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Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이이이

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Page 1: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia

CGLAB 2006-23190 이현나

Page 2: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

Contents

• Background

Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia

Disturbances in the Internal Representation of Context

Attentional Tasks – the Stroop task, the continuous performance test, etc.

Schizophrenic Language Deficits – a lexical ambiguity task, etc.

Biological Disturbances in Schizophrenia

Prefrontal Cortex and the Internal Representation of Context

Frontal Deficits in Schizophrenia

Dopamine, Prefrontal Cortex, and Schizophrenia

• Connectionist Simulations

The Connectionist Framework

Simulation of the Physiological Effects of Dopamine

A Connectionist Model of Selective Attention (the Stroop Effect)

Simulation of the Continuous Performance Test (CPT)

Simulation of Context-Dependent Lexical Disambiguation

• General Discussion & Conclusion

Page 3: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

Disturbances in the Internal Representation of Context

• Cognitive deficits in schizophrenia

information-processing tasks 에서의 schizophrenic deficits 가 다양하게 다른

processing domains 을 포함하겠지만 그 중 많은 것들이 공통의 기본적 deficit

(internal representation of context 를 construct and maintain 하는 능력의 퇴화 ) 를

반영한다• Internal representation of context

적절한 behavioral response 를 전달하는데 익숙한 형태로 마음에 있는 information으로

short-term memory 에 저장되는 종류의 information 과는 구별된다

task instructions 의 set, 특정한 prior stimulus, 또는 prior stimuli 의 sequence 를

처리한 결과가 될 수 있다

Page 4: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

The Stroop Task (1)

• A selective attention task

• Two subtasks

color naming – 단어의 ink 색을 맞추는 것

word reading – ink 색은 무시하고 단어를 읽는 것

• Three types of stimuli

conflict stimuli – word 와 ink 색이 다른 경우

congruent stimuli – word 와 ink 색이 같은 경우

control stimuli

RED

GREEN

YELLOW

BLUE

PINK

GREEN

YELLOW XXXX

RED XXXX

GREEN XXXXConflict stimuli

Congruent stimuli

Control stimuli

Page 5: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

The Stroop Task (2)

Performance of normal and schizophrenic subjects in three studies using the Stroop task

(a)schizophrenics 은 반응속도의 전반적인 느려짐을 보인다

(b)color naming task 의 interference condition 에서는 불균형적인 느려짐이 나타난다

(a) color naming 보다 word reading 이 빠르다

(b) ink 색은 word reading 의 속도에 영향을 미치지 않는다

(c) word 는 color naming 을 많이 방해한다

=> “the Stroop effect”“the Stroop effect”

Performance in the standard Stroop task

Page 6: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

The Continuous Performance Test

• A signal detection task

• Target event

• CPT-double

target event 가 어떤 stimulus 의 연속적인 재발생으로 구성된다

따라서 current stimulus 가 target 인지 아닌지를 결정하는데 필요한 context 를

previous stimulus 가 제공한다

“detect the letter X aappearing in a sequence of letters”

“respond to X only when it follows A”

Page 7: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

A Lexical Ambiguity Task (1)

• Two clauses

one clause – ambiguous word (strong and weak meanings) 를 포함하는 구절

the other clause – disambiguating context 를 제공하는 구절• Two orders

context first

context last Without a PEN

[clear screen, pause]

You can’t keep chickens

You can’t keep chickens

[clear screen, pause]

Without a PEN

You can’t sign a check

[clear screen, pause]

Without a PENStrong meaning correct, context fisr

Weak meaning correct, context first

Weak meaning correct, context last

Page 8: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

A Lexical Ambiguity Task (2)

Medians for the rates of strong-meaning responses for schizophernics and patient controls when the weak meaning was correct

(a) Ambiguous word 가 weak meaning 으로 쓰인 경우 중에서도 context first 인 때에만 schizophrenics 가 더 많은 error 를 만든다

Page 9: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

Prefrontal Cortex and the Internal Representation of Context

• the A B task

object 를 외관상으로는 동일하게 보이는 두 locations 중 한 곳에 숨긴다

잠시 후 , object 를 retrieve 하도록 한다

– 6 개월 이하의 영아나 prefrontal cortex 에 장애가 있는 원숭이는 object 가 마지막으로

retrieve 된 location 을 반복적으로 retrieve 한다

• the Wisconsin Card Sort Task (WCST)

shape, color, and number 로 다양화되는 특징을 지닌 cards 를 가지고

특정한 룰에 의해서 cards 를 정렬하도록 한다

이 때 , 룰은 명시적으로 알려주지 않고 각 card 에 대한 feedback 만을 제공한다

룰을 알아내면 다른 룰로 바꾼다

– frontal lobe 에 손상을 가진 환자는 어렵지 않게 첫번째 룰을 찾아냄에도 불구하고

새로운 룰로 바꾸는 것을 하지 못한다

• regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)

prefrontal metabolism 과 WCST performance 의 관련성을 보임으로

internal representations of context 을 지지하는 prefrontal cortex 의 역할을 뒷받침하는

증거를 제시하였다

Page 10: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

Dopamine, Prefrontal Cortex, and Schizophrenia

• Dopamine Hypothesis

dopamine 이 prefrontal cortex 의 activity 와 밀접하게 연관되어 있고 mesocortical

dopamine system 에서의 장애가 schizophrenic cognitive deficits 에 관련된다

schizophrenia 에서 central dopamine activity 가 증가하는가 혹은 감소하는가에 대한

논쟁이 있는 반면 , 한 가지 가정은 두 conditions 이 다른 정신병리학적 성향에 관련해

나타난다는 것이다

Page 11: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

Summary

• schizorphrenics 는 internal representations of context 를

construct and maintain 하는 능력이 떨어진다

• prefrontal cortex 는 그런 representations 을 maintain 하는데 중요한 역할을 한다

• 손상되지 않은 mesocortical dopamine system 이

prefrontal cortex 의 정상적인 기능에 필수적이다

• prefrontal cortex 와 mesocortical dopamine system 에서의 장애는

schizophrenia 와 관련된 것으로 나타난다

“ “ How does a disturbance of dopamine activity How does a disturbance of dopamine activity

in prefrontal cortex lead to the pattern of cognitive in prefrontal cortex lead to the pattern of cognitive

deficits observed in schizophrenia? ”deficits observed in schizophrenia? ”

Page 12: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

The Connectionist Framework (1)

Schematic representation of a typical unit in a connectionist system

Page 13: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

The Connectionist Framework (2)

• Processing

the activation of each unit – real valued number (the unit 의 firing 확률 )

the responsivity of each unit – gain parameter (excitatory and inhibitory inputs 의 효과 )

• Training

back propagation algorithm

① network 에 input pattern 을 나타낸다

② activation 이 output level 까지 퍼져나가도록 한다

③ 각각의 output unit 에 대해서 difference (error) 를 구한다

④ error signals 을 input units 방향으로 back propagate 시킨다

Page 14: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

Simulation of the Physiological Effects of Dopamine

• gain 을 변화시키는 것으로 dopamine 의 작용을 simulation

• assumption

neuron 의 input 과 firing rate 사이의 관계는 model 내 한 unit 의

net input 과 activation value 를 연관시키는 nonlinear function 으로 simulate 할 수 있다

The influence of the gain parameter on the logistic activation function of an individual

Page 15: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

A Connectionist Model of the Stroop Task (1)

• Architecture and Processing

two processing pathways – one for color naming and one for word reading

Network architecture

(Units at the bottom are input units, and units at the top are the output units)

Page 16: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

A Connectionist Model of the Stroop Task (2)

• Training

color naming task 보다 word reading task 에 더 많은 experience 를 준다

task demand units – 각 pathway 에 속하는 units 을 중재하고 responsivity 를 조절한다

• Simulation

the context module (task demand) 에서의 gain parameter 의 변화는

schzophrenics 에서 관찰되어지는 것과 같은 현상을 만들어낸다

Stroop task performance for normal and schizophrenic subjects, and results from simulations manipulating the gain parameter (task demand units only) and cascade rate (all units) in the network

Page 17: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

Simulation of the Continuous Performance Test (1)

• CPT-double

• Four modules

an input module – the visual features of individual letters

an intermediate (associative) module

a module for representing the prior stimulus

a response module

Network used to simulate the continuous performance CPT-double

Page 18: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

Simulation of the Continuous Performance Test (2)

• Training

network 은 prior stimulus module 에서 적절한 unit 을 activating 함으로써

주어진 input pattern 의 presentation 을 기록한다

stimulus letter 가 두 개 이상 연속적으로 나타나면

response module 안의 해당 unit 이 activate 되도록 한다• Simulation

normal subjects 의 performance 를 simulation 하기 위해 noise 를 더한다

Percentage of misses and false alarms for normal and schizophrenic subjects in the continuous performance test, and the simulation run with normal and reduced gain on units in the prior stimulus module

Page 19: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

Simulation of Context-Dependent Lexical Disambiguation (1)

• Four modules

an input module – lexical stimuli

an intermediate (associative) module – a semantic module

a discourse module – inputs 의 current sequence 의 topic

a response module – input word 의 meaning

Schematic diagram of the language-processing model

Page 20: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

Simulation of Context-Dependent Lexical Disambiguation (2)

• Training

in the case of ambiguous words – one meaning 에 연관된

the response 와 discourse patterns 을 만들도록 training 된다

in the case of context words – one meaning 뿐만 아니라 연관된 ambiguity 의

corresponding meaning 과 동일한 discourse representation 을 만들도록 training 된다

PEN → “writing implement” and writing

PEN → “fenced enclosure” and farming

CHICKEN → “fowl” and farming

Page 21: Context, Cortex, and Dopamine : A Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia CGLAB 2006-23190 이현 나

Simulation of Context-Dependent Lexical Disambiguation (3)

Percentage of strong-meaning responses when the weak meaning was correct for subjects in the empirical study and for the simulation