomatic amon0 environmentalists that substitution of human.po+ere! transportation for sin0le. occupant automobiletrips provi!es environmental benefits) Qet, 0iven the current state of the automobile.!rivin0 population, particularly in theUnite! States, first.or!er environmental benefits can result in hi0h secon!.or!er environmental costs !ue to increase!lon0evity of those en0a0in0 in increase! physical activity) That is, the ener0y savin0s !ue to the use of human po+er fortransportation may be offset by the increase! ener0y use! by livin0 lon0er !ue to better health ) n first reflection, this is abi>arre S+iftian ar0ument) Ho+ever, I believe that the ar0ument correctly places human.po+ere! transportation, an!physical activity 0enerally, at the center of a basic societal tension bet+een the $uest for lon0evity an! the environmentalcosts of increase! population) The basic lo0ic of my ar0ument is: Human.po+ere! transportation can substitute for tripsby sin0le.occupant automobiles) This substitution has a !irect an! imme!iate benefit of re!ucin0 ener0y consumption, evenaccountin0 for the latent ener0y content of the foo! re$uire! for human po+er) A substantial increase in the use of human.po+ere! transportation +oul! en0a0e a substantial number of currently se!entary people in physical activity ) Physical

activity by previously se!entary in!ivi!uals increases their lon0evity, an! therefore their overall ener0y consumption) ' &epen!in0 on the characteristics of the population that a!opts human.po+ere! transportation, there may be little netenvironmental benefit associate! +ith an increase in human.po+ere! transportation )

(

co min-lin v cm kang-polla round 6

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