Class logistics.…………………………………………………………….………………….……………. 2 The IB learner profile.…………………………………..……………………..……………………… 5 How people learn …………………………………..……………………..……………………………. 6 Multiple intelligence inventory………………………………..……………………..…………… 7 Overview of assessment.…………………………………………………………………………..… 8 IB score calculation ………………………………………………………………………………..…… 9

Experimental design (D) ..…………………………………….……….…………………..………… 10 Data collection and processing (DCP).………..………………………………………….……. 17 Conclusion and evaluation (CE).………………………….….……………...…………………… 18 Citations and references.…………………………………………….….…………………………… 19 Manipulative skills (M) ……………………………………………………………..………………… 20 Lab scoring checklist………………………………………………………………..……………..…… 21 Lab safety.…….………………………………………………………………………………………..…… 24 SI units of measurement ………………………………..…………………………….…….………. 25 Measurement precision.….……………………………………………………….…………………. 25 Measurement uncertainty …………………………....……………………………………………. 25 Microscopy ………………………..……………………………………….………….…………………… 27 Lab drawings.……..…….……………………………………………….…………………….....……… 28 Graphing …………………..…...…………………………………………………………………..……… 30

Percent change.…………………………………………………………….…………………………… 34 Mean.………..……………………………………………………………………….………………...……. 34 Standard deviation.…………………………………..…………………………..……………….…… 34 T-test.…………………………………………………………………..……………………………….…..… 37 ANOVA …………………………………………………………………………………………………..…… 40 Correlations…………………………………………………………………………………………..…… 41 Correlation coefficient.…………………………………………………………………………..…… 42 Chi-square ………………………………………………………………………..………………………… 48

Command terms.………………………………………………….……….…………………………… 51 Syllabus overview.………..……………………………………….…………………………….……. 52 Topic 1: statistical analysis.………………………………….….…………..………………..…… 53 Topic 2: cells.……………………………………………………..………………………………….…… 53 Topic 3: chemistry of life ………………………………………………………………………….… 55 Topic 4: genetics …………………………………………………………………..……………..…… 58 Topic 5: ecology and evolution.………………………………………………..………………… 60 Topic 6: human health and physiology ……………………………..……….…………….… 62 Topic 7: nucleic acids and proteins .………………………………………..…………………. 64 Topic 8: cells respiration and photosynthesis ………………………....…………………. 66 Topic 9: plant science …………………..……………………………………….…………………… 67 Topic 10: AHL genetics .…….…………………………………………………………….....……… 68 Topic 11: AHL human health and physiology …………………..…...…………….……… 69 Option D: evolution .…….………………………………………………………….…….…..……… 71 Option G: Ecology and Conservation …………………..…………………………..………… 74

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NAME:

CONTENTS

SECTION A: Introduction to IB Biology

SECTION B: Performing and Writing Up Lab Experiments

SECTION C: Statistical Analysis

SECTION D: IB Biology Syllabus

Mrs. Teresa OleniczakEmail: Teresa.coomaraswamy@austinisd.org Website:http://oleniczakbiology.weebly.com/ Room: 100Tutoring hours: everyday 8:15-9am or by appointment

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Welcome to IB Biology!

Committing yourself to this course is one of the best decisions you have made. As part of your daily life you will be hearing about a wide variety of biology related topics in the news. Some recent stories involve national security (is bio- terrorism a reality?), emerging diseases (what damage could a pandemic flu cause?), environmental ills (how are invasive species impacting your life!), genetic discoveries (will human cloning become a reality), and so on. IB biology is designed to give you the analytical tools and content knowledge which will aid you as you grapple with these issues and others as you continue your scientific endeavors and fulfill your role as a citizen and future law maker. Like it or not, b i o l o g y w i l l a l w a y s b e a part of y our l i f e . Even if this is the last science class you ever take, you will be forced to make decisions rooted in biology on a regular basis. This class will provide you with the knowledge and skills necessary to understand scientific issues, and be able to make educated decisions about our society’s policies toward how science will continue to improve and affect our lives. I challenge you to appreciate science as a “process” by which we develop a better understanding of our world. You need to understand the fundamentals and basic significance of individual discoveries to understand and appreciate the changes, advances and improvements in science and technology. To this end I have established several goals. In this IB biology course, I hope you will:

Develop an understanding of basic biological conceptsAcquire scientific vocabulary to communicate and understand scientific conceptsApply the scientific process to solve problemsBecome better prepared for college level studyThink critically, challenge assumptions, and ask questions

IB Biology is a very challenging and demanding course. It requires a commitment of both time and personal energy to be successful. It is imperative that you prepare for class each day by spending time reviewing the previous day’s lesson. Also, do not procrastinate on your assignments and reviewing. The IB course is prepared with the goal of working at the college level. Remember that the challenge is good for you!

Throughout this course, you will be guided through a combination of discussions, demonstrations, lab activities, and lectures to explore the topics of biology and science. I particularly enjoy having discussions about the “whys and how’s” of biology. It is critical that you keep up with your expected readings and homework so that you can be an active part of these discussions. My primary job is to help you learn. Ask questions. Don’t be afraid to make mistakes. If you have any suggestions on how I can help enhance your learning experience, please talk to me.

Grading Criteria: 50% Exams I do not give retests, but you will have an opportunity to do test corrections for 1/2 of the points back. If you miss a test (and it must be an excused absence), you will be given a completely different version of similar difficulty, and it may be an oral test. You must take the retest the next school day you are present after your absence. You must make arrangements with me the day you miss the test to meet the following day. Email me the minute you know you will miss a test, and/or find me the minute you get back to school in room 100.

25% LABS you will be keeping a lab notebook in addition to formal lab write-ups , both will be graded.

25% Daily Assignments, Formative Assessments (oral/written), and Homework (NO LATE HOMEWORK ACCEPTED), quizzes, etc.

Code of Behavior: You can do as you like in this class, provided it doesn’t affect your learning or the learning of others in the class. We will be working quite hard to fulfill all the course requirements, so it will be important for you to remain attentive in class at all times. I trust that you will be responsible for your own learning and will not engage in any activity that will take away from your own

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learning or from your classmate’s ability to learn. Not h ing i n f uriat e s m e a s m uch a s a st u d e nt w ho d i s r e s p e c t s a not h e r’s right to l e arn.

Conduct of Class: I expect attention (and talking/socializing to cease) as soon as we begin class. I reserve the right to assign seats to students, and to change assigned seats as needed. When I am lecturing, please give me the courtesy of listening (and hopefully, taking notes). When it is your turn to speak, I and everyone else will return the courtesy.

Attendance: Regular attendance is very important if you plan on succeeding in IB biology. The attendance policy corresponds with the school-wide policy; see the student handbook. Most of the labs, presentations, videos and other assignments are difficult, if not impossible, to completely make up.

Late Work: Late work due to an excused absence will be accepted without penalty if it is turned in on the day you return to school. All other late work will be accepted with a maximum grade of 70 up to 2 days late. No work will be accepted after that time.

Missed Class Make Up: If you miss an assignment due to an absence, it is YOUR responsibility to seek and schedule a make-up, not my responsibility to seek you out. If you are absent, visit the class web site at http://oleniczakbiology.weebly.com to see what you missed. If the work we did in class is not linked on the site, upon your return to class check the “What did I miss” file cabinet to pick up any assignments or handouts you missed. You have one week to make up any assignments missed due to your excused absence. If you missed a lab due to an excused absence, it is YOUR responsibility to schedule a lab make up session within two days of your absence. Missed labs may require actual lab make-up or completion of an alternative assignment. You may not make up assignments, activities or labs missed due to an unexcused absence.

Extra Help Opportunities: I am available every day before school to help you or for make up work. I encourage you to form peer study groups as this is a skill that you will need in college and you would not believe how much you can learn from each other. I will host review sessions prior to major tests. In addition, please feel free to email me with any questions.

Preparation for Class: Please bring to class each day the following materials: At least five colors of pens for taking

notes Pencil and eraser Loose-leaf paper Calculator Small ruler for lab drawings Pad of sticky notes Colored highlighters

A 3-ring binder dedicated solely to IB Bio Lined lab composition notebook with sewn (not

spiral) binding (BILL and Syllabus statements) Quad-ruled lab composition notebook with

sewn (not spiral) binding

Group Work: We will frequently work in pairs and teams, particularly in the laboratory. Sometimes I will allow you to choose your own partner, at other times I will assign students to work together. I expect you to accept these assignments without complaint/whining. Although we will do lab work in teams, each student will write up his/her own lab report. During group work, answers and solutions may be freely shared, but all members are expected to contribute. Simply copying answers from another lab report, homework, etc. without having helped to produce the product is plagiarism and will be treated as such.

Hall Pass: One person may leave the classroom at a time with a hall pass. Before you leave the classroom you must fill out the hall pass sign-out sheet. To sign out, legibly sign your name, list the

time you are leaving class, and where you are going. When you return to class, mark the time you returned to class.

Electronics Use: Listening to music is not permitted during direct instruction, group work, or lab experiments. You may listen to music during individual work time. Except for use as calculators, timers and cameras during labs, use of cell phones is not permitted (including text messaging). Please be respectful by turning off all cell phones prior to coming to class otherwise off to the “bad phone box” it will go, and after too many visits it will be turned into the office.

Turnitin.comClasscode:___________________________Password:___________________________

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Textbook: The textbook for the course is the ninth edition of Neil A. Campbell and Jane B. Reece’s Biology. You will have a book checked out to you as well as on-line access through Mastering Biology.

Mastering Biology: Assignments on Mastering Biology will be posted well in advance and are to be completed by the dates given. You get ONE do over for mastering biology (email me ) otherwise if its late it’s a zero!

User Name:_______________________________Password:________________________________-

Computer Use: This course requires that all students utilize a computer to conduct research and to produce various products outside of class time. Therefore all students must have access to a computer and email account. Since the public libraries and school library all have word processing software and internet access available, it is expected that all students without home computers make time in their schedules to frequent these libraries. Not having Internet at home is not an excuse for not being able to do the work. Additionally, when I do give a homework assignment on Internet, be sure to start it early. Computers have a way of not working when you most need them to.

Cheating. Cheating will not be tolerated and is clearly a violation of course and school policy. The following acts of cheating are examples of behavior that will result in disciplinary actions as outlined in the student handbook.Passing calculators during a test, quiz, or other assessmentCopying someone else’s test, quiz, assignment, or reportLetting someone copy from a test, quiz, homework, assignment, or

reportLooking at notes during a test, quiz, or other assessmentSharing questions from a test with students who have yet to take the testListing someone else’s data without giving credit, or worse, making up

data to fit the expected answer. It is acceptable to present your own data, to state the reasons that you feel the results should be disregarded, and then to present another student’s data (making sure the source is acknowledged)

Using opinions, facts, ideas, charts, data and direct quotes from research papers, newspapers, magazines, textbooks, websites, or another person without citing the source. If plagiarism is suspected, you will be asked to complete an additional “how to recognize and prevent plagiarism” assignment.

Mathematical requirements: You will be expected to have acquired competence in the areas of mathematics set out below in order to develop the knowledge, understanding and skills in the subject content. All IB biology students should be able to:

Perform the basic arithmetic functions: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division Recognize basic geometric shapes Carry out simple calculations within a biological context

involving means, decimals, fractions, percentages, ratios, approximations, reciprocals and scaling

Use standard and scientific notation Use direct and inverse proportion Represent and interpret frequency data in the form of bar

charts, column graphs and histograms, and pie charts Determine the mean, mode and median of a set of data Plot and interpret graphs (with suitable scales and axes)

involving two variables which show linear or non-linear relationships

Plot and interpret scatter graphs to identify a correlation between two variables, and appreciate that the existence of a correlation does not establish a causal relationship

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Demonstrate sufficient knowledge of probability to understand how Mendelian ratios arise and to calculate such ratios using a Punnett grid

Recognize and use the relationships between length, surface area and volume.

The IB Learner ProfileThe aim of all IB programs is to develop internationally minded people who, recognizing their common humanity and shared guardianship of the planet, help to create a better and more peaceful world. IB learners strive to be:

InquirersThey develop their natural curiosity. They acquire the skills necessary to conduct inquiry and research and show independence in learning. They actively enjoy learning and this love of learning will be sustained throughout their lives.

KnowledgeableThey explore concepts, ideas and issues that have local and global significance. In so doing, they acquire in-depth knowledge and develop understanding across a broad and balanced range of disciplines.

ThinkersThey exercise initiative in applying thinking skills critically and creatively to recognize and approach complex problems, and make reasoned, ethical decisions.

CommunicatorsThey understand and express ideas and information confidently and creatively in more than one language and in a variety of modes of communication. They work effectively and willingly in collaboration with others.

PrincipledThey act with integrity and honesty, with a strong sense of fairness, justice and respect for the dignity of the individual, groups and communities. They take responsibility for their own actions and the consequences that accompany them.

Open-mindedThey understand and appreciate their own cultures and personal histories, and are open to the perspectives, values and traditions of other individuals and communities. They are accustomed to seeking and evaluating a range of points of view, and are willing to grow from the experience.

CaringThey show empathy, compassion and respect towards the needs and feelings of others. They have a personal commitment to service, and act to make a positive difference to the lives of others and to the environment.

Risk-takersThey approach unfamiliar situations and uncertainty with courage and forethought, and have the independence of spirit to explore new roles, ideas and strategies. They are brave and articulate in defending their beliefs.

BalancedThey understand the importance of intellectual, physical andemotional balance to achieve personal well-being for themselves and others.

ReflectiveThey give thoughtful consideration to their own learning andexperience. They are able to assess and understand their strengths and limitations in order to support their learning and personal development.

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How People Learn

1. Describe the s tr u ctu r e and f unction of the cells of the central nervous system.

2. Describe why repetition is the key to learning in terms of the physical changes that occur in the brain when information is learned.

3. What are the key times after initial learning that material should be reviewed? How will the percent of material recalled over time change with and without repetitive review of the material?

4. List the steps YOU will take to ensure strong neural pathways are forged as you learn biology.

A

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

TOTAL:

B

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

C

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

D

19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

E

25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

TOTAL:

F

31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

TOTAL:

G

37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42.

TOTAL:

H

43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48.

TOTAL:

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Multiple Intelligence Inventory

RANKING

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

In summary, I learn best by…

I AM: (circle one)

ANALYTIC GLOBAL

I AM: (circle one)

REFLECTIVE IMPULSIVE

Lab Composition Book

You need to keep a fabric (not spiral) bound lab composition notebook. Your laboratory notebook should have:

1. Title Page: the title page must include your full name, school name, and teacher name. This will help the book find its way back to you should it be misplaced.

2. Table of Contents: The next two pages should be reserved for the table of contents. Here you will list the names of the labs and the page number on which each lab begins. Therefore, you will need to number every page of your lab book.

3. Individual Labs: complete lab requirements as described in class.

4. Lab Report Outline: description of pre and post lab requirements this should be taped into the front cover of your lab book and used unless otherwise indicated by me

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Overview of IB Assessment Type of assessment Graded by Impact on AHS grade IB score impact

Unit test Mrs. Oleniczak yes NoInternal Assessment (Formal lab reports)

Mrs. Oleniczak with moderation by IB Yes Yes

External Assesments (IB tests papers 1,2,and 3) IB examiners no Yes

AHS Grade BreakdownTests and projects Labs Classwork, homework, syllabus statements ,etc50% 25% 25%

1. Internal Assessment of Lab Work

Lab work is assessed according to high standards outlined by the IB Organization. All the lab work completed in the IB Biology Course is assessed in two ways:

1) For a class grade: collectively, lab work is worth 25% of your overall AHS course grade. There are two types of labs we will do in class, informal and formal.

Informal: Informal labs will be completed in the lab composition books with no formal write up required.

Formal: Formal labs are completed with final draft quality and assessed using the IB Internal Assessment standards. There is no opportunity for rechecking or rescoring of formal labs. As these labs are a hefty proportion of your class and IB scores, it is important that you submit your best work. A substantial lab writing guide is included later in this booklet. All formal labs must be submitted to turnitin.com for grading.

2) For an IB grade: Higher level IB Biology students are required to spend 60 hours on practical lab activities (excluding time spent writing up work). The time allocation must be spread out through the course and written evidence of all this work must be kept.

All the lab reports will be assessed internally by the teacher using the following eight assessment criteria:

Design - D Data collection and processing – DCP Conclusion and evaluation – CE Manipulative skills – MS

Personal skills – PSYou will find an explanation of these criteria later in this booklet.

Each student will be assessed at least twice on each of the eight criteria. The two best marks for each of the criteria are added together to determine the final mark out of 48 for the Internal Assessment (IA) component of the course. This will then be scaled by the external IB moderators to give a total out of 24% of your IB score (the one that counts for IB Diploma, IB Certificate and potential college credit).

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3. External Assessment

The external assessment consists of three written papers which together make up 76% of your IB score (the one that counts for IB Diploma, IB Certificate and potential college credit):

Test Component Weighting (%) Duration (hours) FormatPaper 1 SL and HL =20 SL = 3/4

HL= 1hrMultiple-choice questions which test knowledge of the coursecontent. The questions are designed to be short, one- or two- stage problems. No marks are deducted for incorrect responses. Calculators are not permitted but students are expected to carry out simple calculations.ALL Core Syllabus statements

Paper 2 SL = 32HL = 36

SL = 1 ¼HL= 2 1/4

In section A, there is a data-based question which will requirestudents to analyze a given set of data. The remainder of section A is made up of short-answer questions. In section B, students are expected to answer SL one question/HL two questions from a choice of four. These extended response questions may involve writing a number of paragraphs, solving a substantial problem, or carrying out a substantial piece of analysis or evaluation. A calculator is required for this paper.ALL Core Syllabus statements

Paper 3 SL=24HL=20

SL= 1HL = 1 ¼

Students will answer several short-answer questions and anextended response question in each of the two options studied. Students will also answer a data-based question in each of the two options studied. A calculator is required for this paper.

IB Score CalculationIf you take the full two year IB biology HL sequence and test the external exam, you can earn college credit depending on your IB score. The IB scores range from a 1 (low) to a 7 (high). Exams are marked by external examiners. Lab write-ups and the Group 4Project are assessed by your classroom teacher, but are sent to the IB for moderation. This is the breakdown of how your IB score is determined by the IB Organization:

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IB Biology Lab “Tool-Kit”The purpose of writing a lab report is to determine how well you performed your investigation, how much you understood what happened during the process, and how well you can convey that information in an organized fashion. Remember that lab reports are individual assignments. Y o u may h a v e h ad a lab p art n e r, b ut t h e work that y o u d o a nd r e port on should b e y our o w n . Use the following “tool kit” as a guide when you write up your formal lab reports.

LOGISTICS: Raw data must be collected in a bound lab composition book Lab must be typed (with 1.5 line spacing) or neatly hand written Title of lab is clear and relevant Report has a logical order, with clear title and section headings The spelling, grammar, and flow of the writing must be correct. When you write a lab report, you will have already performed the investigation. Please use the past tense throughout the

paper.

DESIGN ASPECT 1: Defining the Problem and Selecting Variables

Include a Background Information section. Introduce and explain the biological principles and/or concepts that are being investigated. Remember to cite your sources of information properly.

Provide the scientific name of the organism being investigated (Genus species).

State the PROBLEM QUESTION (PQ). Be sure your problem question is focused enough so that it specifically states what was under investigation in the experiment. If a controlled experiment was done, the manipulated and responding variablesmust be clearly identified. Often, but not always, written as, “What is the effect of MV on RV ?”

There are two main types of investigations that you will perform in IB biology:

1. Experiments are studies that allow scientists to manipulate a variable and observe its effects. For example: Does changing light affect the growth of radishes? Experiments are powerful studies because they can establish whether a variable influences or determines an outcome.

2. Sometimes experiments are neither possible nor desirable. Human subjects, for example, are often unsuitable for experimentation for ethical reasons. Jane Goodall, wishing to discover the behavior and social structure of chimpanzees in their natural habitat, did not perform experiments with her subjects but instead observed them with minimal human interference. When subjects are studied “as is” rather than manipulated in controlled settings, they are part of descriptive studies.

In the case of a true experiment, you need to explain what you changed between groups, the MANIPULATED VARIABLE (MV). Indicate the manipulated variable and list the levels of the MV that you included in your experimental protocol. Provide the unit for your MV. T ypically y ou should h a v e a mini m u m of 5 l e v e ls of the M V. Explain how the range of levels of your MV was selected.

If you performed a descriptive study, explain why no variable was or could be manipulated.

If appropriate, indicate your CONTROL GROUP (CG). The control group is the one group to which all other groups will be compared. The control group receives the exact treatment as the experimental groups except it does not receive the change in the MV. The control group can be a level of the MV.

Please note that the control group is NOT the same thing as a controlled variable.

For some experiments, there is no control group and the comparison among the experimental groups is enough.

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You need to explain what was measured, the RESPONDING VARIABLE (RV). List what was measured (both qualitative and quantitative data) and explain how it was measured. Provide the unit for your RV. If no qualitative data was collected, say so, and explain why qualitative data was not gathered.

For true experiments in which you are determining the effect of a MV on and RV, you need to include a HYPOTHESIS. A hypothesis predicts a relationship or trend. It will often take the form of a proposed relationship between two or more variables that can be tested by experiment. Hypothesis statements are often written as:

If (MV)_ is related to

(RV)_ , then (predict the effect).

If the

(MV)_

is (described the changes), then the

(RV)_ will (predict the effect).

(RV)_ will (predict the effect) when

(MV)_

(describe the changes).

You must also provide an EXPLANATION for your hypothesis. This should be a brief discussion (paragraph form) about the science behind your hypothesis and prediction. You should site credible references that support your explanation (see section on citations).

DESIGN ASPECT 2: Controlling Variables

◻ At least three CONTROLLED VARIABLES (CV) are required, but more may be necessary. The controlled variables you list must be relevant to your investigation. You need to control for all variables that may reasonably affect the outcome of the investigation. Materials used and measurement techniques are NOT controlled variables (they are validity measures). While materials and techniques must be consistent, a true variable is something that could directly influence the responding variable, not just how it is measured.

◻ You must explain w hy and h o w variables were controlled. When explaining why a variable needs to be controlled, describe how the variable could impact the results if it was not controlled. Often times, students create a table to organize this information:

CONTROLLED VARIABLES WHY in must be controlled HOW it was controlled1.

2.

3.

DESIGN ASPECT 3: Developing a Method for Collection of Data

Before performing and writing about your experiment, you may need to run some PRE-TRIALS. A pretrial is a pretest of the experimental methods that you conduct to tweak the procedure before actual data collection begins. Pre-trials will help you determine specific details of your experiment and increase your change of success with your experimental design because you can work out any kinks before collecting data.

◻ Make a list of the MATERIALS needed in the investigation. Be as specific as possible (example: ’50 mL beaker’ instead of ‘beaker’); include the volumes of tubes and cylinders, the concentrations of solutions, the model and manufacturer of any complex apparatus. If you have to decide how much of a substance or a solution to use, state your reasoning or show the calculations.

◻ Include DIAGRAMS OR PHOTOGRAPHS. Be sure your diagram includes a title and any necessary labels. Photographs are an excellent way to document your experiment. Consider taking the following photographs:

o You, the researcher, shown working on your experiment

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o Experimental setup, to show the overall environment

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o Individual photos of the experimental and control groups throughout your experimento Close-ups of how data were collect (for example, a close-up photograph of your hands holding the instrument to

take measurements)

◻ State or discuss the PROCEDURE that you used in the experiment. Be sure your procedure explains how you changed the manipulated variable. This can be in paragraph form or a list of step-by-step directions. Provide enough detail so that another person could repeat your work by reading your report.

o If you use a known, published protocol than you must provide a full citation as a reference.

o Your procedure must include at least three clear VALIDITY MEASURES (VM) (i.e. cleaning test tubes prior to use, cleaning the microscope lenses, using the same ruler, etc). Validity measures are things kept constant to make sure experimental measurements are valid and consistent.

o Your procedure must CLEARLY STATE HOW YOU COLLECTED DATA. What measuring device did you use, what data did you record, when did you collect data? What qualitative observations did you look for?

o Explain how you set up so you had MULTIPLE TRIALS of data collection. The procedure must allow collection of “sufficient relevant data”. The definition of “sufficient relevant data” depends on the context. The planned investigation should anticipate the collection of enough data so that the problem question can be suitably addressed and an evaluation of the reliability of the data can be made. As a rule, the lower limit is a sample size of five. Very small samples run from 5 to 20, small samples run from 20 to 30, and big samples run from 30 upwards. Obviously, this will vary within the limits of the time available for an investigation.

o If you will be COMBINING DATA with data collected by other students in the class, you should indicate that, “pooling data was done to ensure collection of significant, relevant data” (IB Biology subject guide, 2009, page 26). Be sure to cite this reference if you pool data.

o If you are SAMPLING only a portion of a population, you must explain how and w hy you ensured that the sample was randomly selected.

o Your procedure must be safe and ethical. Organisms, including humans, cannot be subject to harm in your investigation. List any SAFETY PRECAUTIONS that were taken during the lab. If necessary, address the IBO animal experimentation policy.

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DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING ASPECT 1: Recording Raw Data

Create a formal DATA TABLE in which to present the raw, unmodified data you collected. Be sure your table:o Is easy to understando Has a specific titleo Is titled in sequential order as “Table 1: title.” “Table 2: title”o Has column headingso Includes the unit of measurement of the MV and RV (always in metric units)o Includes the measurement uncertainty of the measurement tools used (or, if the data was a count, indicates that

“counts have no measurable uncertainty”). Uncertainly is usually stated in a column heading or as a footnote atthe bottom of the table. Additional information about measurement uncertainty can be found later in this booklet.

o Has a consistent and correct number of digits for each measuremento Has decimal points aligning down a column (if applicable) and numbers centered in the columno Indicates which data was collected by which student IF the data was collected and pooled across multiple students.

Your report must include QUALITATIVE DATA. This might be a paragraph in which you describe:o Observations about the procedure or deviations from the procedureo Observations about results not directly relating to the RVo Specific qualitative data for each trial

LAB DRAWINGS are considered data by the IB Organization. Biological drawings can be made from biological specimens viewed with a microscope, binocular microscope or hand-lens. They should always be accurate records of the observed features of a specimen. Not all labs will include a lab drawing. Additional information about lab drawings can be found later in this handbook.

DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING ASPECT 2: Processing Raw Data

STATISTICS are useful mathematical tools which are used to analyze data. Common statistics used in biology are:o Meano Rangeo Mediano Percent changeo Standard deviation (to determine amount of variation around a mean)

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o T-test (to compare two means to determine if they are statistically different from each other). Chi-square (to determine if “observed” results are significantly different from “expected” results)

o Correlation coefficient (to determine the extent two variables are related to each other).o Chi-square (to compare observed with theoretically expected results)

Use only the statistical tests appropriate to investigate and address your problem question. Additional information about statistics can be found later in this booklet.

When a t-test, chi-square or correlation coefficient is calculated, you must indicate the significance level at which your critical value is determined (we typically use the 95% confidence interval, 0.05).

For each statistic you calculate, you must EXPLAIN WHY YOU ELECTED TO DO THAT CALCULATION. What does the calculation tell you about the data?

DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING ASPECT 3: Presenting Processed Data

Show an EXAMPLE CALCULATION for each statistic you calculate. Use plenty of room; make sure they are labeled, are clear and are legible. Show the un i ts of measurements in all calculations. Pay attention to the number of digits! Don’t lose accuracy by carelessly rounding off. Do not truncate.

Present your data processing results in a TABLE. The initial raw data and the processed (calculated) data may be shown in one table provided they are clearly distinguishable. Be sure your processed data table:

o Is easy to understando Has a specific titleo Has column headingso Includes the unit of measuremento Has a consistent and correct number of digits for each measurement (to the same precision as your raw data)o Has decimal points aligning down a column (if applicable) and numbers centered in the column

You must also present your results in a GRAPH.o Use the correct type of graph for the type of data you are presenting.o Graphs must be clear and easy to understand. Please avoid “creative” or “funny” coloring of graphs. o Graphs need to have appropriate scales, labeled axes with units, and accurately plotted data points. o Graphs are titled in sequential order as “Figure 1: title.” “Figure 2: title”o If necessary, add smooth lines or curves to show the overall trend of the data.o If a mean is calculated, only graph the mean, not all data points. When a mean is graphed, its associated

standard deviation error bar must also be included (and labeled as such).o Legends (keys) are not always necessary. Delete “series 1” and “series 2” boxes from graphs created in Excel.

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CONCLUSION AND EVALUATION ASPECT 1: Concluding

Write one (or more) paragraphs in which you DRAW CONCLUSIONS FROM YOUR RESULTS. Your conclusion should be clearly related to the research question and the purpose of the experiment.

o Answer the problem questiono Be accurate (i.e., if you used a T-test, be sure your conclusion matches what the T-test tells you; don’t say there is a

difference if the T-test says the difference is insignificant).o Was your hypothesis supported or refuted? Use the appropriate language, i.e. “Supports my hypothesis”

(not ‘proves’ or ‘is correct’). The word prove is much too strong for a single study on a topic.o Provide a brief explanation as to how you came to this conclusion from your results. In other words, sum up the

evidence and explain observations, trends or patterns revealed by the data. Summarize the processed data: mean, range and standard deviation. Refer directly to tables and graphs by referencing tables and figures (i.e. “as seen in Figure 1…”)

o Summarize the results of the statistical test(s) was the effect of the MV significant or not?

If possible, CITE LITERATURE related to your conclusion. Does you result coincide with published results? Does it refute published results?

CONCLUSION AND EVALUATION ASPECT 2: EVALUATING PROCEDURE

In general, how much CONFIDENCE do you have in the results? Avoid giving your confidence as a percentage; use words such as “very” or “somewhat.” Are your results fairly conclusive, or are other interpretations/results possible?

Why are you (or aren’t you) confident? What did you do to make sure your results are valid? Was the range of the MV levels appropriate? Was the data collected relevant to the problem question?

Explain any anomalous data points

Id e ntify a n d d i s cu s s significant ERRORS that actually a ffe c t e d y our data coll e ctio n . You must identify the source of error and tie it to how it lik e ly a ffe c ted y our r es ult s . Avoid hypothetical errors (“could have” or “I might have”) without evidence to back it up. Common errors include:

o Human error: Human error can occur when tools or instruments are used or read incorrectly. Human errors can be systematic because the experimenter does not know how to use the apparatus properly or they can be random because the power of concentration of the experimenter is fading. Automated measuring using a data-logger system can help reduce the likelihood of this error; alternatively you can take a break from measuring from time to time. Do not list time constraints or time management as errors - they should be eliminated with good practical skills. The focus here should be on the investigation.

o Calibration error: Some instruments need calibrating before you use them. If this is done incorrectly it can increase the risk of systematic error.

o Random errors: In biological investigations, the changes in the material used or the conditions in which they are carried out can cause a lot of errors. Biological material is notably variable.

o The act of measuring: Could the measurement uncertainty have affected the results? Why or why not?o Uncontrolled variables: What variables were not controlled? What effect might each of these uncontrolled

variables have had on your data? On the conclusion?o Systematic errors: could the measurement uncertainty have affected the results? Why or why not? Did

systematic errors affect the data? The conclusion?

Errors and their effect on the results can be clearly presented in a table.

What are the LIMITATIONS of your conclusion? Can the results be generalized to other situations/conditions? How might your results explain a process in the “real world”?

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CONCLUSION AND EVALUATION ASPECT 3: IMPROVING THE INVESTIGATION

What could you do to make IMPROVEMENTS to the investigation? Suggestions for improvements should be based on the weaknesses and limitations identified in aspect 2.

As appropriate, address modifications to the experimental technique and the data range. Suggest future experiments.

Propose only realistic and specific modifications. “More time” and “be more careful” are inadequate.

This is not the time to complain about the lab and how much time you had to complete it. You can only get out as much as you put in and no grader wants to hear about how you didn’t put in enough time or effort to get good results.

REFERENCES AND CITATIONS

IN TEXT CITATIONS

It is permissible in the design and conclusion sections to use brief quotations. Sometimes a book or reference has a phrase or sentence that expresses exactly the thought you are trying to convey; you may use that phrase or sentence IF you use quotation marks and cite a reference at the end of the sentence. It is NOT appropriate to borrow extensive passages (more than two sentences) from a text or web site.

You should also acknowledge where ideas or knowledge not originally your own come from, even if you state your understanding of the idea in your own words. This is usually done by putting the first author’s last name and the date of the paper in parentheses at the end of the sentence containing the idea.

WORKS CITED LIST

Any source you mention in the text of your paper should be included in a list of references in a separate section at the end of the paper. These references are usually listed in alphabetical order by the first author’s last name. Make sure all the authors of a paper or book are listed, and include the title of the book or article, the journal or publisher (and place), and the date. If you used just part of a book, indicate the chapter or pages used. For web sites, give the exact electronic

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address and any other information you have about it (the author, the name of the organization that sponsors the site) Examples:

o Book: Author(s). Year. Title. Location: Publisher. Number of pages, or pages cited. Hille, Bertil. 1992. Ionic Channels of Excitable Membranes. Second Edition. Sunderland, MA:

Sinauer Associates, Inc. 607p.o Article:

Author(s). Year. Title of Article. Journal, volume number, pages. Huxley, A.F. and R. Stämpfli. 1949. Evidence for salutatory conduction in peripheral myelinated

nerve fibres. J Physiol. (Lond.) 108: 315-339.o Web page:

Name of web page. Creator or publisher. Date accessed. Web address. The Animated Brain. Brainviews, Ltd. Saltatory conduction. July, 2012.

http://www.brainviews.com/abFiles/AniSalt.htmo Lecture or information from a teacher.

Name of teacher (alphabetically, by last name). The exact date and topic of the lecture (including thecourse in which it was given).

Or for individual answers to questions you asked a teacher, you can call it “personal communication” and give the date.

Do not use Wikipedia as a resource site; however you may read it to gain understanding.

MANIPULATIVE SKILLSLaboratory skills are assessed summatively over the course of the entire IB Biology course. Your teacher will be watching to see ifyou:

Follow directions carefully Do not fabricate data Seek assistance when appropriate (independence is encouraged) Consistently carry out proper safety measures Effectively use a variety of biological techniques Properly use experimental equipment Safely dispose and reduce waste Work in the lab in a way that does not put yourself or others in harms way Follow the IBO animal experimentation policy

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IB LAB SCORING CHECKLIST – Generalized LabUse this checklist before you submit a formal lab for assessment. This checklist outlines all the required aspects present in a highscoring IB Biology lab write up.

LOGISTICS Raw data collected directly into lab composition book Lab is typed with 1.5 or double spaced lines Logical order of report, with clear title and headings Clear spelling, grammar, and flow of the writing; past tense throughout Sources have in correctly formatted in-text citations (for background information, hypothesis and conclusion) References correctly cited in a ”works cited” list Table(s) labeled sequentially as Tables (i.e. as Table 1… Table 2…) Picture(s), diagram(s) and graph(s) labeled sequentially as Figures (i.e. as Figure 1…Figure 2…) Scientific name of organism is provided; italics or underlined throughout

IB DESIGN ASPECT 1: problem and variables Detailed and accurate biology background information is included (with citations) Problem question is stated with a clear MV and RV Problem question relates to the prompt given in class

Manipulated variable correctly identified (or if descriptive lab, describe why no MV) If appropriate, a control group is identified At least 5 levels of the MV are listed (with unit). The control group can be one of the 5 levels of the MV. There is an explanation of how the range of MV levels was selected Responding variable is correctly identified Quantitative RV provided (with unit) Qualitative RV provided (or explain why none) Hypothesis concerns effect of MV on RV Hypothesis predicts a relationship or trend Hypothesis explanation is valid (with citations)

IB DESIGN ASPECT 2: Control of Variables At least three relevant controlled variables are identified Controlled variables are not validity measures There is a clear explanation why each variable needs to be controlled

IB DESIGN ASPECT 3: Method for Collection of Data The major apparatus used are listed, including size and graduation The reasoning behind the quantities of materials is given Photographs of experimental set-up and/or data collection are included Procedure includes at least 3 validity measures (VM) Procedure describes how the MV was varied (MV) An adequately broad MV range is considered Sample size is at least 5 for each level of the MV (MT) Explanation of how and why you sampled data (if appropriate) Indication that data was pooled, with reference to IB subject guide (if appropriate) Description of how the controlled variables were kept constant (CV) Directions about how to collect measurement data (with tool listed) (DC) Procedure worked! Sufficient data was collected using the procedure described. Safety precautions are provided

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IB DATA ASPECT 1: Collecting and Recording Raw Data Qualitative data relevant to the PQ is independently collected (i.e. observations about the procedure/deviations,

observations about results not directly relating to RV) Quantitative data is collected for at least 5 levels of the MV Quantitative data is collected for at least 5 trials of each level of the MV Data table is neatly constructed, organized, and makes good use of space. Table does not break across a page. Specific title is included. The title indicates what data was collected. Note: table title is NOT the lab title. Logical set-up of columns and rows (i.e., MV in first column, RV(s) in next column(s)) with headings at the top of each column Metric units for each piece of data are clearly and correctly identified (may be done at top of each column) Measurement uncertainty for both MV and RV is noted and correct (may be done at top of each column) Data is measured to a consistent, correct precision for the tool used; decimal points align

DRAWING: Clear title in larger font At least ½ page, in pencil, on unlined, white paper Labeled scale bar (includes unit and correct number of digits) Correct linear magnification of drawing (w/ correct number of digits) Correct labels form vertical list

IB DATA ASPECT 2: Processing Raw Data If appropriate, correct mean is calculated for each level of the MV If appropriate, use of the mean in explained If appropriate, correct standard deviation is calculated for each level of the MV If appropriate, use of the SD is explained If appropriate, correct t-value(s) calculated (if in excel, correct P value is given) If appropriate, use of the t-test is explained If appropriate, correct correlation coefficient is calculated If appropriate, use of the correlation is explained

IB DATA ASPECT 3: Processed Data Presentation Working has been presented so that all the stages to the final result can be followed Processed data is organized into a easy to read table, with clearly labeled title and column headings (with units) Processed data has correct precision; decimal points align If appropriate, T-test significance level (0.05), critical t-values and degrees of freedom are provided The correct type of graph is made for the type of data presented (i.e. bar, line, histogram, pie, etc…) Graph is neatly constructed, organized, and makes good use of space. If used, colors make the graph more readable. Specific title is included. The title indicates what data is presented. Graph title is NOT the lab title. RV on the Y axis and MV on the X axis Units are clearly and correctly identified along the X and Y axis The graph axes are proportional to the data All points are plotted clearly and correctly. The mean of the data is graphed (not each individual trial). Graph includes SD error bars, labeled as such If needed, smooth lines or curves are added to the graph to show trends or relationships “Series” boxes are deleted from graphs created in Excel

IB CONCLUSION ASPECT 1: Concluding Correct conclusion is drawn; conclusion relates to the problem / purpose

If any hypotheses are being tested, there is a statement whether the data supports the hypotheses (without using the word “proves”)

All data is discussed and interpreted Trends in data and graphs explained and interpreted Use data to support conclusion (mean, SD and T) with direct reference to figures and tables Provide a biological explanation for the results If measuring an already known and accepted value, compare value with that in a textbook, in order to assess the validity of the

result. Fully reference any literature that is quoted

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IB CONCLUSION ASPECT 2: Evaluating Procedure Confidence in results is stated Positive aspects of lab design are mentioned Appropriateness or limitations due to MV range and levels Anomalous data points explained (if appropriate) At least 3 errors / limitations that actually affected data and/or conclusion (E) Description of how errors / limitations may have impacted results and/or conclusion

IB CONCLUSION ASPECT 3: Improving the Investigation At least 3 improvements to procedure are provided (I) Improvements are based in errors / limitations described Suggestions are not vague (“be more careful” is unacceptable) Suggestions reduce errors or improve control of variables Suggest modifications to MV range Suggestion for future experiments is given

MANIPULATIVE SKILLS Follow directions carefully Do not fabricate data Seek assistance when appropriate (independence is encouraged) Consistently carry out proper safety measures Properly use a wide range of experimental equipment Safely dispose and reduce waste Work in the lab in a way that does not put yourself or others in harm’s way Follow the IBO animal experimentation policy

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Lab SafetyAccording to Austin Independent School District policy, each student must have returned a lab safety contract, signed by student and parent before being allowed to do lab work.

PERSONAL SAFETY Every person shall wear eye protection devices when using corrosive, toxic, reactive, or irritating chemicals and

during hazardous activities. Wash your hands before removing your goggles and leaving the laboratory. Never be a practical joker in the laboratory. Laboratory aprons must be worn when working with hazardous solutions. If you do not understand how or why to do a task, ask your instructor for help. If there is any doubt in your mind, ask

your instructor. Some chemicals can be harmful to a fetus. If pregnant, or suspect pregnancy, notify your science teacher or

school counselor. Tie back long hair. Secure loose clothing to the body and remove loose fitting coats and jackets. In classrooms functioning as a laboratory, no eating or drink will be allowed.

ROOM SAFETY Learn the location of the eyewash station and fire extinguishing devices and how to use them. Before leaving the laboratory, be certain that gas and water lines at your station are shut tightly and that all

equipment and supplies are placed in their proper places. Off-limits designation for any area or demonstration is to be strictly observed by students. Know the emergency evacuation route and meeting point.

LAB SAFETY SKILLS Follow your instructor’s oral and written instructions before, during and after all

laboratory activities. Read an assigned investigation carefully before beginning it, noting all cautions listed. Work deliberately and with definite purpose, but do not hurry. Keep the workspace at your station and your apparatus clean and in good order. Read the label carefully before taking anything from a bottle or container. Using the wrong material could result

in serious injury. Know what you are doing. Be wary of what neighboring students are doing.

MATERIALS SAFETY All chemicals should be regarded as hazardous unless your instructor informs you otherwise. Never mix or heat chemicals unless you are directed to do so. When mixing concentrated acids and water, always pour acids into water slowly and stir constantly. When observing the odor of any liquid, do not smell it directly. Use your hand to fan the odor towards you. Never taste a chemical or a solution or touch chemicals with your hands unless directed to do so by your instructor. When heating a test tube, do not heat just one spot on the test tube. Never have the open end of the test tube

pointed at anyone. Never look directly down into a test tube. Always allow ample time for cooling after materials have been heated. Dispose of all materials as instructor designates.

NOTIFY YOUR INSTRUCTOR OF ANY ACCIDENT OR POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS SITUATION.

IF ANY CHEMICAL IS SPLASHED ON YOU SKIN OR IN YOUR EYES,FLOOD WITH WATER IMMEDIATELY, THEN NOTIFY YOUR INSTRUCTOR

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SI Units and How to Use ThemWhen you make quantitative observations you are expected to use the appropriate units. The system of units used is theInternational System of Units - SI units (Système International d’Unités). In the table below you are given some of the more common SI units you will need to use. (metre = meter it’s just the weird euro spelling)

When measuring time, it is appropriate to use minutes, hours or days if the experiment spans a longer period. When showing lengths, it is appropriate to use the following units:

Measurement Precisiono Unless there is a digital display, always measure to one spot beyond the smallest unit of CERTAIN measurement of the tool.

o For example, if you use a ruler that can accurately measure to the tenth of a centimeter, your measurement would be to the hundredth of a centimeter.

This line would be measured as4.50 cm

o You may need to estimate the degree of precision sometimes especially with stop watches. Digital stop watches are said to be accurate to 0.01s but your reaction time is only 0.1s.

o For electronic probes you may have to go to the manufacturers specifications (on their web site or in the instructions manual).

Measurement Uncertaintyo Every measurement has an uncertainty associated with it, unless it is an exact, counted integer, such as the number of

trials performed.

o The lower the accuracy and precision of a measurement instrument are, the larger the measurement uncertainty is.

o The numerical value of a ± uncertainty value tells you the range of the result. For example a result reported as 1.23 ± 0.05 means that the experimenter has some degree of confidence that the true value falls in between 1.18 and 1.28

o To determine uncertainty:

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o Find the smallest increment of measurement on your measurement deviceo Divide it by twoo Round to the first non-zero number

This line would be measured as 4.50 cm+/- 0.05cm

o Experimental uncertainties should be rounded to one significant figure. Uncertainties are almost always quoted to one significant digit (example: ±0.05 s).

o Always round the measurement or result to the same decimal place as the uncertainty. It would be confusing to suggest that you knew the digit in the hundredths (or thousandths) place when you admit that you unsure of the tenths place.

Wrong: 1.237 s ± 0.1 sCorrect: 1.2 s ± 0.1 s

Complete this table as a reference for measuring tools used in the IB Biology class.MEASURING DEVICE MEASURES UNIT(S) UNCERTAINTY

Gram Scale

Meter Stick Length

Ruler

Stop Watch

Glass thermometer

10ml syringe

10ml graduated cylinder Volume

100ml graduated cylinder

500ml graduated cylinder

2000ml graduated cylinder

50ml beaker

250ml beaker

600ml beaker

125ml flask

500ml flask

1000ml flask

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MicroscopyMagnifying PowerA compound microscope has two sets of lenses. The lens you look through is called the ocular. The lens near the specimen being examined is called the objective. The objective lens is one of three or four lenses located on a rotating turret above the stage, and that vary in magnifying power. The lowest power is called the low power objective (LP), and the highest power is the high power objective (HP).

You can determine the magnifying power of the combination of the two lenses by multiplying the magnifying power of the ocular by the magnifying power of the objective that you are using. For example, if the magnifying power of the ocular is 10 (written 10X) and the magnifying power of an objective is 4 (4X), the magnifying power of that lens combination is 40X.

Field of View (FOV)The field of view is the maximum area visible through the lenses of a microscope, and it is represented by a diameter. To determine the diameter of your field of view, place a transparent metric ruler under the low power (LP) objective of a microscope. Focus the microscope on the scale of the ruler, and measure the diameter of the field of vision in millimeters. Record this number.

When you are viewing an object under high power, it is sometimes not possible to determine the field of view directly. The higher the power of magnification, the smaller the field of view. The diameter of the field of view under high power must be calculated using the following equation.

For example, if you determine that your field of view is 2.5 mm in diameter using a 10X ocular and 4X objective, you will be able to determine what the field of view will be with the high power objective by using the above formula. For this example, we will designate the high power objective as 40X.

Estimating the Size of the Specimen Under ObservationObjects observed with microscopes are often too small to be measured conveniently in millimeters. Because you are using a scale inmillimeters, it is necessary to convert your measurement to micrometers. Remember that 1 μm = 0.001 mm.

To estimate the size of an object seen with a microscope, first estimate what fraction of the diameter of the field of vision that the object occupies. Then multiply the diameter you calculated in micrometers by that fraction. For example, if the field of vision’s diameter is 400 μm and the object’s estimated length is about one-tenth of that diameter, multiply the diameter by one-tenth to find the object’s length.

ANDERSON MICROSCOPES QUICK REFERENCE SHEET

EYEPIECE MAGNIFICATION OBJECTIVE MAGNIFICATION TOTAL MAGNIFICATION FIELD OF VIEW10 4 Measured

10 10 Calculated

10 40 Calculated

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Lab DrawingsDrawing Materials. All drawings should be done with a sharp pencil line on white, unlined paper. Diagrams in pen are unacceptable because they cannot be corrected. Lines are clear and not smudged. There are almost no erasures or stray marks on the paper. Color can be used carefully to enhance the drawing. Stippling is used instead of shading.

Positioning. Center your drawing on the page. Do not draw in a corner. This will leave plenty of room for the addition of labels.

Size. Make a large, clear drawing; it should occupy at least half a page.

Labels. Use a ruler to draw straight, horizontal lines to the right of the side of the drawing. The labels should form a vertical list. All labels should be printed (not cursive).

Accuracy. Look carefully at the specimen before you start and try to get the proportions right. Draw what you see; as you see it, not what you imagine should be there. Avoid making “idealized” drawings. You are not necessarily drawing everything that is seen in the field of view. Draw only what is asked for. Show only as much as necessary for an understanding of the structure – a small section shown in detail will often suffice. It is time consuming and unnecessary, for example, to reproduce accurately the entire contents of a microscopic field.

Do not copy textbook drawings. They are often diagrams! A drawing is different from a diagram. Whilst a drawing is an accurate record of your observations of a particular biological specimen, showing only the features that can be seen clearly, a diagram is a more stylized representation of a structure. In a diagram, it is customary to include all the essential features known to be associated with the specimen, whether visible or not.

Technique. Keep looking back at your specimen whilst you are drawing. If using a microscope, while you are observing increase the magnification to observe more details and reduce the magnification to get a more general view. Use the focusing controls on the microscope to observe at different depths of the specimen. Move the specimen around; do not just concentrate on one part. Observe the general appearance first.

When drawing low power plans do not draw individual cells. Show only the distribution of tissues.

When making high power drawings, draw only a few representative cells; indicate thickness of walls, membranes, etc.

Title. The title should state what has been drawn and what lens power it was drawn under (for example, phrased as: drawn as seen through 400X magnification). Title is informative, centered, and larger than other text. The title should always include the scientific name (which is italicized or und e rlin e d ).

Scale. Include a linear magnification that indicates how many times larger the drawing is compared to life size and a scale line that indicates relative size. To determine magnification compared to life size, use the equation:

Measurement of the scale line you drew with a ruler.

The estimated size of the object being drawn as determined by figuring how much of the field of view it fills.

Actual size of line / size the line represents = magnification

Be sure these numbers are in the same unit of measurement. If not, convert first before calculating linear magnification!

Since you are calculating magnification from an estimate, you must round y our a n swe r to one s i gni f ication d ig i t .

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1,000 times life

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ImageJ Introduction Activity Name:

Basic Instructions…

1. Click on the imageJ icon on your desktop2. Find your file and open it (the file needs to be saved somewhere)3. Select the straight line tool and drag across your field or view (or ruler)4. Under “analayze” set scale5. Pixels are already there, enter your known distance.6. Trace or outline your image/object to be measured7. Go to “analyze” and measure8. You can set the measurements to be taken in “analyze” and set measurements

Practice:

Determine the percent change in volume of the onion cells placed in a hypertonic solution. Show all work.

shared folderà oleniczak à image 1

field of view is 0.45mm

Determine the surface area of the leaf in image 3 (shared drive)

How else could we use imageJ in biology? Come up with at least 2 ideas

Graphing

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Pie Charts Designed to show a percent of a whole, where the whole equals 100%. Pie charts are used to compare data, but cannot be used to see how a manipulated variable affects a responding variable. Pie charts do not show change with respect to another variable, such as time.

Bar Graphs Designed to make comparisons of data. The data represented in bar graphs are not necessarily dependent on any other variables and the groupings are usually qualitative (i.e. grouped into categories, like blood types or color). The bars do NOT touch.

Histogram Histograms are similar to bar graphs except the data represented in histogram is usually in groups of continuous numerical (quantitative) data. In this case, the bars do touch.

Line Graphs A line graph consists of a series of points plotted on the grid and then connected together by a line or a curve. Line graphs are only used when both variables are quantitative. Line graphs show trends, such as how things change over time. They are the best type of graphs to use to show how one factor affects another factor. They are typically used to express the relationship between responding and manipulated variables. For example, a line graph would be used to show a baby’s increase in mass (responding variable) over time (manipulated variable) or how the chances of birth defects decrease (responding variable) with an increase in a mother’s folic acid intake (manipulated variable).

Scatter Plot The points are plotted on the grid, but they are usually not joined with a line or a curve. Line graphs are only used when both variables are quantitative. These graphs are useful for showing if a relationship exists between two variables, especially when it is not possible to alter either of the variables (i.e. in descriptive studies).

How do I know which type of graph to use? Follow this key…1. Is the data a percent that sums to 100%?

a. If yes………………………………………………………………………………….. Pie chart b. If no…………………………………………………………………………………… Go to #2

2. Are both your manipulated and responding variables quantitative?a. If no………………………………………………………………………………….. Bar graphb. If yes …………………………………………………………………………………. Go to #3

3. Are your manipulated variable levels continuous or clumped into groups?a. Continuous…………………………………………………………………………. Scatter plot/lineb. Clumped ……………………………………………………………………………. Histogram

Formatting a Graph

Graphing in Excel 2007,20101. Open Excel and enter your data in columns. You can label the columns if you prefer.2. To calculate mean:

a. Click on the box in which you want the mean to be placedb. Click the formulas tab at the top of the screenc. Select the “insert function button”

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d. A new box pops up. Search to find the AVERAGE option, click OK

e. Highlight the data of which you want the average to be calculated, click OK

3. To calculate standard deviationa. Click on the box in which you want the SD to be placedb. Click the formulas tab at the top of the screenc. Select the “insert function button”d. Search to find the STDEV option, click OKe. Highlight the data of which you want the SD to be

calculated, click OK.NOTE: be sure not to select the mean as one of your data points for calculating standard deviation. This is a common mistake.

4. To select the correct number of digits for your answer (remember, you want correct precision)a. Select the top box between row 1 and column A. This should highlight your entire spreadsheet.

b. Click the HOME tab along the topc. Select format cells and then format cells again.d. Select number, and indicate the number of decimal places

you want included. Hit OK.

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5. To grapha. Along the top, select INSERTb. Highlight the column headings (i.e. boy/girl), hold down the CTRL key

and highlight the meansc. Select the type of graph you wantd. When you click on the graph, a new set of tools opens up, called CHART

TOOLS. From this you can change the chart layout (do this to add a title) or bar colors.

f. Within your graph, click on and delete the key that says “series 1”g. To add axis labs, select the LAYOUT tab under CHART TOOLS and choose the “axis titles” option.

6. To add SD error barsa. Click anywhere on the graph to open the chart toolsb. Click the layout tabc. Select error bars and then more error bar options.

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d. Select custom and specify value e. A little box comes up that looks like:

f. Delete what is in each boxg. For EACH box (positive and negative) highlight the boxes that include the standard deviations. Highlight them all

at once.h. Hit ok.

Statistics: Percentage ChangeA percentage change is a way to express a change in a variable. It represents the relative change between an old value and an new one.

V1 = the old value, the original value V2 = the new value

Statistics: Mean The sum of all the data points divided by the number of data points.

Measure of central tendency for normally distributed data. DO NOT calculate a mean from values that are already averages. DO NOT calculate a mean when the measurement scale is not linear (i.e. pH units are not measured on a linear scale).

MEN WOMEN0.90 1.50

2.00 3.00

1.40 3.00

2.00 2.50

3.00 3.00

2.00 3.00

3.00 4.00

4.00 3.00

3.70 2.00

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Statistics: Standard DeviationAverages do not tell us everything about a sample. Samples can be very uniform with the data all bunched around the mean or they can be spread out a long way from the mean. The statistic that measures this spread is called the standard deviation. The wider thespread of scores, the larger the standard deviation. For data that has a normal distribution, 68% of the data lies within one standard deviation of the mean.

HOW TO CALCULATE STANDARD DEVIATION:Calculate the standard deviation by subtracting the mean of a distribution from the value of each individual variable in the distribution, squaring each resulting difference, summing these squared differences, then dividing this sum by the number of variables, and finally taking the square root of this quotient.

1. Calculate the mean (M) of a set of dataMEN WOMEN

2. Subtract the mean from each point of data to determine (X-M)MEN WOMEN

3. Square each of the resulting numbers to determine (X-M)2

MEN WOMEN

A

1 Number of Pennies

2 134

3 130

4 136

5 132

6 131

7 137

8 131

9 135

10 130

11 129

12 132.5

13 2.798809

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4. Add the values from the previous step together to get ∑(X-M)2

MEN WOMEN

5. Calculate (n-1) by subtracting 1 from your sample size. Your sample size is the total number of data points you collected.MEN WOMEN

6. Divide the answer from ∑(X-M)2 by the answer from (n-1) to find ∑(X-M)2

n-1MEN WOMEN

7. Calculate the square root of your previous answer to determine the standard deviation

MEN WOMEN

SO WHAT?On a graph…

If SD error bars overlap…

If SD error bars do not overlap …

Using EXCEL to calculate the mean and the standard deviationType the values you are trying to find the mean for in a column. You can label the column, but you

don’t have to.

Determine which box you want the me an to appear in. In the example, I want the mean to appear in box A12. In that box, type: =AVERAGE(A2:A11) and then hit enter. Basically you are telling Excel to average boxes A2 through A11.

Determine which box you want the s tandard d e v iation to appear in. In the example, I want the standard deviation to appear in box A13. In that box, type: =STDEV(A2:A11) and then hit enter. You are giving Excel the box labels for the data for which you want to find the standard deviation.

Once you have the mean and standard deviation, you need to make sure that you set the values to the correct number of digits. EXCEL will default to giving you too many numbers after the decimal place. Your mean and standard deviation must have the same precision (number of digits after the decimal) as your data points. In the example to the right, since the raw data is a whole number, the mean and standard deviation must also be whole numbers. The mean would round to 133 and the standard deviation to +/- 3.

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Using TI-83/84 to calculate the mean and the standard deviationFirst you have to enter the data. Hit the STAT button and you will see the options EDIT, CALC and TESTS atop the screen. Use the left and right arrows (if necessary) to move the cursor to EDIT, then select 1: Edit...

Now you will see a table with the headings L1 and L2. Enter the values under L1 (if you want to clear pre-existing data first, move the cursor to the top of the column, hit CLEAR and then ENTER.)Once all the data is entered, go back to the STAT menu, but this time move the cursor to CALC instead of EDIT.

Once you're in the CALC menu, select 1-Var Stats, then hit ENTER. The calculator will display the x-mean, some other stuff, and then the standard deviation (sx). Note that sx is what we want! This is followed by something called sigma x (which is what you would get as standard deviation if you had used n instead of n-1), and finally the sample size.

Using TI-30xs to calculate the mean and the standard deviationExample: Enter the following x variables, and determine the sample and population standard deviations. x = {1,2,3}Press [DATA] and begin to enter the data as indicated into the L1, L2 or L3 lists. To input a data point, type the value and press [ENTER]. Press the down arrow key to move on to the next data point. Press [2nd], [STAT], and then choose 1-VAR. For the "DATA" option, choose the list name the data is stored in (L1, L2 or L3). For the "FRQ" option, choose "ONE" since this data does not include a frequency list. Arrow down to "CALC" and press [ENTER].Answers should be as follows:1: n= 9 (sample size)2: x= (mean)3:Sx (Sample Standard Deviation) x (Population Standard Deviation)

Press [2nd] [MODE] to exit STAT mode

Statistics: The Independent T-test

The Student’s t-test is a statistical test that compares the and of two samples to see if there is a between them. In an experiment, a t-test might be used to calculate whether or not differences seen between the control and each experimental group are a factor of the manipulated variable or simply the result of chance.

( x1 – x2 )t =

2 2

Where:x1 is the mean of sample 1s1 is the standard deviation of sample 1n1 is the sample size of sample 1x2 is the mean of sample 2

(s1)n1

+(s2)n2

s2 is the standard deviation of sample 2 n2 is the sample size in sample 2

There are two hypothesis related to a T-test:

NULL HYPOTHESIS ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

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Students in Room 1 Students in Room 2

Student Height (cm)

145 140 138 142 154 148 153 157 161 162

154 158 160 166 166 162 163 167 172 172

HOW TO CALCULATE T:1. Calculate the mean (X) of a each sample

Room 1: Room 2:

2. Find the absolute value of the difference between the means

3. Work out the standard deviation for each sample (use a calculator…)

Room 1: Room 2:

4. Square the standard deviation for each group

5. Divide each squared standard deviations by the sample size of that group.

6. Add these two values

7. Take the square root of the number

8. Divide the difference in the means (step 2) by the standard error of the difference (step 7)

9. Determine the degrees of freedom (df) for the test. In the t-test, the degrees of freedom is the sum of the sample sizes of both groups minus 2.

10. Given the df, look up the critical t-value in a standard table of significance

11. Check your answers on-line using the t-test calculator posted at http://www.graphpad.com/quickcalcs/ttest1.cfm

Use the 95% (p=0.05)confidence limit

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SO WHAT?

If your calculated t value is than the number in the

table, you conclude that the difference between the means

for the two groups is

different. Meaning:

If your calculated t value is than the number in the

table, you conclude that the difference between the means

for the two groups is different.

Meaning:

Do not worry if you do not understand how or why the test works ….Follow the instructions CAREFULLY

T Test Critical Values

4

Performing a T-test with the TI-83/84

1. Hit the STAT button on the calculator2. Select option 4 to clear any past lists of data.3. Select option 1 to EDIT your lists.4. Enter your data for each group as List 1 and List 25. Hit STAT button and use the arrow key to move over to the TESTS option6. Scroll down to option 4, the 2-sample T test and hit ENTER7. Scroll to the bottom of the screen and hit ENTER over the CALCULATE option8. Your results are given.

T = calculated T valuedf = Degrees of Freedom X1 = mean of list 1X2 = mean of list 2Sx1 = standard deviation of list 1 Sx2 = standard deviation of list 2

Statistics: ANOVA (analysis of variance)The ANOVA test is a statistical test that can be done in place of multiple T-tests when comparing the means of more thantwo groups at a time. The t-test tells us if the variation between two groups is "significant". If you have 5 levels of a manipulated variable in an experiment, you would need to compare the mean of EACH LEVEL OF THE MV to the mean of EACH OTHER LEVEL OF THE MV. That’s 10 T-tests!

Multiple t-tests are not the answer because as the number of groups grows, the number of needed pair comparisons grows quickly. If we did 10 t-tests, we should not be surprised to observe things that happen only 5% of the time. The ANOVA statistic prevents up from having to do multiple t-tests puts all the data into one number.

NULL HYPOTHESIS: no significant difference exists between more than two means; no single level of the MV leads to a result different than the other levels of the MV.

ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS: a significant difference exists between means; at least one level of the MV leads to a result different than the other levels of the MV.

The math required of the ANOVA test is beyond the scope of this class. There are excellent on-line ANOVA calculators that will do the math and draw a conclusion for you. The TI 83/84 calculators can also calculate the ANOVA statistic.

Performing an ANOVA test with the TI-83/841. Hit the STAT button on the calculator2. Select option 4 to clear any past lists of data.3. Select option 1 to EDIT your lists.4. Enter your data for each group as Lists.

The data for each level of the MV should be placed in its own list.5. Hit STAT button and use the arrow key to move over to the TESTS option6. Scroll down to option H, the ANOVA and hit ENTER 7.Enter the lists you want to include in the ANOVA8. Your results are given.

The ANOVA test will result in a “p-value.” If the p-value you get is less than 0.05, we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there is a significant difference between the means being compared. Likewise, if the p-value you get is more than 0.05, you would accept the nullhypothesis and conclude that there is no significance difference between the means.

0

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Statistics: CorrelationsOne of the most common errors we find in the press is the confusion between correlation and causation in scientific and health- related studies. In theory, these are easy to distinguish — an action or occurrence can cause another (such as smoking causes lung cancer), or it can correlate with another (such as smoking is correlated with alcoholism). If one action causes another, then they are most certainly correlated. But just because two things occur together does not mean that one caused the other, even if it seems to make sense.

One way to get a general idea about whether or not two variables are related is to plot them on a “scatterplot”. If the dots on the scatterplot tend to go from the lower left to the upper right it means that as one variable goes up the other variable tends to go up also. This is a called a “direct (or positive) relationship.” On the other hand, if the dots on the scatterplot tend to go from the upper left corner to the lower right corner of the scatterplot, it means that as values on one variable go up values on the other variable go down. This is called an “indirect (or negative) relationship.”

42

Example 1: “girls who watch soap operas are more likely to have eating disorders”

Is there a direct or indirect correlation?

Is it fair to conclude there is a causal relationship?

Example 2: “as ice cream sales increase, the rate of drowning deaths increases sharply.”

Is there a direct or indirect correlation?

Is it fair to conclude there is a causal relationship?

Example 3: “people who have more years of education tend to have fewer years in jail”

Is there a direct or indirect correlation?

Is it fair to conclude there is a causal relationship?

How can one best determine if there is a causal relationship between two variables?

The most effective way of doing this is through a controlled study. In a controlled study, two groups of people who are comparable in almost every way are given two different sets of experiences (such one group watching soap operas and the other game shows), and the outcome is compared. If the two groups have substantially different outcomes, then the different experiences may have caused the different outcome.

Statistics: Correlation Coefficient (r)A really smart guy named Karl Pearson figured out how to calculate a summary number that allows you to answer the question“How strong is the relationship of a correlation?” In honor of his genius, the statistic was named after him. It is called Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient (r).

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Step 1: calculate and fill in the X2 and Y2 values

Step 2: multiply each X score by its paired Y score which will give you the cross-products of X and Y.

Step 3: fill in the last row of the table which contains all of you “Sum Of” statements. In other words, just add up all of the X scores to get the ΣX, all of the X2 scores to get the Σ X2 and etc.

Step 4: Enter the numbers you have calculated in the spaces where they should go in the formula.

44

Step 5: Multiply the (ΣX)( ΣY) in the numerator (the top part of the formula) and do the squaring to (ΣX)2 and (ΣY)2

in the denominator (the bottom part of the formula).

Step 6: Do the division by n parts in the formula.

Step 7: Do the subtraction parts of the formula

.

Step 8: Multiply the numbers in the denominator.

Step 9: Take the square root of the denominator.

Step 10: Take the last step and divide the numerator by the denominator and you will get the Correlation Coefficient!

What Good Is A Correlation Coefficient?As can see above, we just did a whole lot of calculating just to end up with a single number. How ridiculous is that? Seems kind of like a waste of time, huh? Well, guess again! It is actually very cool! (“Yeah, right!” you say, but let me explain.)

Important Things Correlation Coefficients Tell You1. They Tell You The Direction Of A Relationship: If your correlation coefficient is a negative number you can tell, just by

looking at it, that there is an indirect, negative relationship between the two variables. As you may recall, a negative relationship means that as values on one variable increase (go up) the values on the other variable tend to decrease (go down) in a predictable manner. If your correlation coefficient is a positive number, then you know that you have a direct, positive relationship. This means that as one variable increases (or decreases) the values of the other variable tend to go in the same direction. If one increases, so does the other. If one decreases, so does the other in a predictable manner.

45

2. Correlation Coefficients Always Fall Between -1.00 and +1.00:a. A correlation coefficient of -1.00 tells you that there is a perfect negative relationship between the two variables.

This means that as values on one variable increase there is a perfectly predictable decrease in values on the othervariable. In other words, as one variable goes up, the other goes in the opposite direction (it goes down).

b. A correlation coefficient of +1.00 tells you that there is a perfect positive relationship between the two variables.This means that as values on one variable increase there is a perfectly predictable increase in values on the other variable. In other words, as one variable goes up so does the other.

c. A correlation coefficient of 0.00 tells you that there is a zero correlation, or no relationship, between the two variables. In other words, as one variable changes (goes up or down) you can’t really say anything about what happens to the other variable.

3. Larger Correlation Coefficients Mean Stronger Relationshipsa. Most correlation coefficients (assuming there really is a relationship between the two variables you are

examining) tend to be somewhat lower than plus or minus 1.00 (meaning that they are not perfect relationships) but are somewhat above 0.00. Remember that a correlation coefficient of 0.00 means that there is no relationship between your two variables based on the data you are looking at.

b. The closer a correlation coefficient is to 0.00, the weaker the relationship is and the less able you are to tell exactly what happens to one variable based on knowledge of the other variable. The closer a correlation coefficient approaches plus or minus 1.00 the stronger the relationship is and the more accurately you are able to predict what happens to one variable based on the knowledge you have of the other variable.

Making Statistical Inferences from Pearson’s r.How do you determine whether or not your correlation is simply a chance occurrence or if it really is true of the population? You will need three things in order to determine whether you can infer that the relationship you found in your sample also is true (in other words, “is generalizable” in the larger population:

1. The Correlation Coefficient that you calculated2. Something called the “degrees of freedom” which is simply the number of pairs of data in your sample minus 2.

DF =

3. A table of “Critical Values” of the correlation coefficient.

Pearson’s R Critical ValuesJust like the T-test,

we’ll always use the

0.05 level of

significance

The first thing you need to do is look down the degrees of freedom column until you see the row with the number of degrees of freedom that matches your sample degrees of freedom. Look across to the number listed under .05. This number is called “the critical value of r”.

Critical r =46

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SO WHAT?

If your calculated r value is

the number in the table, you conclude that the correlation isIf your calculated r value is than the

number in the table, you conclude that the correlation is

Just to make sure that you are getting the idea here, try a few examples.

Performing an Correlation Coefficient test with the TI-83/84

1. Hit the STAT button on the calculator2. Select option 4 to clear any past lists of data.3. Select option 1 to EDIT your lists.4. Enter your data for each variable as Lists.5. Hit STAT button and use the arrow key to move over to the

CALC option6. Scroll down to option 4, the LInReg (ax+b), press 4 and hit

ENTER7. Press VARS. Scroll down to 5: STATISTICS and press 5 and hit

ENTER.8. Scroll over to EQ. Then, scroll down to 7:r and press 7. ENTER

again to get the correlation coefficient.

Yellow

Red

Blue

Brown 13%Yellow 14%Red 13%Blue 24%Orange 20%Green 16%

Chi Square Calculation Table for M&M ColorsM&M Color Observed Values Expected Values (O-E)2 / E

Brown

Orange

Green

Total 100% 100%

48

Statistics: Chi-Square (X2)Have you ever wondered why the package of M&Ms you just bought never seems to have enough of yourfavorite color? Or, why is it that you always seem to get the package of mostly brown M&Ms? Is the number of the different colors of M&Ms in a package really different from one package to the next, or does the Mars Company do something to insure that each package gets the correct number of each color of M&M? I’ll bet like me, you’ve stayed up nights wondering about this! Well, I recently visited the M&M web page (http://www.mms.com/us/) and found that the Mars Company claims that each package of M&Ms they sell should have the following percentages of each color of M&M:

Does the expected percentage of each color of M&M’s in the bag match what we actually observe in a bag? Let’s do a statistical test to find out!!

Chi-square Goodness of Fit is a statistical test commonly used to compare observed data with data we would expect to obtain. Were the deviations (differences between observed and expected) the result of chance, or were they due to other factors?

There are two hypothesis related to a X2-test:

NULL HYPOTHESIS ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

The formula for calculating chi-square is

1. The first step in the calculation of an X2

value is to determine the expected numbers.

2. Then, use the following formula for each observed and expected category:

(O-E)2 / E

3. The results are added together to get a final X2 value.

49

4. The calculated X2 value is than compared to the found in an X2

distribution table. The X2 distribution table represents a theoretical curve of expected results. The expected results are based on _.

Degrees of Freedom = _.

The X2 distribution table is organized by the Level of Significance. The level of significance is the maximum tolerable probability of accepting a false null hypothesis. We always use 0.05. This means that we would accept the null hypothesis if the observed results were within of the expected results.

Number of classes (n) =

df =

5. If our calculated value is _than the .05 level of significance, we can accept our null hypothesis.

If our calculated value is than the .05 level of significance, we can reject our null hypothesis.

The X2 obtained was . The critical value X2 (found in the distribution table) was . The calculated value is than the .05 level of significance, so we can the null hypothesis. In other words, the actual M&M’s in the bag were _ than what we expected to see in the bag.

Performing an Chi-Square test with the TI-83/841. Press [2nd MATRIX]2. Select [EDIT - > 1:A]3. Copy the data by typing in each number and then pressing ENTER4. Now press STAT. Under the TESTS sub-menu, scroll down and select C:X2 TEST. Press ENTER.5. Move the cursor down to DRAW and press ENTER.

The Chi-Square test will result in a “p-value.” If the p-value you get is less than 0.05, we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there is a significant difference between the observed and expected values. Likewise, if the p-value you get is more than 0.05, you would accept the null hypothesis and conclude that there is no significance difference between the observed and expected.

50

Chi Square Critical Values

Just like the T-test, we’ll always use the 0.05 level of significance

51

Command TermsThese action verbs indicated the depth of treatment required for a given syllabus statement. These verbs will be used in examinationquestions and so it is important that you familiarize yourself with the following definitions.

Analyze Interpret data to reach conclusions. Draw Represent by means of pencil lines.

Annotate Add brief notes to a diagram or graph. Estimate Find an approximate value for an unknown quantity.

Apply Use an idea, equation, principle, theory or law in a new situation.

Evaluate Assess the implications and limitations.

Calculate Find a numerical answer showing the relevant stages in the working (unless instructed not to do so).

Explain Give a detailed account of causes, reasons or mechanisms.

Comment Give a judgment based on a given statement or result of a calculation.

Identify Find an answer from a given number of possibilities.

Compare Give an account of similarities and differences between two (or more) items, referring to both of them throughout.

Label Add labels to a diagram.

Construct Represent or develop in graphical form. List Give a sequence of names or other brief answers with no explanation.

Deduce Reach a conclusion from the information given. Measure Find a value for a quantity.

Define Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase or physical quantity.

Outline Give a brief account or summary.

Derive Manipulate a mathematical relationship(s) to give a new equation or relationship.

Predict Give an expected result.

Describe Give a detailed account. Show Give the steps in a calculation or derivation.

Design Produce a plan, simulation or model. Sketch Represent by means of a graph showing a line and labelled but unscaled axes but with important features (for example, intercept) clearly indicated.

Determine Find the only possible answer. Solve Obtain an answer using algebraic and/or numerical methods.

Discuss Give an account including, where possible, a range of arguments for and against the relative importance of various factors, or comparisons of alternative hypotheses.

State Give a specific name, value or other brief answer without explanation or calculation.

Distinguish Give the differences between two or more different items.

Suggest Propose a hypothesis or other possible answer

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IB BIOLOGY SYLLABUSThe IB Biology syllabus is a list of all the content that the IB Organization mandates are taught throughout the two years of the IB Biology higher level course. While we will not necessarily progress through the syllabus statements in order, they are presented in order to you here:

CORE:Topic 1: Statistical analysis Topic 2: CellsTopic 3: The chemistry of life Topic 4: GeneticsTopic 5: Ecology and evolutionTopic 6: Human health and physiology

ADDITIONAL HIGHER LEVEL:Topic 7: Nucleic acids and proteinsTopic 8: Cell respiration and photosynthesis Topic 9: Plant scienceTopic 10: GeneticsTopic 11: Human health and physiology

OPTIONS: schools can pick which two options topics to cover. We will complete the Evolution (D) and Ecology and Conservation (G) options. These topics are not optional.

Option A: SL only, not for HL biology Option B: SL only, not for HL biology Option C: SL only, not for HL biology Option D: EvolutionOption E: Neurobiology and behaviorOption F: Microbes and biotechnology Option G: Ecology and conservation Option H: Further human physiology

Tracking Your Progress through the Syllabus As you cover an assessment statement in class or as part of an assignment, tick the ‘done in class’ box. Once you have reviewed the work, put a tick under ‘reviewed at home’ If you are 100% sure that you could walk into the exam and answer a question on that statement, stick a smiley face

under ‘I’m confident.’ It’s a simple, visual way to track your progress, but it just might work for you! Have a go…

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Topic 1: Statistical analysisDone In

ClassReviewed at

HomeI’m

Confident!Syllabus Statement

1.1.1 State that error bars are a graphical representation of the variability of data.

1.1.2 Calculate the mean and standard deviation of a set of values.

1.1.3 State that the term standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of values around the mean, and that 68% of the values fall within one standard deviation of the mean.

1.1.4 Explain how the standard deviation is useful for comparing the means and the spread of data between two or more samples.

1.1.5 Deduce the significance of the difference between two sets of data using calculated values for t and the appropriate tables.

1.1.6 Explain that the existence of a correlation does not establish that there is a causal relationship between two variables.

Topic 2: Cells2.1 Cell theory

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

2.1.1 Outline the cell theory.

2.1.2 Discuss the evidence for the cell theory.

2.1.3 State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life.

2.1.4 Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness, viruses, bacteria, organelles and cells, using the appropriate SI unit.

2.1.5 Calculate the linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of specimens in images of known magnification.

2.1.6 Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size.

2.1.7 State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties.

2.1.8 Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialized functions by expressing some of their genes but not others.

2.1.9 State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different pathways.

2.1.10 Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells.

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2.2 Prokaryotic cellsDone In

ClassReviewed at

HomeI’m

Confident!Syllabus Statement

2.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli (E. coli) as an example of a prokaryote.

2.2.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.2.1 with the functions of each named structure.

2.2.3 Identify structures from 2.2.1 in electron micrographs of E. coli.

2.2.4 State that prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission.

2.3 Eukaryotic cells

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

2.3.1 Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an example of an animal cell.

2.3.2 Annotate the diagram from 2.3.1 with the functions of each named structure.

2.3.3 Identify structures from 2.3.1 in electron micrographs of liver cells.

2.3.4 Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

2.3.5 State three differences between plant and animal cells.

2.3.6 Outline two roles of extracellular components.

2.4 Membranes

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

2.4.1 Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of membranes.

2.4.2 Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell membranes.

2.4.3 List the functions of membrane proteins.

2.4.4 Define diffusion and osmosis.

2.4.5 Explain passive transport across membranes by simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.

2.4.6 Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP in active transport across membranes.

2.4.7 Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane.

2.4.8 Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and re- form during endocytosis and exocytosis.

55

2.5 Cell divisionDone In

ClassReviewed at

HomeI’m

Confident!Syllabus Statement

2.5.1 Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis and cytokinesis.

2.5.2 State that tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any organ or tissue.

2.5.3 State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts.

2.5.4 Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase).

2.5.5 Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei.

2.5.6 State that growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis.

Topic 3: The chemistry of life3.1 Chemical elements and water

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

3.1.1 State that the most frequently occurring chemical elements in living things are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

3.1.2 State that a variety of other elements are needed by living organisms, including sulfur, calcium, phosphorus, iron and sodium.

3.1.3 State one role for each of the elements mentioned in 3.1.2.

3.1.4 Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of water molecules to show their polarity and hydrogen bond formation.

3.1.5 Outline the thermal, cohesive and solvent properties of water.

3.1.6 Explain the relationship between the properties of water and its uses in living organisms as a coolant, medium for metabolic reactions and transport medium.

3.2 Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

3.2.1 Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds.

3.2.2 Identify amino acids, glucose, ribose and fatty acids from diagrams showing their structure.

3.2.3 List three examples each of monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.

3.2.4 State one function of glucose, lactose and glycogen in animals, and of fructose, sucrose and cellulose in plants.

56

3.2.5 Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationships between

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides; between fatty acids, glycerol and triglycerides; and between amino acids and polypeptides.

3.2.6 State three functions of lipids.

3.2.7 Compare the use of carbohydrates and lipids in energy storage.

3.2 DNA structure

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

3.3.1 Outline DNA nucleotide structure in terms of sugar (deoxyribose), base and phosphate.

3.3.2 State the names of the four bases in DNA.

3.3.3 Outline how DNA nucleotides are linked together by covalent bonds into a single strand.

3.3.4 Explain how a DNA double helix is formed using complementary base pairing and hydrogen bonds.

3.3.5 Draw and label a simple diagram of the molecular structure of DNA.

3.4 DNA replication

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

3.4.1 Explain DNA replication in terms of unwinding the double helix and separation of the strands by helicase, followed by formation of the new complementary strands by DNA polymerase.

3.4.2 Explain the significance of complementary base pairing in the conservation of the base sequence of DNA.

3.4.3 State that DNA replication is semi-conservative.

3.5 Transcription and translation

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

3.5.1 Compare the structure of RNA and DNA.

3.5.2 Outline DNA transcription in terms of the formation of an RNA strand complementary to the DNA strand by RNA polymerase.

3.5.3 Describe the genetic code in terms of codons composed of triplets of bases.

3.5.4 Explain the process of translation, leading to polypeptide formation.

3.5.5 Discuss the relationship between one gene and one polypeptide.

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3.6 Enzymes

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

3.6.1 Define enzyme and active site.

3.6.2 Explain enzyme–substrate specificity.

3.6.3 Explain the effects of temperature, pH and substrate concentration on enzyme activity.

3.6.4 Define denaturation.

3.6.5 Explain the use of lactase in the production of lactose-free milk.

3.7 Cell respiration

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

3.7.1 Define cell respiration.

3.7.2 State that, in cell respiration, glucose in the cytoplasm is broken down by glycolysis into pyruvate, with a small yield of ATP.

3.7.3 Explain that, during anaerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be converted in the cytoplasm into lactate, or ethanol and carbon dioxide, with no further yield of ATP.

3.7.4 Explain that, during aerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be broken down in the mitochondrion into carbon dioxide and water with a large yield of ATP.

3.8 Photosynthesis

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

3.8.1 State that photosynthesis involves the conversion of light energy into chemical energy.

3.8.2 State that light from the Sun is composed of a range of wavelengths (colours).

3.8.3 State that chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment.

3.8.4 Outline the differences in absorption of red, blue and green light by chlorophyll.

3.8.5 State that light energy is used to produce ATP, and to split water molecules (photolysis) to form oxygen and hydrogen.

3.8.6 State that ATP and hydrogen (derived from the photolysis of water) are used to fix carbon dioxide to make organic molecules.

3.8.7 Explain that the rate of photosynthesis can be measured directly by the production of oxygen or the uptake of carbon dioxide, or indirectly by an increase in biomass.

3.8.8 Outline the effects of temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis.

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Topic 4: Genetics4.1 Chromosomes, genes, alleles and mutations

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4.1.1 State that eukaryote chromosomes are made of DNA and proteins.

4.1.2 Define gene, allele and genome.

4.1.3 Define gene mutation.

4.1.4 Explain the consequence of a base substitution mutation in relation to the processes of transcription and translation, using the example of sickle-cell anemia.

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4.2.1 State that meiosis is a reduction division of a diploid nucleus to form haploid nuclei.

4.2.2 Define homologous chromosomes.

4.2.3 Outline the process of meiosis, including pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over, followed by two divisions, which results in four haploid cells.

4.2.4 Explain that non-disjunction can lead to changes in chromosome number, illustrated by reference to Down syndrome (trisomy 21).

4.2.5 State that, in karyotyping, chromosomes are arranged in pairs according to their size and structure.

4.2.6 State that karyotyping is performed using cells collected by chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis, for pre-natal diagnosis of chromosome abnormalities.

4.2.7 Analyse a human karyotype to determine gender and whether non-disjunction has occurred.

4.3 Theoretical genetics

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4.3.1 Define genotype, phenotype, dominant allele, recessive allele, codominant alleles, locus, homozygous, heterozygous, carrier and test cross.

4.3.2 Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring of a monohybrid cross using a Punnett grid.

4.3.3 State that some genes have more than two alleles (multiple alleles).

4.3.4 Describe ABO blood groups as an example of codominance and multiple alleles.

4.3.5 Explain how the sex chromosomes control gender by referring to the inheritance of X and Y chromosomes in humans.

4.3.6 State that some genes are present on the X chromosome and absent from the shorter Y chromosome in humans.

4.3.7 Define sex linkage.

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4.3.8 Describe the inheritance of colour blindness and hemophilia as examples of sex linkage.

4.3.9 State that a human female can be homozygous or heterozygous with respect to sex- linked genes.

4.3.10 Explain that female carriers are heterozygous for X-linked recessive alleles.

4.3.11 Predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring of monohybrid crosses involving any of the above patterns of inheritance.

4.3.12 Deduce the genotypes and phenotypes of individuals in pedigree charts.

4.4 Genetic engineering and biotechnology

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4.4.1 Outline the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to copy and amplify minute quantities of DNA.

4.4.2 State that, in gel electrophoresis, fragments of DNA move in an electric field and are separated according to their size.

4.4.3 State that gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profiling.

4.4.4 Describe the application of DNA profiling to determine paternity and also in forensic investigations.

4.4.5 Analyse DNA profiles to draw conclusions about paternity or forensic investigations.

4.4.6 Outline three outcomes of the sequencing of the complete human genome.

4.4.7 State that, when genes are transferred between species, the amino acid sequence of polypeptides translated from them is unchanged because the genetic code is universal.

4.4.8 Outline a basic technique used for gene transfer involving plasmids, a host cell (bacterium, yeast or other cell), restriction enzymes (endonucleases) and DNA ligase.

4.4.9 State two examples of the current uses of genetically modified crops or animals.

4.4.10 Discuss the potential benefits and possible harmful effects of one example of genetic modification.

4.4.11 Define clone.

4.4.12 Outline a technique for cloning using differentiated animal cells.

4.4.13 Discuss the ethical issues of therapeutic cloning in humans.

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Topic 5: Ecology and evolution5.1 Communities and ecosystems

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5.1.1 Define species, habitat, population, community, ecosystem and ecology.

5.1.2 Distinguish between autotroph and heterotroph.

5.1.3 Distinguish between consumers, detritivores and saprotrophs.

5.1.4 Describe what is meant by a food chain, giving three examples, each with at least three linkages (four organisms).

5.1.5 Describe what is meant by a food web.

5.1.6 Define trophic level.

5.1.7 Deduce the trophic level of organisms in a food chain and a food web.

5.1.8 Construct a food web containing up to 10 organisms, using appropriate information.

5.1.9 State that light is the initial energy source for almost all communities.

5.1.10 Explain the energy flow in a food chain.

5.1.11 State that energy transformations are never 100% efficient.

5.1.12 Explain reasons for the shape of pyramids of energy.

5.1.13 Explain that energy enters and leaves ecosystems, but nutrients must be recycled.

5.1.14 State that saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients.

5.2 The greenhouse effect

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5.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the carbon cycle to show the processes involved.

5.2.2 Analyse the changes in concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide using historical records.

5.2.3 Explain the relationship between rises in concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide, methane and oxides of nitrogen and the enhanced greenhouse effect.

5.2.4 Outline the precautionary principle.

5.2.5 Evaluate the precautionary principle as a justification for strong action in response to the threats posed by the enhanced greenhouse effect.

5.2.6 Outline the consequences of a global temperature rise on arctic ecosystems.

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5.3 PopulationsDone In

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5.3.1 Outline how population size is affected by natality, immigration, mortality and emigration.

5.3.2 Draw and label a graph showing a sigmoid (S-shaped) population growth curve.

5.3.3 Explain the reasons for the exponential growth phase, the plateau phase and the transitional phase between these two phases.

5.3.4 List three factors that set limits to population increase.

5.4 Evolution

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5.4.1 Define evolution.

5.4.2 Outline the evidence for evolution provided by the fossil record, selective breeding of domesticated animals and homologous structures.

5.4.3 State that populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support.

5.4.4 Explain that the consequence of the potential overproduction of offspring is a struggle for survival.

5.4.5 State that the members of a species show variation.

5.4.6 Explain how sexual reproduction promotes variation in a species.

5.4.7 Explain how natural selection leads to evolution.

5.4.8 Explain two examples of evolution in response to environmental change; one must be antibiotic resistance in bacteria.

5.5 Classification

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5.5.1 Outline the binomial system of nomenclature.

5.5.2 List seven levels in the hierarchy of taxa—kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species—using an example from two different kingdoms for each level.

5.5.3 Distinguish between the following phyla of plants, using simple external recognition features: bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta.

5.5.4 Distinguish between the following phyla of animals, using simple external recognition features: porifera, cnidaria, platyhelminthes, annelida, mollusca and arthropoda.

5.5.5 Apply and design a key for a group of up to eight organisms.

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Topic 6: Human health and physiology6.1 Digestion

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6.1.1 Explain why digestion of large food molecules is essential.

6.1.2 Explain the need for enzymes in digestion.

6.1.3 State the source, substrate, products and optimum pH conditions for one amylase, one protease and one lipase.

6.1.4 Draw and label a diagram of the digestive system.

6.1.5 Outline the function of the stomach, small intestine and large intestine.

6.1.6 Distinguish between absorption and assimilation.

6.1.7 Explain how the structure of the villus is related to its role in absorption and transport of the products of digestion.

6.2 The transport system

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6.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the heart showing the four chambers, associated blood vessels, valves and the route of blood through the heart.

6.2.2 State that the coronary arteries supply heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients.

6.2.3 Explain the action of the heart in terms of collecting blood, pumping blood, and opening and closing of valves.

6.2.4 Outline the control of the heartbeat in terms of myogenic muscle contraction, the role of the pacemaker, nerves, the medulla of the brain and epinephrine (adrenaline).

6.2.5 Explain the relationship between the structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins.

6.2.6 State that blood is composed of plasma, erythrocytes, leucocytes (phagocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets.

6.2.7 State that the following are transported by the blood: nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, antibodies, urea and heat.

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6.3 Defense against infectious disease

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6.3.1 Define pathogen.

6.3.2 Explain why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not against viruses.

6.3.3 Outline the role of skin and mucous membranes in defence against pathogens.

6.3.4 Outline how phagocytic leucocytes ingest pathogens in the blood and in body tissues.

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6.3.5 Distinguish between antigens and antibodies.

6.3.6 Explain antibody production.

6.3.7 Outline the effects of HIV on the immune system.

6.3.8 Discuss the cause, transmission and social implications of AIDS.

6.4 Gas exchange

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6.4.1 Distinguish between ventilation, gas exchange and cell respiration.

6.4.2 Explain the need for a ventilation system.

6.4.3 Describe the features of alveoli that adapt them to gas exchange.

6.4.4 Draw and label a diagram of the ventilation system, including trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.

6.4.5 Explain the mechanism of ventilation of the lungs in terms of volume and pressure changes caused by the internal and external intercostal muscles, the diaphragm and abdominal muscles.

6.5 Nerves, hormones and homeostasis

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6.5.1 State that the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves, and is composed of cells called neurons that can carry rapid electrical impulses.

6.5.2 Draw and label a diagram of the structure of a motor neuron.

6.5.3 State that nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons, within the CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to effectors by motor neurons.

6.5.4 Define resting potential and action potential (depolarization and repolarization).

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6.5.5 Explain how a nerve impulse passes along a non-myelinated neuron.

6.5.6 Explain the principles of synaptic transmission.

6.5.7 State that the endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones that are transported in the blood.

6.5.8 State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose concentration, body temperature and water balance.

6.5.9 Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables and correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms.

6.5.10 Explain the control of body temperature, including the transfer of heat in blood, and the roles of the hypothalamus, sweat glands, skin arterioles and shivering.

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6.5.11 Explain the control of blood glucose concentration, including the roles of glucagon, insulin and α and β cells in the pancreatic islets.

6.5.12 Distinguish between type I and type II diabetes.

6.6 Reproduction

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6.6.1 Draw and label diagrams of the adult male and female reproductive systems.

6.6.2 Outline the role of hormones in the menstrual cycle, including FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), LH (luteinizing hormone), estrogen and progesterone.

6.6.3 Annotate a graph showing hormone levels in the menstrual cycle, illustrating the relationship between changes in hormone levels and ovulation, menstruation and thickening of the endometrium.

6.6.4 List three roles of testosterone in males.

6.6.5 Outline the process of in vitro fertilization (IVF).

6.6.6 Discuss the ethical issues associated with IVF.

Topic 7: Nucleic acids and Proteins7.1 DNA structure

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7.1.1 Describe the structure of DNA, including the antiparallel strands, 3’–5’ linkages and hydrogen bonding between purines and pyrimidines.

7.1.2 Outline the structure of nucleosomes.

7.1.3 State that nucleosomes help to supercoil chromosomes and help to regulate transcription.

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7.1.4 Distinguish between unique or single-copy genes and highly repetitive sequences in nuclear DNA.

7.1.5 State that eukaryotic genes can contain exons and introns.

7.2 DNA replication

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7.2.1 State that DNA replication occurs in a 5’ 3’ direction.

7.2.2 Explain the process of DNA replication in prokaryotes, including the role of enzymes (helicase, DNA polymerase, RNA primase and DNA ligase), Okazaki fragments and deoxynucleoside triphosphates.

7.2.3 State that DNA replication is initiated at many points in eukaryotic chromosomes.

7.3 Transcription

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7.3.1 State that transcription is carried out in a 5’ 3’ direction.

7.3.2 Distinguish between the sense and antisense strands of DNA.

7.3.3 Explain the process of transcription in prokaryotes, including the role of the promoter region, RNA polymerase, nucleoside triphosphates and the terminator.

7.3.4 State that eukaryotic RNA needs the removal of introns to form mature mRNA.

7.4 Translation

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7.4.1 Explain that each tRNA molecule is recognized by a tRNA-activating enzyme that binds a specific amino acid to the tRNA, using ATP for energy.

7.4.2 Outline the structure of ribosomes, including protein and RNA composition, large and small subunits, three tRNA binding sites and mRNA binding sites.

7.4.3 State that translation consists of initiation, elongation, translocation and termination.

7.4.4 State that translation occurs in a direction.

7.4.5 Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of a peptide bond between two amino acids.

7.4.6 Explain the process of translation, including ribosomes, polysomes, start codons and stop codons.

7.4.7 State that free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use primarily within the cell, and that bound ribosomes synthesize proteins primarily for secretion or for lysosomes.

7.5 Proteins

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7.5.1 Explain the four levels of protein structure, indicating the significance of each level.

7.5.2 Outline the difference between fibrous and globular proteins, with reference to two examples of each protein type.

7.5.3 Explain the significance of polar and non-polar amino acids.

7.5.4 State four functions of proteins, giving a named example of each.

7.6 Enzymes

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7.6.1 State that metabolic pathways consist of chains and cycles of enzyme-catalysed reactions.

7.6.2 Describe the induced-fit model.

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7.6.3 Explain that enzymes lower the activation energy of the chemical reactions that they catalyse.

7.6.4 Explain the difference between competitive and non-competitive inhibition, with reference to one example of each.

7.6.5 Explain the control of metabolic pathways by end-product inhibition, including the role of allosteric sites.

Topic 8: Cell respiration and photosynthesis8.1 Cell respiration

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8.1.1 State that oxidation involves the loss of electrons from an element, whereas reduction involves a gain of electrons; and that oxidation frequently involves gaining oxygen or losing hydrogen, whereas reduction frequently involves losing oxygen or gaining hydrogen.

8.1.2 Outline the process of glycolysis, including phosphorylation, lysis, oxidation and ATP formation.

8.1.3 Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of a mitochondrion as seen in electron micrographs.

8.1.4 Explain aerobic respiration, including the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, the role of NADH + H+, the electron transport chain and the role of oxygen.

8.1.5 Explain oxidative phosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis.

8.1.6 Explain the relationship between the structure of the mitochondrion and its function.

8.2 Photosynthesis

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8.2.1 Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of a chloroplast as seen in electron micrographs.

8.2.2 State that photosynthesis consists of light-dependent and light-independent reactions.

8.2.3 Explain the light-dependent reactions.

8.2.4 Explain photophosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis.

8.2.5 Explain the light-independent reactions.

8.2.6 Explain the relationship between the structure of the chloroplast and its function.

8.2.7 Explain the relationship between the action spectrum and the absorption spectrum of photosynthetic pigments in green plants.

8.2.8 Explain the concept of limiting factors in photosynthesis, with reference to light intensity, temperature and concentration of carbon dioxide.

Topic 9: Plant science9.1 Plant structure and growth

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9.1.1 Draw and label plan diagrams to show the distribution of tissues in the stem and leaf of a dicotyledonous plant.

9.1.2 Outline three differences between the structures of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous plants.

9.1.3 Explain the relationship between the distribution of tissues in the leaf and the functions of these tissues.

9.1.4 Identify modifications of roots, stems and leaves for different functions: bulbs, stem tubers, storage roots and tendrils.

9.1.5 State that dicotyledonous plants have apical and lateral meristems.

9.1.6 Compare growth due to apical and lateral meristems in dicotyledonous plants.

9.1.7 Explain the role of auxin in phototropism as an example of the control of plant growth.

9.2 Transport in angiospermophytes

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9.2.1 Outline how the root system provides a large surface area for mineral ion and water uptake by means of branching and root hairs.

9.2.2 List ways in which mineral ions in the soil move to the root.

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9.2.3 Explain the process of mineral ion absorption from the soil into roots by active transport.

9.2.4 State that terrestrial plants support themselves by means of thickened cellulose, cell turgor and lignified xylem.

9.2.5 Define transpiration.

9.2.6 Explain how water is carried by the transpiration stream, including the structure of xylem vessels, transpiration pull, cohesion, adhesion and evaporation.

9.2.7 State that guard cells can regulate transpiration by opening and closing stomata.

9.2.8 State that the plant hormone abscisic acid causes the closing of stomata.

9.2.9 Explain how the abiotic factors light, temperature, wind and humidity, affect the rate of transpiration in a typical terrestrial plant.

9.2.10 Outline four adaptations of xerophytes that help to reduce transpiration.

9.2.11 Outline the role of phloem in active translocation of sugars (sucrose) and amino acids from source (photosynthetic tissue and storage organs) to sink (fruits, seeds, roots).

9.3 Reproduction in angiospermophytes

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9.3.1 Draw and label a diagram showing the structure of a dicotyledonous animal- pollinated flower.

9.3.2 Distinguish between pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal.

9.3.3 Draw and label a diagram showing the external and internal structure of a named dicotyledonous seed.

9.3.4 Explain the conditions needed for the germination of a typical seed.

9.3.5 Outline the metabolic processes during germination of a starchy seed.

9.3.6 Explain how flowering is controlled in long-day and short-day plants, including the role of phytochrome.

Topic 10: Genetics10.1 Meiosis

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10.1.1 Describe the behaviour of the chromosomes in the phases of meiosis.

10.1.2 Outline the formation of chiasmata in the process of crossing over.

10.1.3 Explain how meiosis results in an effectively infinite genetic variety in gametes through crossing over in prophase I and random orientation in metaphase I.

10.1.4 State Mendel’s law of independent assortment.

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10.1.5 Explain the relationship between Mendel’s law of independent assortment and meiosis.

10.2 Dihybrid crosses and gene linkage

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10.2.1 Calculate and predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratio of offspring of dihybrid crosses involving unlinked autosomal genes.

10.2.2 Distinguish between autosomes and sex chromosomes.

10.2.3 Explain how crossing over between non-sister chromatids of a homologous pair in prophase I can result in an exchange of alleles.

10.2.4 Define linkage group.

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10.2.5 Explain an example of a cross between two linked genes.

10.2.6 Identify which of the offspring are recombinants in a dihybrid cross involving linked genes.

10.3 Polygenic inheritance

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10.3.1 Define polygenic inheritance.

10.3.2 Explain that polygenic inheritance can contribute to continuous variation using two examples, one of which must be human skin colour.

Topic 11: Human health and physiology11.1 Defense against infectious disease

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11.1.1 Describe the process of blood clotting.

11.1.2 Outline the principle of challenge and response, clonal selection and memory cells as the basis of immunity.

11.1.3 Define active and passive immunity.

11.1.4 Explain antibody production.

11.1.5 Describe the production of monoclonal antibodies and their use in diagnosis and in treatment.

11.1.6 Explain the principle of vaccination.

11.1.7 Discuss the benefits and dangers of vaccination.

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11.2 Muscles and movement

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11.2.1 State the roles of bones, ligaments, muscles, tendons and nerves in human movement.

11.2.2 Label a diagram of the human elbow joint, including cartilage, synovial fluid, joint capsule, named bones and antagonistic muscles (biceps and triceps).

11.2.3 Outline the functions of the structures in the human elbow joint named in 11.2.2.

11.2.4 Compare the movements of the hip joint and the knee joint.

11.2.5 Describe the structure of striated muscle fibres, including the myofibrils with light and dark bands, mitochondria, the sarcoplasmic reticulum, nuclei and the sarcolemma.

11.2.6 Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of a sarcomere, including Z lines,

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actin filaments, myosin filaments with heads, and the resultant light and dark bands.

11.2.7 Explain how skeletal muscle contracts, including the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the formation of cross-bridges, the sliding of actin and myosin filaments, and the use of ATP to break cross-bridges and re-set myosin heads.

11.2.8 Analyse electron micrographs to find the state of contraction of muscle fibres.

11.3 The kidney

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11.3.1 Define excretion.

11.3.2 Draw and label a diagram of the kidney.

11.3.3 Annotate a diagram of a glomerulus and associated nephron to show the function of each part.

11.3.4 Explain the process of ultrafiltration, including blood pressure, fenestrated blood capillaries and basement membrane.

11.3.5 Define osmoregulation.

11.3.6 Explain the reabsorption of glucose, water and salts in the proximal convoluted tubule, including the roles of microvilli, osmosis and active transport.

11.3.7 Explain the roles of the loop of Henle, medulla, collecting duct and ADH (vasopressin) in maintaining the water balance of the blood.

11.3.8 Explain the differences in the concentration of proteins, glucose and urea between blood plasma, glomerular filtrate and urine.

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11.3.9 Explain the presence of glucose in the urine of untreated diabetic patients.

11.4 Reproduction

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11.4.1 Annotate a light micrograph of testis tissue to show the location and function of interstitial cells (Leydig cells), germinal epithelium cells, developing spermatozoa and Sertoli cells.

11.4.2 Outline the processes involved in spermatogenesis within the testis, including mitosis, cell growth, the two divisions of meiosis and cell differentiation.

11.4.3 State the role of LH, testosterone and FSH in spermatogenesis.

11.4.4 Annotate a diagram of the ovary to show the location and function of germinal epithelium, primary follicles, mature follicle and secondary oocyte.

11.4.5 Outline the processes involved in oogenesis within the ovary, including mitosis, cell growth, the two divisions of meiosis, the unequal division of cytoplasm and the degeneration of polar body.

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11.4.6 Draw and label a diagram of a mature sperm and egg.

11.4.7 Outline the role of the epididymis, seminal vesicle and prostate gland in the production of semen.

11.4.8 Compare the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis, including the number of gametes and the timing of the formation and release of gametes.

11.4.9 Describe the process of fertilization, including the acrosome reaction, penetration of the egg membrane by a sperm and the cortical reaction.

11.4.10 Outline the role of HCG in early pregnancy.

11.4.11 Outline early embryo development up to the implantation of the blastocyst.

11.4.12 Explain how the structure and functions of the placenta, including its hormonal role in secretion of estrogen and progesterone, maintain pregnancy.

11.4.13 State that the fetus is supported and protected by the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid.

11.4.14 State that materials are exchanged between the maternal and fetal blood in the placenta.

11.4.15 Outline the process of birth and its hormonal control, including the changes in progesterone and oxytocin levels and positive feedback.

Option D: EvolutionD1 Origin of life on Earth

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D.1.1 Describe four processes needed for the spontaneous origin of life on Earth.

D.1.2 Outline the experiments of Miller and Urey into the origin of organic compounds.

D.1.3 State that comets may have delivered organic compounds to Earth.

D.1.4 Discuss possible locations where conditions would have allowed the synthesis of organic compounds.

D.1.5 Outline two properties of RNA that would have allowed it to play a role in the origin of life.

D.1.6 State that living cells may have been preceded by protobionts, with an internal chemical environment different from their surroundings.

D.1.7 Outline the contribution of prokaryotes to the creation of an oxygen-rich atmosphere.

D.1.8 Discuss the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of eukaryotes.

D2 Species and speciationDone In

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D.2.1 Define allele frequency and gene pool.

D.2.2 State that evolution involves a change in allele frequency in a population’s gene pool over a number of generations.

D.2.3 Discuss the definition of the term species.

D.2.4 Describe three examples of barriers between gene pools.

D.2.5 Explain how polyploidy can contribute to speciation.

D.2.6 Compare allopatric and sympatric speciation.

D.2.7 Outline the process of adaptive radiation.

D.2.8 Compare convergent and divergent evolution.

D.2.9 Discuss ideas on the pace of evolution, including gradualism and punctuated equilibrium.

D.2.10 Describe one example of transient polymorphism.

D.2.11 Describe sickle-cell anemia as an example of balanced polymorphism.

D3 Human evolution

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D.3.1 Outline the method for dating rocks and fossils using radioisotopes, with reference to 14C and 40K.

D.3.2 Define half-life.

D.3.3 Deduce the approximate age of materials based on a simple decay curve for a radioisotope.

D.3.4 Describe the major anatomical features that define humans as primates.

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D.3.5 Outline the trends illustrated by the fossils of Ardipithecus ramidus, Australopithecus including A. afarensis and A. africanus, and Homo includingH. habilis, H. erectus, H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens.

D.3.6 State that, at various stages in hominid evolution, several species may have coexisted.

D.3.7 Discuss the incompleteness of the fossil record and the resulting uncertainties about human evolution.

D.3.8 Discuss the correlation between the change in diet and increase in brain size during hominid evolution.

D.3.9 Distinguish between genetic and cultural evolution.

D.3.10 Discuss the relative importance of genetic and cultural evolution in the recent evolution of humans.

D4 The Hardy–Weinberg principle

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

D.4.1 Explain how the Hardy–Weinberg equation is derived.

D.4.2 Calculate allele, genotype and phenotype frequencies for two alleles of a gene, using the Hardy–Weinberg equation.

D.4.3 State the assumptions made when the Hardy–Weinberg equation is used.

D5 Phylogeny and systematics

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

D.5.1 Outline the value of classifying organisms.

D.5.2 Explain the biochemical evidence provided by the universality of DNA and protein structures for the common ancestry of living organisms.

D.5.3 Explain how variations in specific molecules can indicate phylogeny.

D.5.4 Discuss how biochemical variations can be used as an evolutionary clock.

D.5.5 Define clade and cladistics.

D.5.6 Distinguish, with examples, between analogous and homologous characteristics.

D.5.7 Outline the methods used to construct cladograms and the conclusions that can be drawn from them.

D.5.8 Construct a simple cladogram.

D.5.9 Analyse cladograms in terms of phylogenetic relationships.

D.5.10 Discuss the relationship between cladograms and the classification of living organisms.

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Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

G.1.1 Outline the factors that affect the distribution of plant species, including temperature, water, light, soil pH, salinity and mineral nutrients.

G.1.2 Explain the factors that affect the distribution of animal species, including temperature, water, breeding sites, food supply and territory.

G.1.3Describe one method of random sampling, based on quadratmethods, that is used to compare the population size of two plant or two animal species.

G.1.4 Outline the use of a transect to correlate the distribution of plant or animal species with an abiotic variable.

G.1.5 Explain what is meant by the niche concept, including an organism’s spatial habitat, its feeding activities and its interactions with other species.

G.1.6 Outline the following interactions between species, giving two examples of each: competition, herbivory, predation, parasitism and mutualism.

G.1.7 Explain the principle of competitive exclusion.

G.1.8 Distinguish between fundamental andrealized niches.

G.1.9 Define biomass.

G.1.10 Describe one method for the measurement of biomass of different trophic levels in an ecosystem.

Done In Class

Reviewed at Home

I’m Confident!Syllabus Statement

G.2.1 Define gross production, net production and biomass.

G.2.2 Calculate values for gross production and net production using the equation: gross production – respiration= net production.

G.2.3 Discuss the difficulties of classifying organisms into trophic levels.

G.2.5 Construct a pyramid of energy, given appropriate information.

G.2.6 Distinguish between primary and secondary succession, using an example of each.

OPTION G: Ecology and Conservation

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G.2.7 Outline the changes in species diversity and production during primary succession.

G.2.8 Explain the effects of living organisms on the abiotic environment, with reference to the changes occurring during primary succession.

G.2.9 Distinguish between biome andbiosphere.

G.2.10

Explain how rainfall and temperature affect the distribution of biomes.

G.3.1 Calculate the Simpson diversity index for two local communities.

G.3.2 Analyse the biodiversity of the two local communities using the Simpson index.

G.3.4 List three examples of the introduction of alien species that have had significant impacts on ecosystems.

G.3.5 Discuss the impacts of alien species on ecosystems.

G.3.6 Outline one example of biological control of invasive species.

G.3.7 Define biomagnification.

G.3.8 Explain the cause and consequences of biomagnification, using a named example.

G.3.9 Outline the effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation on living tissues and biological productivity.

G.3.1 Outline the effect of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on the ozone layer.

G.4.1 Explain the use of biotic indicesand indicator species in monitoring environmental change.

G.4.2 Outline the factors that contributed to the extinction of one named animal species.

G.4.4 Discuss the role of active management techniques in conservation.

G.4.5 Discuss the advantages of in situ conservation of endangered species (terrestrial and aquatic nature reserves).

G.5.1 Distinguish between r-strategies andK-strategies.

G.5.2 Discuss the environmental conditions that favour either r-strategies orK-strategies.

G.5.4 Describe the methods used to estimate the size of commercial fish stocks.

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G.5.5 Outline the concept of maximum sustainable yield in the conservation of fish stocks.

G.5.6 Discuss international measures that would promote the conservation of fish.

The contents of this packet are based on the amazing work of Ms. von Bargen and her website http://www.biologyforlife.com/index.htm

For information on distribution please read http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/