critical bikes neg mndi

8/11/2019 Critical Bikes Neg MNDI

1/34

NOTES

This aff is vulnerable to:--Topicality-- the states CP-- the politics DA (Sweet link cards in the MD! politics core"-- and the # included in this file$

Thin%s that this aff has %ood answers to (and thus ! would reco&&end a%ainst you readin%"-- the cap #-- P!C's of the state

1


2/34

2)!C*C+, AD.CAC* #


3/34

BICYCLE ADVOCACY K 1NCThe aff is really not different from the stats !o " r#an $lannin% o$erates #yattem$tin% to rationally or%ani&e s$a'es in order to a'hie(e a desira#le a'tion #ythe $o$lation " the aff)s state ad(o'a'y for 'han%es in trans$ortation #eha(iorsim$ly shifts the %o(ernmentali&in% $o*er of the indi(idal a*ay from the 'arand dis'i$lines $eo$le to instead ride a #i+e " it)s the same strate%y of%o(ernment rationality #t ,st ses a different (ehi'le

C$$les and -idley 2../(/ulie0 assoc prof %eo%raphy 1 2 Canterbury ,lisabeth0 3Towards a hetero%eneousenviron&ental responsibility: sustainability and cyclin% funda&entalis&4 Area ol$ 56 o$ 70 pp$ 7859750.ne way of e;plorin% these urban strate%ies and the ways of thinkin% that are &obilised throu%h the& isthrou%h a %overn&entality fra&ework$ calculatin% preoccupationwith activities directed at shapin%0 channellin% and %uidin% the conduct of others' (?unt and @ickha&BB50 cited in aco and !&rie 76660 7BE see also Dean BBE =oucault BB"$ Strate%ies pro&oted by%overn&ents and lobby %roups to encoura%e cyclin% can be understood in the =oucauldian sense as akind of %o(ernment rationality or %o(ernmentality$ Sustainability officers and cyclin% advocatesbeco&e directly i&plicated in these %overn&ental rationalities0 as throu%h their Fud%e&ental and financialcodes (Miller and ose BB6" they atte&pt to shape0 control and deter&ine the conduct and bodilyco&port&ent of others and should therefore be understood as one of %overn&ent's >&odes ofpluralisation' (


4/34

Socialis&0 for e;a&ple0 cannot be subFect to an analysis of the arts of %overn&ent The answer to both these Juestions0 ! believe0 is

no$ The %eneral ar%u&ent of this essay is that the e;ercise of %overn&ent in all &odern states entails thearticulation of a for& of pastoral power with one of soverei%n power$ +iberalis&0 as we have Fust seen0 &akes thatarticulation in a specific way$ .ther types of rule have a no less distinctive response to the co&bination ofele&ents of a biopolitics concerned with the detailed ad&inistration of life and soverei%n power thatreserves the ri%ht of death to itself$ Consider a%ain the contrastive ter&s in which it is possible to view biopolitics andsoverei%nty$ The final chapter in the first volu&e of the ?istory o Se;uality that contrasts soverei%nty and biopolitics is titled 3i%ht of

Death and Power over +ife$4The initial ter&s of the contrast between the two re%isters of %overn&ent is thusbetween one that could e&ploy power to put subFects to death0 even if this ri%ht to kill was conditioned by

the defense of the soverei%n0 and one that was concerned with the fosterin% of life$ evertheless0 each part ofthe contrast can be further broken down$The ri%ht of death can also be understood as 3the ri%ht to take life or letlive4E the power over life as the power 3to foster life or disallow it$4 Soverei%n power is a power thatdistin%uishes between political life (bios"and &ere e;istence or bare life (Goe"$ )are life is included in theconstitution of soverei%n power by its very e;clusion fro& political life$ !n contrast0 biopolitics &i%ht be thou%ht to include Goe in bios:

stripped down &ere e;istence beco&es a &atter of t icrli$ Thus0 the cont betweenbiopolitics and soverei%nty is not one ofa power of life versus a power of death but concerns the way the different for&s of power treat &atters oflife and death and entail different conceptions of life$ Thus0 biopolitics reinscribes the earlier ri%ht of deathand power over life and places it within a new and different for& that atte&pts to include what had earlierbeen sacred and taboo0 bare life0 in political e;istence$ !t is no lon%er so &uch the ri%ht of the soverei%n toput to death his ene&ies but to dis!alify the lifeNthe &ere e;istenceNof those *ho are a threat tothe life of the $o$lation0 to disallow those dee&ed 3unworthy of life04 those whose bare life is not worthlivin%$ This allows us0 first0 to consider what &i%ht be thou%ht of as the dar+ side of #io$oliti's(=oucault BHBa: INIH"$ !n =oucault's account0biopolitics does not put an end to the practice of war: it provides

it *ith ne* and more so$histi'ated +illin% ma'hines$ These &achines allow killin% itself to be reposedat the level of entire populations$ @ars beco&e %enocidal in the twentieth century$ The sa&e state thattakes on the duty to enhance the life of the population also e;ercises the power of death over wholepopulations$ Atomi' *ea$ons are the +ey *ea$ons of this $ro'ess of the $o*er to $t *hole$o$lations to death@e &i%ht also consider here the aptly na&ed biolo%ical and che&ical weaponsthat seek an e;ter&ination of populations by visitin% pla%ues upon the& or pollutin% the biosphere inwhich they live to the point at which bare life is no lon%er sustainable$ or does the birth of biopolitics putan end to the killin% of one's own populations$ ather0 it intensifies that +illin%3whether by an 3ethniccleansin%4 that visits holocausts upon whole %roups or by the &ass slau%hters of classes and %roupsconducted in the na&e of the utopia to be achieved$There is a certain restraint in soverei%n power$ The ri%ht of death is only occsionally e;ercised as the ri%htto kill and then often in a ritual fashion that su%%ests a relation to the sacred More often0 soverei%n poweris &anifest in the refrainn fro& the ri%ht to kill$ The biopolitical i&perative knows no such restraint$ 4o*er

is e0er'ised at the le(el of $o$lations and hen'e *ars *ill #e *a%ed at that le(el0 on #ehalf ofe(eryone and their li(esThis point brin%s us to the heart of =oucault's provocative thesis aboutbiopolitics: that there is an inti&ate connection between the e;ercise of a life-ad&inisterin% power and theco&&ission of %enocide: 3!f %enocide is indeed the drea& of &odern powers0 this is not because of arecent return of the ancient ri%ht to kill: it is because power is situated and e;ercised at the level of life0the species0 the race0 and the lar%e-scale pheno&ena of population4 (BHBa: IH"$ =oucault co&pletes this sa&epassa%e with an e;pression that deserves &ore notice56massa'res #e'ome (ital7There is thus a kind ofperverse ho&o%eneity between the power over life and the power to take life characteristic of biopower$The e&er%ence of a biopolitical racis& in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries can be approached as atraFectory in which this ho&o%eneity always threatened to tip over into a dreadful necessity$ This racis&can be approached as a fndamental me'hanism of $o*er that is inscribed in the biopolitical do&ain(Stoler BB8: 5N8"$ =or =oucault0 the pri&ary function of this for& of racis& is to establish a divisionbetween those who &ust live and those who &ust die0 and to distin%uish the superior fro& the inferior0 the fit fro& the unfit$ The notion andtechniJues of population had %iven rise0 at the end of t he nineteenth century0 to a new linka%e a&on% population the internal or%aniGation of states0 and the co&petition between

states Darwinis&0 as an i&perial so cial and political pro%ra&0 would plot the rankin% of individuals0 populations0 and nations alon% the co&&on %radient of fitness and thus&easure efflcienJF$ ?owever0 the series 3population0 evolution0 and race4 is not si&ply a way of thinkin% about the superiority of the 3white races4 or of Fustifrin% colonialis&0 but

also of thinkin% about how to treat the de%enerates and the abnor&als in one's own population and prevent the further de%eneration of the race$The second and &ost i&portant function for =oucault of this biopolitical racis& in the nineteenth century isthat 3it establishes a positive relation between the ri%ht to kill and the assurance of life4 (Stoler BB8: 5"$Thelife of the population0 its vi%or0 its health0 its capacities to survive0 beco&es necessarily linked to theeli&ination of internal and e;ternal threats$ This power to disallow life is perhaps best encapsulated in theinFunctions of the eu%enic proFect: identifS' those who are de%enerate0 abnor&al0 feeble-&inded0 or of an inferior race andsubFect the& to forced steriliGationE encoura%e those who are superior0 fit0 and intelli%ent to propa%ate$!dentify those whoselife is but &ere e;istence and disJualify their propa%ationE encoura%e those who can partake of asoverei%n e;istence and of &oral and political life$ )ut this last e;a&ple does not necessarily establish a positive Fustification for the ri%ht to kill0only the ri%ht to disallow life$!f we are to be%in to understand the type of racis& en%a%ed in by aGis&0 however0 we need to take into account another kind of denoue&ent between the biopolitical

8


5/34

&ana%e&ent of population and the e;ercise of soverei%nty$ This version of soverei%nty is no lon%er the t ransfor&ed and de&ocratiGed for& founded on the liberty of the FuridicalsubFect0 as it is for liberalis&0 but a soverei%nty that takes up and transfor&s a further ele&ent of soverei%nty0 its 3sy&bolics of blood4 (=oucault BHBa: 5"$ =or =oucault0

so(erei%nty is %ronded in #loodNas a reality and as a sy&bolNFust as one &i%ht say that se;uality beco&es the keyfield on which biopolitical &ana%e&ent of populations is articulated$@hen power is e;ercised throu%h repression anddeduction0 throu%h a law over which han%s the sword0 when it is e;ercised on the scaffold by the torturerand the e;ecutioner0 and when relations between households and fa&ilies were for%ed throu%h alliance03blood was a reality with a sy&bolic function4)y contrast0 for biopolitics with its the&es of health0 vi%or0 fitness0 vitality0pro%eny0 survival0 and race0 3power spoke ose;uaity and to se;uality4 (=oucault BHBa: 5H"$=or =oucault (BHBa: 5BN86"0 the novelty of ational Socialis& was the way it articulated 3the oneiric e;altation of blood04 offatherland0 and of the triu&ph of the race in an i&&ensely cynical and naOve fashion0 with the paro;ys&s of a disciplinary and

biopolitical power concerned with the detailed ad&inistration of the life of the population and the re%ulation of se;uality0 fa&ily0&arria%e0 and education$ aGis& %eneraliGed biopower without the li&it-critiJue posed by the Furidical subFect of ri%ht0 but it couldnot do away with soverei%nty$ !nstead0 it established a set of per&anent interventions into the conduct of the individual within thepopulation and articulated this with the 3&ythical concern for blood and the triu&ph of the race$4 Thus0 the shepherd-flock %a&e andthe city-citiGen %a&e are trans&uted into the eu%enic orderin% of biolo%ical e;istence (of &ere livin% and subsistence" and

articulated on the the&es of the purity of blood and the &yth of the fatherland$ !n such an articulation of these ele&entsof soverei%n and biopolitical for&s of power0 the relation between the ad&inistration of life and the ri%ht tokill entire populations is no lon%er si&ply one of a dreadful ho&o%eneity$ !t has beco&e a necessaryrelation$ The ad&inistration of life co&es to reJuire a bloodbath$ !t is not si&ply that power0 and thereforewar0 will be e;ercised at the level of an entire population$ !t is that the act of disJualifin% the ri%ht to life ofother races beco&es necessary for the fosterin% of the life of the race$ Moreover0 the eli&ination of otherraces is only one face of the purification of one's own race (=oucault i%Hb: 7I"$The other part is to e;posethe latter to a universal and absolute dan%er0 to e;pose it to the risk of death and total destruction$ =or=oucault0 with the aGi state we have an 3absolutely racist state0 an absolutely &urderous state and an absolutely suicidalstate4 (7I7"0 all of which are superi&posed and conver%e on the =inal Solution$ @ith the =inal Solution0 the state tries to eli&inate0

throu%h the /ews0 all the other races0 for who& the /ews were the sy&bol and the &anifestation$ This includes0 in one of ?itler's lastacts0 the order to destroy the bases of bare life for the


6/34

city not as a site to be a virtuous and respectable citiGen0 but as a site of blurred Gones0 dan%er0 risk0e;cite&ent0 voyeuris& and rule breakin%$ )y the sa&e token0 cyclin% &i%ht be off-puttin% to those whofear inFury and death$ Accordin% to /ones0 the body &ust be able to contain the de&ands of a transportpolicy$ Drawin% on Massu&i0 he states how the syste&0 in this case the sustainable transport a%enda0>cannot work if it de&ands an affect beyond the bodily capacity of the subFect' (76680 7"$ The cyclist'sbodily li&its are of course e;ceeded if >the sli%htest &iscalculation could send the body hurtlin% across theasphalt' or if the cyclist ends up >beneath the wheels of a )ir&in%ha& bus' (76680 70 7"$ .ne of the&ethodolo%ical advanta%es that focus %roups have over other kinds of te;ts is that participants often&odify their views in interaction with others$ So while a for& of cyclin% funda&entalis& was clearly

evident in the focus %roup conversations0 it was full of cracks and contestations as participants did be%into think about cyclin% in broader and &ore productive ways than the sustainable transport fra&eworkoften per&its$ Throu%h discussion0 the affective di&ensions of cyclin% be%an to e&er%e$ +ike /ones (7668"0so&e participants in the focus %roups acknowled%ed the contested nature of the rules and re%ulations which apply to cyclin%0 notin%that acts of deviance %ave the& feelin%s of e;hilaration and that parts of cyclin% were enFoyable for this reason$ =elicity : ! don't wantto drive and yeah ! enFoy bikin% it is rela;in% and so&eti&es you can %et places faster than cars ! think0 ! Fust love that feelin% of%oin% Goo& past all those cars$ @illia& : ,specially on a bike you can Juite happily keep %oin% and cars have to stop and ! don'tknow if it's a $ $ $ it's not a false sense of security but it puts you on a different field to the people in the cars0 because the traffic stopsyou carry on0 on your bike0 and %o whiGGin% past all the cars and %o oooooo that was fun $ $ $ you %et to %o faster and they are allstayin% behind $ $ $ )ut if you're in the car you are keepin% a lot &ore (in" accord with the cars around you0 because if that car stopsyou can't %et past it$ As well as acknowled%in% the possibility of deviance0 throu%h their interactions so&e focus %roup participantsdid also be%in to accept the notion of social0 cultural and affective difference$!n one focus %roup0 participants at first unani&ouslye;pressed a frustration and dislike towards cars and people who refused to bike$ )ut as the discussion pro%ressed0 they be%an tocontradict the&selves and introduce &ore nuanced and ne%otiated understandin%s of social difference and transport choices$ @henAnFa e;pressed a level of dis%ust and frustration with a flat&ate who refused to endure a I k& bike ride to ca&pus0 /i& who hadearlier constructed cars as the evil incarnate be%an to show so&e acceptance of the need to drive$ A reco%nition that so&e people

could cope with a lon% bike co&&ute and others could not be%an to e&er%e$ Participants also beca&e aware of their differin%attitudes to safety$ .ne participant be%an to talk about a particularly haGardous intersection near ca&pus where it can so&eti&estake up to five &inutes to find a break in the traffic$ @hile Danny0 who said she often cycled in >defensive &ode'0 felt that in thesecircu&stances >it's better to think like a pedestrian' and take e;tra care0 /i& stated he would be &ore likely to take risks and cycle upthe &iddle part of the road and ad&itted >! probably don't re%ard &y safety as hi%hly as ! should with thin%s like that'$ As /onesattests0 the cyclist's affect is >critical to this whole process and co&es far hi%her up the list of &ost people's priorities0 no &atter whatthe environ&ental and econo&ic benefits' (76680 7H" and it is only by considerin% the &echanis&s of affect that we can be%in to

appreciate the li&its of the body on a bicycle as well as its creative perfor&ative potentialities$@e wonder then followin%McCor&ack (766I" whether throu%h the notion of affect the sustainable transport a%enda could be%in tocultivate a &ore inclusive ethical sensibility$ @e wonder whether it &i%ht be possible to have a lesscodified ethos which ceases to define car users in relational ter&s accordin% to >their distance fro& thecircuits of inclusion into virtuous citiGenship' (.sborne and ose BBB0 H85" and which beco&es &oreacceptin% of the hetero%eneity of environ&ental responsibility$ The relationship between affect and ethics(McCor&ack 766I" is barely considered in strate%ies to pro&ote cyclin%0 in spite of the fact that

conte&porary %overnance0 as Anderson (766H" ar%ues0 often takes place throu%h affect proceedin% in ananticipatory way throu%h what Massu&i has called >the soverei%n closure of the fore%one event' (cited inAnderson 766H0 8B"$ !n such a closure >certain conseJuences of a future event are induced to effect thepresent but0 and here is the twist0 under conditions of the soverei%n's choosin%' (Anderson 766H0 8B"$The sustainable transport proFect induces a future of environ&ental de%radation0 %ridlocked roads0 obesediseased individuals0 unhealthy co&&unities0 unless we act now in particular ways$ The &oralisin%burden of environ&ental destruction is shifted onto hu&anity as a whole and is >further ChristianiGed bythe lan%ua%e of retribution and penitence' (oss BB0 B" for the sins co&&itted by accident-creatin%0C. 7 -producin% drivers$ Anderson asks how we can hope for so&ethin% better >without reproducin% thelifeless rhetoric of doo& that &arks too &uch critical en%a%e&ent with the world' (7660 H5B" andsu%%ests that one response is to learn fro& the affective fluctuations of everyday life$ As s%%ested: afo's on the affe'ti(e dimensions of 'y'lin% mi%ht hi%hli%ht its $leasres and its de(ian'e:itssensations and deli%hts as well as its obvious downsides$ Cyclin% offers a chance not to save the planet(far too &uch to achieve in a daily bike ride"0 or ward off coronary heart disease (far too depressin% tothink about"0 but to live the city differently0 to indul%e in trans%ressive pleasures or interact with otherhu&ans and non-hu&ans in alternative ways0 a chance not to beco&e virtuous0 not to be re%ulated by a%overn&entalisin% %aGe0 but a chance to beco&e deviant and take risks$ +ike yo%a and swi&&in%0cyclin% can also be understood as an everyday for& of spectacular body &odification and an activityinvolvin% a body learnin% to be affected by &any ele&ents (see +loyd 7665"$ =ollowin% +loyd (76650 8I"0we can see then how cyclists can be clearly distin%uished fro& people who can (could" cycle$ 2nderstoodin this way0 it beco&es apparent that the ethical sensibilities of cyclin% e&er%e in lar%e part not throu%hdiscursive advocacy0 rationality and %overn&entalisation0 but throu%h non-representational affectiveprocesses and practices$ Cyclin% advocacy is e&bedded in conte&porary discursive i&a%inin%s of thesustainable city as a site where active citiGens have rationally decided to si&ultaneously save both selfand planet0 yet cyclin% practice itself is also deeply e&bedded in the non-representational (Thrift BB"$

=


7/34

McCor&ack r%es s to ta+e seriosly the fa't that the ;sense) of 'ommon9sense $ra'ti'es al*aysemer%es as m'h from (is'eral: affe'ti(e and $re9dis'rsi(e $ro'esses as it does from themateriali&in% for'e of dis'rsi(ely em#edded re$resentations(766I0 5B9B6" @e can thereforebe%in to i&a%ine an ethos that apprehends the world less as a series of sites fro& which to e;tractrepresentational &eanin%0 but as a field of processes and practices throu%h which ethical sensibilities ofthinkin% &ay e&er%e$ (766I0 5B" -e9thin+in% *hat 'onts as tho%ht and +no*led%e is 'r'ial tonderstandin% the ;rational) e(eryday de'isions *e ma+e >+loyd 7665"$ Cyclists e;perience cyclin% ine&bodied0 visceral and non-representational ways0 but their advocates then set out to encoura%e othersto cycle throu%h deliberative representational &eans0 as if the decision to cycle was a purely rational one0

and in which the affective di&ensions were of little relevance$ ?e *ish to tentati(ely s%%est that thedis'orses dra*n $on #y 'y'lin% strate%ists and ad(o'ates mi%ht 'onstitte disem$o*erin% ande0'lsionary forms of %o(ernmentalisation rather than %eneratin% more ethi'al *ays of #ein% $ Thefo's on infrastr'tre and 'al'lated inter(ention mi%ht not therefore #rin% a#ot thetransformation in a*areness ne'essary to ma+e a s#stantial differen'e or it mi%ht %enerateresistan'e in the form of 'onter'ond'ts otlined a#o(eMcCor&ack (766I" does not believe thatwe should entirely dispense with codes of conduct$ Cy'lin% strate%ies and the im$ro(ement ofinfrastr'tre mi%ht not then #e *holly ineffe'ti(e: #t *e shold re'o%nise that the effe'ti(enessof s'h an a$$roa'h is li+ely to #e ;limited as a 'onse!en'e of its 'on'entration on there$resentational)(766I0 5B"$ The ethical0 accordin% to McCor&ack does not necessarily need to be>codified in order to be robust' (766I0 5B"$ @e &i%ht then view cyclin%0 accordin% to ?eider's counter-,nli%hten&ent vision of unity0 not as so&ethin% to be enforced throu%h technolo%ies of %overnance0 whichstru%%le to account for the >&ore-than or less-than rational' (Anderson 7660 HI8"0 #t rather as

somethin% or%ani' and s$ontaneos(see Mitchell 766H0 B5" or as $rod'ti(e of mlti$le *ays of#ein% and feelin% in s$a'e$ !f this is the case0 what we need is a new less prescriptive and less codifiedway of talkin% about cyclin%$ This attitudinal shift could produce a new ethics of cyclin% which is ethicalbecause of its e&phasis on affective and e&bodied lived spaces that produce enFoyable risk for so&epeople and because it does not e;clude the non-cyclist or atte&pt to rectify the non-cyclist to a(sustainable" nor&$ The ethical di&ensions of cyclin% would then lie in the creative blurrin% of body and&achine0 of hu&an and nonhu&an and throu%h such blurrin%s cyclists could cease to present the&selvesas the pinnacle of environ&ental friendliness and cease talkin% in ter&s of &otives$ As Shotter states0>&any of our &otives are the products of these activities0 not the other way round' (BB0 cited in ThriftBB0 IB"$ This perspective leads to reco%nition that it is freJuently the practice and activity of cyclin% thatproduces a belief in the %ood of cyclin%0 rather than the other way around$ As To&kins states0 >QaRffect isself-validatin% with or without any further referent' (BB80 cited in Anderson 7660 H5"$ Cyclin% can beand is enFoyable and convenient for so&e people without a discourse of sustainability0 cli&ate chan%e

and individual health and could be &ore so if it ceases to e;clude those who perfor& a different kind ofenviron&ental responsibility or be%ins to acknowled%e the difficulties everyday transport &i%ht pose forthose with different locations0 bodies0 social responsibilities or levels of inco&e$

@


8/34

2NC CA-DTheir form of ad(o'a'y is stati' and deterministi' " this ndermines 'reati(ityand $re(ents s from thin+in% of ne* $ossi#ilities " the alternati(e 'reates #ettermodes of nderstandin% trans$ortation systemsC$$les and -idley 2../(/ulie0 assoc prof %eo%raphy 1 2 Canterbury ,lisabeth0 3Towards ahetero%eneous environ&ental responsibility: sustainability and cyclin% funda&entalis&4 Areaol$ 56 o$ 70 pp$ 7859750This article su%%ests that the rationalities i&plicated in the &akin% of sustainable cities throu%h transportpolicy and other &echanis&s reJuire further e;ploration$ @e su%%est in this article that conte&porarycyclin% advocacy like other initiatives for sustainability0 by focusin% &erely on the representational andne%lectin% the affective and by constructin% rationalities based on binary and funda&entalist notions ofvirtuous cyclists and vicious car drivers0 is possibly under&inin% so&e of its own ai&s$ !n other words0 theconte&porary enact&ent and fra&in% of transport sustainability mi%ht *ell #e arrestin% the ;'reati(e$otential of affe't) *hi'h 'an lead to the ;'lti(ation of ethi'al sstaina#ility)(McCor&ack 766I05B" as well as si&ultaneously obscurin% the visibility of &ore hetero%eneous for&s of environ&entalresponsibility$ The potential of new ways of bein% (%ettin% to work" &i%ht be da&pened by the atte&pt tofi; and deter&ine what constitutes an environ&entally responsible identity$ A consideration of affect withinproFects for sustainable transport can produce a %reater sensitivity not only to social and culturaldifference0 but also to the indeter&inacy and co&ple;ity of life (see Anderson 766"$ !n this re%ard0 it isi&portant to focus not only on the truths &obilised by the sustainable transport a%enda0 but also on howthese truths are e&braced0 &odified and rene%otiated by the co&pliantresistant a&bivalent subFects of

%overn&ent in their everyday lives$ @e wonder then what kind of political innovations &i%ht e&er%e inspace where an ethics of self control are replaced by an aesthetics of a creative body in &otion0 wherethe rational %eo&etric spaces of the city are turned into &ultiple lived spaces0 where the &er%in% ofhu&an and &achine produces an everyday for& of body &odification and where a fluid and affectiveethical sensibility is *or+in% to ndermine e0'lsionary and dis'i$linary forms of%o(ernmentalisation

/


9/34

DISCI4LINE LINKThe aff needs to %et off of it)s hi%h horse " their sm% s$eriority *hen deemin%#i'y'les #etter #orders on fndamentalist ideolo%y and ends $ e0'ldin%s*aths of $eo$le *ho either do not 'are a#ot #i'y'les or are $hysi'allyin'a$a#le of ridin% 9 their homo%eni&ation is dan%eros and shold #e re,e'tedC$$les and -idley 2../(/ulie0 assoc prof %eo%raphy 1 2 Canterbury ,lisabeth0 3Towards ahetero%eneous environ&ental responsibility: sustainability and cyclin% funda&entalis&4 Area

ol$ 56 o$ 70 pp$ 7859750The for&s of authority e&bedded in strate%ies for sustainable transport and taken up by sustainabilityofficers0 advocacy %roups and others which atte&pt to e;hort non-cyclists to cycle as a responsible0healthy and ethical activity correspond to this particular vision of urban citiGenship and social risk$ .nepossible do&inant readin% of such strate%ies is that in the interests of %reater well-bein% for ourselves andothers0 we are e;pected to put aside any econo&ic0 social0 physical or cultural differences and %et on ourbikes (even if it causes us %reat disco&fort or inconvenience" >in order to render %overn&ent effective'(aco and !&rie 76660 7B5"$ An e;ploration of the i&plications of this vision for sustainable transportproduces so&e troublin% insi%hts$ Cyclin% advocacy in its endeavours to pro&ote cyclin% appears to bedevelopin% fndamentalist tenden'iesin which both totalisin% and #inarisin% lo%i's are at *or+$These tendencies obscure social and cultural difference0 i%nore the e&bodied and affective di&ensions oftransport practices and fail in part to apprehend the hetero%eneity of environ&ental responsibility$ Twoe;a&ples fro& our own ca&pus illustrate the e&er%ence of such tendencies$ !n a depart&ental se&inarpresented in the Depart&ent of


10/34

in the Christchurch daily newspaper de&onstrates this construction of vicious and destructive cars andcar users$

1.


11/34

IN-AST-CT-E LINK

Their fo's on infrastr'tre misses the $oint " $eo$le do not ma+e de'isions asto *hether to ride #i+es #ased on statisti'al information li+e all of their sol(en'ystates " nor do they ma+e rational de'isions a#ot the a(aila#ility ofinfrastr'tre " this (ie* is ,st 'y'lin% fndamentalism that e0'ldes other$ers$e'ti(es

C$$les and -idley 2../(/ulie0 assoc prof %eo%raphy 1 2 Canterbury ,lisabeth0 3Towards ahetero%eneous environ&ental responsibility: sustainability and cyclin% funda&entalis&4 Areaol$ 56 o$ 70 pp$ 7859750!nfrastructural rationalities As well as bein% classed and %endered0 cyclin% is a hi%hly e&bodied activity0which involves e;posure to &ultiple nonhu&an ele&ents and can only co&e about throu%h the successful&er%in% of body and &achine$ !t appears however that cyclin% funda&entalis& produces a partial denialof its e&bodied nature and a reconstitution of a subFect obFect binary$ This denial is freJuently articulatedthrou%h a focus on cyclin% infrastructure$ the cyclist's funda&ental facility' (76650 77" and believes the co&pletion of the road network in the for&of cycle lanes is necessary to encoura%e &ore people to cycle$ @hile the road network is an i&portantdi&ension of cyclin%0 it is interestin% that it is perceived to be the funda&ental facility$ Surely0 otherdi&ensions are eJually funda&ental and &i%ht include an adeJuate level of co&petence0 physicalstren%th or fitness0 inclination0 ownership of a decent bike0 a sense of dan%er or willin%ness to take&ultiple risks and interact with wind0 rain0 pollution and speedin% cars0 availability of showerin% facilities atone's destination or whether it is acceptable (to the individual or e&ployer" to turn up at work a littlesweaty and dishevelled$ !nterestin%ly0 &any of the cyclists in our focus %roups atte&pted to deny thee&bodied di&ensions of cyclin%$ @hen we tried to raise the issue of the body0 focus %roup participantswould repeatedly brin% the conversation back to the Juestion of infrastructure$ @hen asked directly about

the relationship between cyclin% and bodily fluids such as sweat0 &any insisted they did not sweat at all0they did not cycle far enou%h to build up a sweat or they wore clothin% such as &erino which preventedsweatin%$ As +on%hurst's (766" work on bodies attests0 in @estern societies bodily fluids (especially inthe workplace" are often seen as out of place and ite&s of dis%ust and there is a co&&on tendency toconstruct bodies as sealed and i&per&eable entities which do not leak despite overwhel&in% evidence tothe contrary$ A fo's on infrastr'tre and the hard #ondaries of 'y'le lanes is $art of the attem$tto dis'rsi(ely retain a hmannonhman #inaryAt our insistence0 so&e participants did be%in toen%a%e with the Juestion of the body0 albeit so&ewhat unco&fortably$ =or e;a&ple0 one participant saidshe found bikin% the short distance fro& her ho&e to ca&pus doable0 but said if she had an i&portant&eetin% in the city and wanted to turn up lookin% clean and presentable then she would drive0 thushi%hli%htin% that her transport choice was affected by the nature of her co&&ute and how >presentable'she felt she needed to be when she arrived$ I The focus %roup discussions provided evidence of thediscursive stren%th of cyclin% funda&entalis&0 but also revealed its a&bivalences and contradictions$ The

overe&phasis on infrastructure can also be understood as what ?u;ley (766" has ter&ed a>dispositional' spatial rationality$ Accordin% to ?u;ley0 this kind of rationality ai&s at drawin% boundariesand producin% order that will foster correct co&port&ents$ !t operates with the lo%ics of %rids ofclassification for the spatial disposition of >&en and thin%s' to brin% arran%e&ent and visibility to bear onindividuals and populations proble&atiGed as chaotic and uncontrolled$ (7660 HH5" The infrastructuralrationalities are interestin% because they i&ply the deploy&ent of what ?u;ley has described as >lo%icsthat attribute causal effects to space and environ&ent and that seek to &anipulate these towards%overn&ental ends' (766H0 8"$ Cycle lanes are thus viewed as >a spatial catalyst for the production ofsocial and &oral order' (766H0 B"$ !nfrastructure does however &atter$ As /ones (7668" acknowled%es0initiatives such as chan%es to the road layout which chan%e the urban hardware can enhance the safetyand enFoy&ent of cyclists0 but these infrastructural chan%es do not have direct causal powers and canonly enhance safety and enFoy&ent in a dialo%ical way in interaction with bikes0 bodies0 discourses0

11


12/34

feelin%s and e&otions$ The obsession with cycle lanes can be seen as a will to produce a rational spatialorder and leads to a ne%lect of affective and e&bodied di&ensions of cyclin% as well as a failure toappreciate how throu%h cyclin% practice the %eo&etric spaces of the road network are converted into livedspaces (de Certeau B5E =eatherstone 7665E Thrift 7665"$ Cyclin% funda&entalis& produces thereforean essentialised and ho&o%enised version of what is a plural0 &ultifaceted and co&ple; terrain0 adifferent kind of spatiality (see de Certeau B5"$ /ones believes that an e&bodied understandin% of thebicycle0 affected by and affectin% its users and their perception of the urban has not reached the thinkin%of the transport %eo%raphers and policy &akers$ (76680 8" @e need therefore to think about what /ones(76680 I" calls the >thrills and chills' of urban cyclin% and the &ultiple differences which are e&bodied in

the cyclin% e;perience$ Could we not think of the rich pheno&enolo%y of cyclin% as Thrift (7665a0 5"ur%es us to do with auto&obility as >one often filled to burstin% with e&bodied cues and %estures0 whichwork over &any co&&unicative %estures and which cannot be reduced si&ply to cultural codes'

12


13/34

2NC ECLSION DACy'lin% fndamentalism 'ases totalitarian monitorin% and homo%eni&es anderases differen'eC$$les and -idley 2../(/ulie0 assoc prof %eo%raphy 1 2 Canterbury ,lisabeth0 3Towards ahetero%eneous environ&ental responsibility: sustainability and cyclin% funda&entalis&4 Areaol$ 56 o$ 70 pp$ 7859750@hile sustainable transport sounds %ood0 there are then a nu&ber of dan%ers which can be associatedwith this instru&entalisin% approach$ =oucault was aware of the >ways in which the ter&s of %overn&ental

practice can be turned around into for&s of resistance' (


14/34

The aff)s (ision of a 'y'lin% 'iti&en is e0'lsionaryFreen: Stein#a'h and Datta 2.12(/udith0 ebecca0 /essica0 3The Travellin% CitiGen: ,&er%entDiscourses of Moral Mobility in a Study of Cyclin% in +ondon4 Sociolo%y 5: 7H7"@e have su%%ested that0 in one city at least0 the he%e&ony of car-do&inated auto&o bility appears tohave fractured si%nificantly0 with a new &oral econo&y of transport e&er%in%$ =ollowin% =incha& (766"0we su%%ested that within this new &oral econo&y0 'y'lin% holds the $romise of ;tre atomo#ility)0but that it has its own contradictions$ Althou%h few people actually do cycle in +ondon0 we identified anor&ative discourse of &obility that constituted car travel as a &orally dubious choice which had to be

defended0 and cyclin% (in principle" as encapsulatin% >&oral &obility'$ Cyclin% enabled the ulti&ate >citiGentraveller' to traverse +ondon0 de&onstratin% knowled%e of and belon%in% to the city0 and (crucially"e'olo%i'al 'ommitment to the $lanet@e su%%est that the discursive popularity of cyclin%0 despite itsrelative rarity as practice0 in part results fro& the opportunities it affords for the enact&ent of citiGenship$

Accounts of travellin% the city su%%est that conte&porary citiGenship in +ondon entails a particular set ofresponsibilities and ri%hts$ The +ondon citiGen has a >ri%ht' to the whole city0 rather than Fust theirnei%hbourhood$ Cyclin% enables this ri%ht to be literally inscribed0 as the individual body&achinetraverses the city's streets$ CitiGens have a responsibility to the self (to participate in the proFect ofbody&ind enhance&entE to be knowled%eableE to be autono&ously &obile" but also responsibilities tothe collective$ Public transport users0 drivers and cyclists in this study drew to an une;pected e;tent on&oral discourses relatin% to the environ&ent to account for transport &ode choices$ Al&ost allinterviewees spoke of the &oral i&perative to reduce car use and to >do your bit' for the environ&ent$These ecolo%ial responsibilities were e;pressed as those both to the city (the local environ&ent ofcon%ested and polluted roads" and to the broader0 %lobaliGed0 collective referenced in >the environ&ent'$ !f

sociolo%ists have characteriGed car-do&inated auto&obility as a syste& which nor&aliGes and black-bo;es the desirability of drivin%0 there is per haps evidence here that in one location at least0 resistance tothe re%i&e of auto&o bility is &ore than &ar%inal$ Certainly0 the new &oral hierarchy appeared to havebroad support$ Movin% beyond auto&obility is %enerally presented as an e&ancipatory proFect$ At onelevel0 the accounts of +ondon's citiGen-travellers could be read opti&istically0 as &arkin% the success ofrecent policy and scientific discourses of health0 cli&ate chan%e and liveable cities$ ?owever0 if we aretakin% seriously a critiJue of auto&obility (in unpackin% its contradictions" we are also obli%ed to take aneJually critical stance on its alternatives$ These too have &oral effects0 and these effects are likely to bediffer entially distributed across populations$ The new re%i&e of transport in the city has its ownanta%onis&s$ ,&er%ent discourses of responsibility are not universal0 and resonate &ore closely withso&e urban identities than others$ As 2rry (766H: 5" notes0 physical travel involves corporeal &ove&entand the interactions of: >lu&py0 fra%ile0 a%ed0 %endered0 racialiGed bodies V QwhichR encounter otherbodies0 obFects and the physical world &ulti-sensorily'$ These social and biolo%ical bodies were evoked in

various accounts of travellin% +ondon0 and it is clear that so&e kinds of bodies are &ore able to beco&ecitiGen-travellers than others$ @e have su%%ested that first0 the >autono&ous' bicycle is only &adepossible by the considerable >work' undertaken to enable cyclin% to provide independent &obility$ @hatfollows is that this work &ay be less available to so&e social bodies than others$ !f car-do&inatedauto&obility socially disables those who cannot drive 9 e;cludin% children0 for instance0 fro& public space(=reund and Martin0 7665" 9 a cyclin%-do&inated &obility re%i&e also potentially has specific effects inspecific built environ&ents$ !n +ondon0 with busy streets and fast &ovin% &otoriGed traffic0 cyclin%reJuires not only particular physical abilities0 but (&ore si%nificantly for &any of our respondents" aconstant alertness$ To dither0 or to travel ai&lessly and deliberately inefficiently0 or to travel in lar%eco&&unal %roups0 or to travel in order to &a;i&iGe the opportunities for spectacle or interaction were all&obile practices which could not be reconciled easily with cyclin% as it is currently constituted in thissettin%$ To be co&&unal0 one could travel the under%round with a %roup of friends0 or with fa&ily in thecar or bus$ To be laGy0 or to day drea&0 one could sit on the bus watchin% life %o by0 or dither slowly

throu%h +ondon's back streets$ Many such bodies do e;ist in +ondon but they are not so easilyconstituted as citiGen-travellers0 in the ways this fi%ure was evoked in the accounts of transport in the city$CitiGen-travellers are efficiently &ovin% fro& one location to another0 as prudential a%ents &a;i&iGin%their contribution to well-bein%0 the city and the planet$ They do not include non-citiGen tourists0 takin% upspace on crowded streets0 with pauses to consult &aps or shop fronts$ Crucially0 they do not includethose >&ar%inal citiGens' (ash0 766B" whose ri%hts to the whole city are curtailed by the social structuralor%aniGation of the transport syste&0 such as the parents Juoted above0 whose ability to use publictransport was 'onstrained #y 'ost and ra'ist e0'lsion: and for *hom 'y'lin% *as 'on sideredinherently ina$$ro$riate$ The body-bicycle &achine envisa%ed in the idealiGed version of theauto&obile cyclist is neither $ossi#le nor desira#le forall$ The %aps between e&er%ent discourses ofresponsible travellin% citiGenship and the lived e;periences and identities of &any +ondoners help e;plain

18


15/34

why cyclin% (despite its seductive status as the archetypal0 responsible &ode choice for the traveller-citiGen" is not >yetG a trans$ort mode 'hoi'e for many in the 'a$ital$

1


16/34

A2 ATOHOBILITYCar 'ltre is not stati' and as sim$listi' as the aff im$a'ts des'ri#e " it ismlti$le and 'an #e nderstood in many different *ays that are distin't from *hatthe affirmati(e has identifiedC$$les and -idley 2../(/ulie0 assoc prof %eo%raphy 1 2 Canterbury ,lisabeth0 3Towards ahetero%eneous environ&ental responsibility: sustainability and cyclin% funda&entalis&4 Areaol$ 56 o$ 70 pp$ 7859750!%norance is the perpetuation of the short-si%hted status Juo that sees increasin% nu&bers ofselfish&inded0 %as-%uGGlin% 5@Ds endan%erin% all other road users0 the status Juo that sees increasin%car and oil use in this post peak oil world of increasin%ly &ore e;pensive fuel0 not to &ention the%reenhouse %ases and cli&ate chan%e$ (,arl 76680 " To so&e e;tent0 the car users of the present arebein% reconstituted as alcoholics0 %a&blers0 prostitutes0 %an%sters and be%%ars were in earlier cityi&a%inaries and the co&&ute to work beco&es a calculable space of action (aco and !&rie 76660 776"in a way that the annual su&&er holiday0 the evenin% &eal0 the weekly super&arket shop0 the weekendbarbecue and the cleanin% of the household do not$ These narrative devices also rework a si&plistic andbinary understandin% of cars as dan%erous and destructive and bikes as inherently %ood$ As=eatherstone (7665" ar%ues0 it &akes little sense to focus on the dan%ers and destructive potential of theauto&obile without considerin% the &ultiplicity of car cultures and the ways in which the car has beenincorporated into our personal lives0 and constitutes far &ore than Fust a &ode of transport$ The car isalso used to e;press individualis&0 to e;perience freedo&0 &obility and kinaesthetic pleasures0 to escapesurveillance0 to listen to &usic or radio shows and &ake phone calls (=eatherstone 7665"$ Si&ilarly0 it

&akes little sense to focus on the bicycle as a panacea for our environ&ental and health proble&s0without also acknowled%in% that cyclin% also involves a willin%ness to e;pose oneself to risk (car doors0speedin% vehicles0 stones in the road and air pollution"0 incle&ent weather and possible physicaldisco&fort (e;haustion0 sweatin%"$ Cyclin% is a hi%hly e&bodied activity that can be e;perienced in &anydifferent ways$ The wind in your face &i%ht be e;hilaratin% or downri%ht annoyin%$ !t also obscures theway in which transport options are both classed and %endered$ !n so&e countries0 cyclin% is lar%ely aworkin%-class activity0 in others it is associated with the &iddle class$ Si&ilarly0 as =eatherstone states0 for&any wo&en who are responsible for or%anisin% household consu&ption and need to Fu%%le paid work0do&estic work and transportin% children0 the car has beco&e essential and is >central to the lo%istics of&aintainin% everyday household relationships' (76650 I"$

1=


17/34

2NC DISABILITY DAThe nderside of $ri(ile%in% the idea of mo#ility is the e0'lsion of those *ho do not mo(e in6normal7 *ays " the aff 'ontri#tes to the systemati' e0'lsion of disa#led $eo$le: otherin% themand e0'ldin% them from normal 'iti&enshi$Cress*ell prof %eo%raphy 1 2 +ondon 2+=(Ti&0 3The i%ht to Mobility: The Production of Mobility in the Courtroo&4 Antipodevol I no 5"

A nu&ber of %eo%raphers have recently ar%ued that the way in which ri%hts0 &obility0 freedo& and citiGenship havebeen wrapped around each other in liberal discourse has naturaliGed &obility as the property of theindividual &ovin% able-bodied subFect$ .ne arena in which liberal conceptions of ri%hts have been Juestioned is the real&of disability politics (Chouinard 766E !&rie 7666"$ Chouinard introduced the notion of 3shadow citiGenship4Nsu%%estin% that spaces of shadow citiGenship are for&ed where the 3law as discursively represented andlaw as lived are funda&entally at odds4 (Chouinard 766:H"$ Disabled people0 she ar%ues0 often inha#it theses$a'es @hile0 on the one hand0 they are sy&bolically central to liberalis&'s clai&s to universalityNan i&a%ined %eo%raphy ofri%hts that is blind to %eo%raphyNthey are si&ultaneously &ar%inaliGed by the blindness of ri%hts discourse tothe particular social space of disabilityin Canada$ Chinese i&&i%rants in the late nineteenth century 2nited States anddisabled people in conte&porary Canada both inhabit this shadowy %round beyond citiGenship that serves to &ake citiGenship and

its associated &obility ri%hts &ake sense$ So what does this say about the &eanin% of &obility in the constitutionof the citiGen fi%ure Part of the answer is the develop&ent of a si&ilar lo%ic for &obility$Positiveevaluations of &obility e;ist0 not throu%h the e;clusion of ne%ative ones but in a necessarily relational&odeNa lo%ic of alterity where 3patholo%ical4 &obilities are co-produced alon%side and intertwined withthose &obilities defined as central to this or that identity$ !n ter&s of citiGenship the Supre&e Courtproduced notions of &obile citiGens as ideal ty$esNautono&ous individualiGed a%ents who throu%h their

&otion helped to produce the nation itself$)ut the unspoken .thers here are the differently &obileNtheundocu&ented i&&i%rant for instanceNwho &ake citiGenship &obility special$ The for& of &obility discussed in theSupre&e Court for over a century is wrapped around notions of 3funda&ental ri%hts4 and the 3citiGen4 to produce an abstract fi%urewhose specificity is left unsaid$ This paper has been an intervention into recent theoriGation of &obility0 ri%hts and citiGenship$Throu%h a discussion of le%al ar%u&ents that have linked &obility as a ri%ht to the notion of what it is to be a citiGen in the 2nited

States ! have illustrated how0 in concrete instances0 &obility has been produced as a practice of a ri%hts-bearin% citiGen$ Myar%u&ent has been that all three of these conceptsN&obility0 ri%hts0 citiGenshipNhave been constitutedin different ways as universal but that in each case this apparent universalis& is #ased on a lo%i' ofotherin%As ! wrote in the introduction to this paper0 &obility as a %eo%raphical fact of life is e;traordinarilya&enable to particular codin%s because of its status as an (al&ost" universal practice$ Particular codin%sof &obility(as a ri%ht0 as liberty0 as freedo&0 as citiGenship practice" can be &ade to appear as &ore than particular$@hen these codin%s are tied to powerful notions such as ri%hts and citiGenship this process beco&esdoubly powerful$

The $oliti's of mo#ility ne'essitate the eradi'ation of those *ho are not mo#ileImrie prof %eo%raphy 1 2 london 2+ (ob0 3Disability and discourses of &obility and &ove&ent4,nviron&ent and Plannin% A 76660 volu&e I70 pa%es 5-8"Such discourses see disability as a social burden which is a private0 not public0 responsibility$ Thei&pair&ent is the focus of concern0 and biolo%ical intervention and care are seen as the appropriateresponses$ The proble& of i&&obility is seen as personal and specific to the i&pair&entE that it is thisthat needs to #e eradi'ated: rather than transformations in so'io'ltral attitdes and $ra'ti'es: ifmo#ility is to #e restored$ !n particular0 political and policy assu&ptions about &obility and &ove&ent arepre&ised on a universal0 dise&bodied subFect which is conceived of as neutered0 that is without se;0%ender0 or any other attributed social or biolo%ical characteristic(see ?all0 BBE !&rie0 BB5E +aw0 BBBE @hitele%%0BBH"$ The he%e&ony of what one &i%ht ter& the &obile body is deconte;tualised fro& the &essy world of&ultiple and everchan%in% e&bodi&entsE where there is little or no reco%nition of bodily differences or capabilities$ The&obile body0 then0 is conceived of in ter&s of independence of &ove&ent and bodily functionsE a bodywithout physical and &ental i&pair&ents$ The he%e&ony of the &obile body is also reinforced by professionaldiscourses which seek to &easure0 characterise0 and understand disability throu%h the &ove&ent and&obility of disabled peopleWs body parts$ Such conceptions see disabled people as neither sick nor well but in a li&inalstate which is characterised by a (potential" &ove&ent fro& one bodily state to another (also0 see ,llis0 7666E +eder0 BB6E Patersonand ?u%hes0 BBB"$ The underlyin% obFective is the disciplinin% of the deviant or i&paired body throu%h the restoration of &ove&ent

in body parts to facilitate independence of &obility (and the restoration of the Xwhole personW"$ =or ,llis (7666"0 such(welfare"discourses e&phasise the i&portance of individuals attainin% an Xindependent bodyW0 or a body whichrevolves around self &ana%e&ent0 personal responsibility0 and the proFection of desirable bodilycharacteristics$ As ,llis (76660 pa%e H" su%%ests0 it is a carnality which propa%ates the aestheticisation of thebody while seekin% to e;clude those (i&paired" bodies which are0 so so&e clai&0 a source of an;iety inconte&porary culture(see0 for instance0 +upton0 BB5"$ !ndeed0 as Paterson and ?u%hes (BBB0 pa%e 65" ar%ue0 XXtheinfor&ation that ani&ates the world is do&inated by non disabled bodies0 by a specific he%e&onic for& of carnality which e;cludesas it constructsWW$ These send out specific si%nals or codes which favour the corporeal status of noni&paired people0 or at least do

1@


18/34

little to facilitate the independent ease of &ove&ent of people with physical and &ental i&pair&ents$(8" This0 for Paterson and?u%hes (BBB0 pa%e 6"0 is indicative of XXa subtle interplay of &icro and &acro relations of powerWW0 wherespecific desi%n features0 for e;a&ple0 prioritise for&s of &ove&ent based on the bodily needs of theneutered body(which is devoid of physical and &ental i&pair&ents"$ !n this sense0 intercorporeal encounters betweenthe he%e&onic world of the &obile body and disabled people tend to reinforce the for&erWs sense ofpresence and the latterWs sense of absence0 in other words a reco%nition of disabled people bein% therebut bein% unable to interact with the social or physical structures which surround the&$ !t is0 in +ederWs (BB6"ter&s0 a proFection of the absent body or bodies which XXdys-appearWW when confronted with the e&bodiednor&s of everyday life Qsee Paterson and ?u%hes (BBB" for an a&plification of these pointsR$

1/


19/34

2NC FENDE- DAThe idea of mo#ility is %endered " their %eneral 'on'e$tions of mo#ility %loss o(er the 'on'retematerial realities of those *ho are for'ed to mi%rate: in doin% so reinfor'e their o$$ressionLa* prof Depart&ent of sticky' and choices are &ore ti%htly constrained$Althou%h their @orcester research ispri&arily what they ter& a >contain&ent story'0 they note how &obility stories disrupt that narrative and >help to re&ind us thatidentities0 while constituted in and by places0 also e;ceed the&' (BB8: 77"$ This the&e is not stron%ly developed in their work0 butit is a tantaliGin% e;a&ple of the possibilities of thinkin% about &obility and identity in specific urban settin%s$ As Cresswell (BBH:

I" notes0 the study of &obility has not been accorded the sa&e attention within the discipline of%eo%raphy as place0 space0 landscape and territory$ The new interest in &obility as a concept is now be%innin% toinfluence so&e %eo%raphical work on hu&an &ove&ent over lon% distances0 notably the study of travel (obertson et al$0 BB5EClifford0 BBH" and &i%ration (?ynd&an0 BBH" and travellers (Sibley0 BB8E Cresswell0 BB"$ Yuestions about the politics of&obility are also bein% raised in discussions of ti&e-space co&pression and %lobaliGation$ =or e;a&ple0 Massey (BBI: 7" showshow >&obility and control over &obility both reflect and reinforce power'$ !t is si%nificant0 however0 that the less %la&orous practice ofdaily &obility has to date been li ttle affected by develop&ents in social theory$ So&e scholars of disability have be%un to connectconcepts of difference0 e;clusion0 access and Fustice with concrete issues of daily &ove&ent (e$%$0 )utler and )owlby0 BBH"0 but

this work still tends to be interpreted as >about disability' and thus outside &ainstrea& concerns$ *et the topic offers a %reatdeal of scope for study$ Daily &obility incorporates a ran%e of issues central to hu&an %eo%raphy0includin% the use of(uneJually distributed" resources0 the e;perience of social interactions in transport-related settin%s andparticipation in a syste& of cultural beliefs and practices$ Attention to flows of people throu%h the daily activity-space ani&ates our

understandin% of %eo%raphic location of >ho&e and work'0 and links spatial patterns with te&poral rhyth&s$ !t re&inds us thatwhile residential and e&ploy&ent location &ay be stable0 hu&an bein%s are not rooted in place0 and thatactivity-space is not divided into a sterile dichoto&y of (&ale" public and (fe&ale" private$ Mobility is also apotent issue for local political stru%%les0 drawin% on the interests of individuals variously identified by class0 %ender0 disability0 a%eand nei%hbourhood residence$ ?ow then &i%ht we link the recent theoretical interest in &obility with the issues of daily &obility &ore

co&&only addressed in urban and transport %eo%raphy ! su%%est that instead of pursuin% the &etaphors of &obilitywhich populate abstract theory0 we turn instead to so&e new develop&ents under the broad a&bit ofcultural studies0 fro& fields includin% cultural %eo%raphy0 anthropolo%y0 history0 sociolo%y0 disability

studies0 literature and fe&inist studies$ This work offers insi%hts into both practices and &eanin%s (especially %endered &eanin%s" of daily &obility0 throu%h %rounded studies of specific situations0 and so for&s auseful counterpoint to the behavioural and policydriven focus of e;istin% transport research$ The Juestionthen arises of how these diverse works &i%ht be brou%ht into conversation with each other0 and with 76 years of research on wo&enand urban transport$ Do the different conceptual foundations prevent any easy connection si&ply on the basis of a shared topicecent work in fe&inist %eo%raphy has offered so&e &odels of how to link conventional e&pirical research and new social theory$=or e;a&ple0 ?anson and Pratt (BB8" affir& the value of workin% with &ultiple theoretical and e&pirical traditions which allow viewsfro& diverse vanta%e points$ The ne;t section seeks to develop so&e linka%es between the diverse traditions identified above bydevelopin% an analytic fra&ework that links concepts of %ender and daily &obility$

1CASE A-FS


20/34

2.


21/34

A2 ATOHOBILITY 1NCBi'y'lin% is dis'i$linary $o*erFilley 2+=()rian /oseph0 assoc prof anthro 1 ver&ont 3Cyclist subFectivity: Corporeal &ana%e&entand the inscription of sufferin%4 AT?.P.+.e;tendin% their capacity and usefulness'$ That is0 for each aspect of cyclin%0 such ascli&ber versus sprinter0 there is a correspondin% nor&aliGed bodily e;pectation$ There are specific bodily&ove&ents that are reJuired of an individual to &eet cyclin% industry e;pectations$ Many of thesenor&aliGed &ove&ents can only be achieved by certain kinds of bodies$ !t is in this diffsion of the;#ody $arti'lar) that *e find the #ody 'ltre of 'y'lin% $ )ut the diffusion is inevitably reliant on thesurveillance of the body particular by the various techniJues e&ployed by the cyclin% industry$ There are&any aspects of cyclists' bodies &onitored by the cyclin% industry$ !n this section ! a& concerned withsufferin%$ @ithin the discourse surroundin% cyclin% there are two for&s of sufferin%E one le%iti&ate andone ille%iti&ate$ The deter&ination of which for& of sufferin% a cyclist has &et is deter&ined by nu&erouste'hni!es of sr(eillan'eTo suffer le%iti&ately is often considered heroic and inevitably involves onesability to &atch their bodily &ove&ents to the e;pectations of the cyclin% industry$ To suffer ille%iti&ately

has &any possibilities and is perceived by the cyclin% industry as al&ost always the result of one'sinability to &eet the corporeal reJuire&ents of cyclin% discourses$ These two notions of sufferin% areinevitably tied to Juestions of honour0 fitness and ability0 but are also tied to riders' support syste&s withintea&s and the cyclin% industry at lar%e in practical ways$ The i&a%es of these two for&s of sufferin% arepri&arily distributed throu%h the cyclin% &edia: &a%aGines0 live race covera%e0 sportin% newspapers0 andinternet news and fan sources$ !&a%es or descriptions of riders representin% both for&s of sufferin% &i%htbe visually si&ilar: %ri&aced faced0 sweatin%0 e;hausted and %aunt lookin%0 and &aybe even weepin%$?owever0 le%iti&ate or heroic sufferin% while not always victorious is portrayed very differently than that ofille%iti&ate sufferin%$ These two differences will be e;plored below$ My e;a&ination of sufferin% no doubtinvokes the idea of punish&ent as the re%i&e of disciplinary power put forth by =oucault: QPunishin%Rdifferentiates individuals fro& one another QVR !t &easures in Juantitative ter&s and hierarchiGes in ter&sof value the abilities0 the level0 the >nature' of individuals$ !t introduces QVR constraint of a confor&ity QVR ittraces the li&it that will define difference in relation to all other differences0 the e;ternal frontier of theabnor&al QVR in short0 it nor&aliGes (BB8: 7-I"$ ?ere punish&ent does dialectical work0 as both thecorporeal e;perience of e;tre&e e;ertion upon the field of play0 the tar&ac0 and punish&ent in ter&s ofthe ways body culture discourses reward and conde&n particular bodily &ove&ents$ =or one's sufferin%(bodily &ove&ent" to be dee&ed ille%iti&ate is not e&ancipatory0 rather both for&s of docility could beconsidered >auto&atic docility' in which >%overnin% nor&s beco&e one's own' (=oucault BB8: BE Cole etal$ 7665: 75"$ There are &ultiple ways the cyclin% industry creates docile bodies throu%h discourses offitness$ At a funda&ental level0 a rider can be visibly fit by lookin% thin with no body fat and hi%hly &uscledle%s0 or can look unfit by havin% fat around their waist or neck$ The %overnin% bodies of cyclin% also seekto deter&ine fitness in ter&s of health0 such as a rider bein% healthy enou%h to co&pete$ Dru% testin% isone way to deter&ine rider fitness0 which &ay include tests for specific che&icals0 but tests that &onitorbodily processes can also be used$ =or e;a&ple0 a rider with a hi%her than nor&al hae&atocrit would beunder suspicion of usin% the banned blood booster ,P.$ iders under suspicion for dopin% are officially

21


22/34

considered >unfit for co&petition'$ These for&s of fitness are &onitored by several techniJues0 which caninclude &edical tests0 but can also include press releases and articles in cycle sport related publications$!nevitably these techniJues discipline riders who are out of the nor&s of fitness0 but also deter&ine thatany kinds of sufferin% that occur outside of the nor&s do not &eet discursive reJuire&ents of le%iti&acy()utler BB6: 7I0 HI"$

22


23/34

2NC A2 ATOHOBILITY

Cy'lin% $rod'es systemati&ed #odies ready to #e 'ontrolled #y 'or$orate'y'lin% 'om$aniesFilley 2+=()rian /oseph0 assoc prof anthro 1 ver&ont 3Cyclist subFectivity: Corporeal &ana%e&entand the inscription of sufferin%4 AT?.P.+.tea& directors'(DSs"$ Post @@!! cyclin% be%an to e&phasiGe the i&portance of trainin% re%i&ents with particular focuson diet0 hy%iene0 sport specific &ove&ent0 and the &edicaliGation of the cyclin% body$ !ncreasin%ly overthe ne;t si;ty years the independent (non-sponsored" rider be%an to fadeE riders were no lon%erresponsible for &ana%in% their own trainin%0 diet and &achinery0 but instead ca&e under the purview of&ana%e&ent syste&s funded and reJuired by the cyclin% industry$ !t is within &ana%e&ent syste&s

perfected by the cyclin% industry where we can locate the techniJues used to produce the conte&porarybody culture of cyclin%$ The body culture of conte&porary professional cyclin% is i&&ediately apparent inthe appearance of the cyclist in the sa&e way one can evaluate the body culture of a wei%ht lifter or hi%hfashion &odel$ The values of these &icrocultures are &arked on the bodily aesthetic of individuals(Pal&er BB: 5"$ )ody culture0 however0 is &ore than si&ply individual appearance0 but is also bodily&ove&ent$ Any noticeable characteristics of the athlete are the result of bodily &ove&ent$ )odily&ove&ents are endorsed by a particular body culture and internaliGed in the intentionality of theindividual$ Professional road cyclin% of the ,uropean kind endorses several body types each with its ownri%idly defined bodily &ove&ents$ These bodily &ove&ents are associated with particular roles on tea&s0specific kinds of co&petitive events0 precise body aesthetics0 and are tied to ri%id perfor&ancee;pectations and syste&s of trainin%$ The bodily &ove&ents of a cli&ber (so&eone talented in ridin% up&ountains" will differ %reatly fro& those of a classics specialist (so&eone who is %ood at fast one dayraces on rou%h roads" and both will differ fro& the body culture of the ti&e trialist (race a%ainst the clock"$

Cyclists will often be referred to as a >pure cli&ber' or a >pure sprinter'$ This state&ent refers to anindividual's body &ove&ent as ideal for a particular discipline in cyclin%$ Certain individuals are known as>all arounders'0 which &eans that they have proficiency in all the i&portant cate%ories needed to win&aFor sta%e races$ !n the past athletes such as )el%ian ,ddy Merck; could &eet the physical de&ands ofboth classics and sta%e races and had a versatility to e;cel in &ultiple disciplines of cyclin%$ Merck;0 whoraced fro& the &id-B6s until the late BH6s0 won the %olden a%e'0Ma%uire (7668: 6" points out0 >Sport perfor&ers have co&e increasin%ly to participate in only one sportand0 within that sport they specialiGe accordin% to task or positional reJuire&ents'$ Seldo& will so&eonebe a classics specialist and a %rand tour winner$ @e can reco%niGe that at the basic athletic level thedifferent disciplines of cyclin% de&and the perfection of different bodily &ove&ents and individuals withnaturally different kinds of physical abilities will be drawn to specific disciplines$ Therefore0 we are notinterested in critiJuin% cyclin% specialiGationE rather we are interested in e;a&inin% the construction of asyste&atiGed body culture that not only endorses particular bodily &ove&ents0 but also nor&aliGesparticular bodily techniJues throu%h syste&atiGation$ That is0 a body culture created and reinforced by%overnin% nor&s e&bodied within co&petin% syste&s of corporeal &ana%e&ent$ Pro%ra&s ofsyste&iGation in cyclin% body culture are i&plicated and reinforced by the political econo&y of sport in%eneral and specifically within the structure of professional road cycle sport$ The structure of professionalroad cyclin% &irrors that of any corporation$ Tea&s are usually sponsored by a lar%e corporation and supple&ented bys&aller co&panies that provide eJuip&ent or wish to advertise to the cyclin% audience$ The level of financial co&&it&ent ofsponsors and the tea&'s ability to %ain the desired public attention deter&ines everythin% fro& riders' salaries to the kinds of towelsused by athletes$ @ithin the tea& structure there are specialist athletes: the %rand tour contenders0 the classics specialists0 youn%riders bein% cultivated for future roles on the tea&0 and the do&estiJues or helpers$ ,ach of these roles is desi%ned to &ake victory&ore likely$


24/34

are reJuired to &aintain a certain level of athletic perfor&ance and provide results in the for& of wins for their sponsors$ To dealwith the ri%ors of cyclin% as a profession riders of all levels and specialties e&ploy syste&s of bodily&ana%e&ent to &eet the reJuire&ents of their Fob$ @ithin cycle sport there are &any syste&s thatindividuals can follow$ @hen referrin% to syste&s ! a& e;plicitly referrin% to trainin% re%i&ents developedand &ana%ed within the sports industrial co&ple;$ ?einila points out >QVR as a conseJuence of continuous up%radin% ofde&ands in international sport0 co&petition totaliGes into a co&petition between syste&s' rather than individual athletes (B: 7"$!n order to perfect the bodily &ove&ents reJuired of their role on a tea&0 cyclists have increasin%ly sou%ht out a syste&atiGation oftheir trainin% and perfor&ance throu%h the sports trainin% industry$ 2ntil the B6s &ost professional riders also had full ti&e Fobs0so&e cyclin% related but others not$ A racer atte&pted to fit his trainin% in when he had the ti&e$ The conte&porary full ti&e,uropean road cycle racer has the financial and te&poral ability to follow the re%i&ents of trainin% syste&s$ The sa&e would apply

to the use of perfor&ance enhancin% dru%s$ )efore syste&atiGed dopin% pro%ra&s0 boostin% one's perfor&ance was spontaneousNas needed practiceNwith cocaine0 heroin or what is known as pot bel%e (a potent &i;ture of dru%s taken durin% a race"$ ?owever0the introduction of anabolic e;o%enous steroids and dru%s such as ,rythropoietin (,P." into a trainin% re%i&ent has syste&iGed thedopin% process into pro%ra&s rather than unplanned perfor&ance boostin%$

Cy'lin% is the #io$o*erFilley 2+=()rian /oseph0 assoc prof anthro 1 ver&ont 3Cyclist subFectivity: Corporeal &ana%e&entand the inscription of sufferin%4 AT?.P.+.


25/34

A2 SOLVENCY 1NCInfrastr'tre alone does not sol(eTi%ht and Fio(oni 2.1.(Miles0 Moshe0 3The ole of @alkin% and Cyclin% in Advancin% ?ealthy andSustainable 2rban Areas4 )2!+T ,!.M,T .+ I . 5"Sustainable &obility is the new paradi%& in transport plannin% and policy ()anister0 766" and >Plannin%and health is bi% news' ()oarnet0 7660 p$ 8" accordin% to a special issue of the /ournal of the A&ericanPlannin% Association on >Plannin%'s role in buildin% healthy cities'$ At the heart of the new plannin% andpolicy &odel are two &odes of transport which until recently did not see& to re%ister as bein% i&portant0

at least in the eyes of &any researchers0 planners and policy-&akers$ These &odes are walkin% andcyclin%0 co&&only referred to as >active travel'$ ow the nu&ber of research papers related to walkin%and cyclin% is %rowin% rapidly$ A recent review of evidence on cyclin% as a co&&utin% &ode (?einen etal$0 766" found &ore than 66 relevant studies0 the &aFority of the& includin% e&pirical evidence$ Theinterest is not only within acade&ia0 it is also evident in the fi eld$ So&e of the lar%est and &ostprosperous cities in the world0 ew *ork0 +ondon and Paris0 a&on%st others0 are adoptin% pro-walkin%and cyclin% policies0 investin% in appropriate supportin% infrastructure0 and have recently (Paris and+ondon" rolled out lar%e cycle-hire sche&es$ Transport strate%ies for &ost cities include an ele&ent (atleast offi cially" that pro&otes the use of these &odes$ Despite this0 transport0 even for short distances0 isstill heavily do&inated by the use of the private car$ Perhaps one of the fi rst realiGations e&er%in% fro&the latest research on walkin% and cyclin% is that pro&otin% walkin% and 'y'lin% se is not ,st a sim$le!estion of infrastr'tre $ro(ision

Too many other reasons *hy $eo$le do not #i+e #esides infrastr'treTi%ht and Fio(oni 2.1.(Miles0 Moshe0 3The ole of @alkin% and Cyclin% in Advancin% ?ealthy andSustainable 2rban Areas4 )2!+T ,!.M,T .+ I . 5"@alkin% and cyclin% are well known as potential contributors to &ore sustainable urban environ&ents0 butthe key difficulty is how to brin% about real chan%e to create %enuine i&prove&ents for these &odes anda sti&ulus for people to switch &odes0 particularly fro& car to walk or cycle$ The barriers to the furtherdevelop&ent of walkin% and cyclin% 9 such as safety0 lack of or poor infrastructure0 co&ple; lives whichare increasin%ly intertwined with car use and0 for &any0 perceptions of personal safety and security 9 aresubstantial and diffi'lt to o(er'ome?owever0 the benefits of such chan%es could be considerable:cleaner0 Juieter and safer urban environ&entsE places where the street has a function not Fust for&ove&ent but also in encoura%in% sociability and &ore interaction with others and with the builtenviron&entE and a healthier population throu%h increased use of active &odes of transport$

2


26/34

2NC A2 SOLVENCY

Infrastr'tre alone does not sol(eTi%ht and Fio(oni 2.1.(Miles0 Moshe0 3The ole of @alkin% and Cyclin% in Advancin% ?ealthy andSustainable 2rban Areas4 )2!+T ,!.M,T .+ I . 5"

A specific case is e;a&ined by Colin Pooley's and his collea%ues' research0 which looked at the town of+ancaster in the 2#0 to evaluate the effectiveness of infrastr'tre in(estmentfor walkin% and cyclin%$They &ake the ar%u&ent that while such invest&ent in infrastructure is a %ood thin% and necessary0 it is

not: on its o*n: eno%h to o(er'ome the #arriers towalkin% and cyclin%$ Such barriers are &orefunda&entally e&bedded in social structures and the everyday habits and practices of households andindividuals$ To brin% about real chan%e0 therefore0 would involve difficult decisions that chan%e the waysociety values and uses transport0 includin% restrictions on car use0 i&prove&ents to public transport andthe restructurin% of cities to increase local accessibility and to reduce the need for lon% and co&ple;

Fourneys$ Thus0 broader societal considerations often rele%ate physical barriers to &ore sustainable travelinto second place$ The built environ&ent and the infrastructure are i&portant0 but often secondary tosocial factors$ The &echanis& throu%h which social factors &i%ht influence the propensity to walk ise;panded on in the ne;t paper$

Infrastr'tre is ne'essary #t not sffi'ient #y itselforsyth and Kri&e+ 2.1.(Ann0 #evin0 3Pro&otin% @alkin% and )icyclin%: Assessin% the ,videnceto Assist Planners4 )2!+T ,!.M,T .+ I . 5"

Conclusion $ There is no sin%le solution (silver bullet" when it co&es to increasin% walkin% and orcyclin%$ ?owever there are certain necessary (if insffi 'ientGpreconditions$ =or walkin% suchpreconditions include nei%hbourhood and lar%er scales of desi%n (such as density and accessibledestinations"E for cyclin%0 adeJuate infrastructure$ .ther carrots 9 such as att ractive aesthetics 9 have farless eff ect$

No one9si&e fits all soltions4el&er: )1.9 esearch Master in Metropolitan Studies0 A&sterda& !nstitute for Social Scienceesearch (A!SS"0 2niversity of A&sterda&$ (Peter0 3)icyclin% as a @ay of +ife: A Co&parative CaseStudy of )icycle Culture in Portland0 . and A&sterda&04 .;ford0 B0 Hth Cyclin% and SocietySy&posiu&$" /SThe A&sterda& and Portland e;periences show that to co&e to satisfactory understandin% of >bicycleculture' it is necessary to e;plore both the &aterial and socially constructed properties of bicyclin%$ The

di&ensions of physical environ&ent and the socially constructed di&ension (&obility culture" are far fro&&utually e;clusive0 and interact in a co&ple; way$ Moreover0 the function of these causal &echanis&s isalso dependent upon historical contin%ency and %eo%raphical particularity$ ConseJuently0 it is hard torelate the e&pirical findin%s of this study to other conte;ts or to retrieve cookbook solutions for other citiesthat would like to increase bicycle use$ There's no >one-siGe-fits-all' cyclin% sti&ulation policy$ !t is pivotalto be sensitive to the cultural conte;t of a city$ onetheless0 underlyin% causal &echanis&s could bediscerned0 which relate the structural and &icro scale factors$ ! will e;e&plify this stance by &eans of fivee;a&ples of causal &echanis&s which are at work with re%ards bicycle culture in both cities$

No sol(o4ar+in: -yley and Jones 2..@(/ohn0 eader in Transport ,n%ineerin% and Plannin% 0 Ti& Senior+ecturer in Transport Studies 1 +ou%hsborou%h 20 Ti&0 esearch =ellow in Sustainable 2rban Mobility03)arriers to Cyclin%: An ,;ploration of Yuantitative Analysis4 3Cyclin% the City: on-Place and theSensory Construction of Meanin% in a Mobile Practice4 eds ?orton0 Dave osen0 Paul Co;0 Peter"?illiness has been shown to have a very si%nificant effect on the proportion of people cyclin% the Fourneyto work$ @hile it is not feasible to eradicate hills0 careful consideration should be %iven to the ali%n&ent ofcycle routes in hilly areas0 in order to reduce the ne%ative conseJuences of topo%raphy$ Si&ilarly0 it hasbeen shown that both surface rou%hness and the nu&ber of stops and starts have a stron% i&pact on thea&ount of effort reJuired to cycle$ Correspondin%ly0 infrastructure should co&prise direct routes0 with fewstops and starts0 and have well &aintained ridin% surfaces$ The perception of the risk of cyclin% on a roadwith &otorised traffic is unaffected by the provision of cycle lanes alon% routes0 and approachin% andthrou%h Functions$ The relative i&portance of the perception of risk and other environ&ent featuresre&ains fully to be e;plored0 but it is possible to say that i&portant features of network desi%n involve not

Fust safety0 but also effort and positive features such as attractiveness and co&fort$ !t is also i&portant to

2=


27/34

understand that perceptions of the risk and effort involved in cyclin% practices are unlikely to relate directlyto actual levels of risk and effort$ =or e;a&ple0 a reduction in perceived risk without a co&&ensuratereduction in actual risk &i%ht lead to e;posure of a lar%er nu&ber of people to haGard$ etworks for cycletraffic should e;tend fro& si%nificant trip attractors0 such as town centres0 at least to 7 k& and as far as 8k&0 as over these distances the fle;ibility and freedo&s of the bicycle are evident without undue e;ertion$!t cannot be assu&ed that use of the bicycle for leisure purposes will follow throu%h into use for utilitarianpurposes0 but pro&otion of the bicycle for utilitarian trips should reco%nise that the &arket co&prisesprincipally car-ownin% households$

2@


28/34

2NC 4-EE- NEF EVIDENCE4refer or e(iden'e " it)s a meta9data stdy of o(er .. other stdies: most'om$rehensi(e stdyorsyth and Kri&e+ 2.1.(Ann0 #evin0 3Pro&otin% @alkin% and )icyclin%: Assessin% the ,videnceto Assist Planners4 )2!+T ,!.M,T .+ I . 5"?ow can people be encoura%ed to walk or cycle &ore This article draws on the results of over I66 well-desi%ned e&pirical studies to provide %uidance on how specific strate%ies can influence walkin% or cyclin%for travel: co&&unity desi%n0 infrastructure availability0 infrastructure Juality0 pro%ra&&in%0 pricin%0 and

co&bined strate%ies$ 2rban environ&ents with hi%h levels of walkin% and cyclin% for travel typicallyrepresent a 'om#ination of many fa'torsthat help pro&ote these &odes$ The &ost co&pellin%ar%u&ent0 particularly for cyclin%0 is that onlyvia an inte%rated ran%e of built environ&ental features(includin% infrastructure and facility i&prove&ents"0 $ri'in% $oli'ies: or ed'ation $ro%rammes *ills#stanti(e 'han%es reslt$ This is what has been occurrin% in The etherlands0 Den&ark0 and parts of


29/34

preponderance of evidence0 where &ultiple studies a%ree$ @e conclude each section with su&&aryreco&&endations for policy and plannin%E and provide &ore e;tensive reco&&endations in theconclusion$

Infrastr'tre literatre is ss$e'torsyth and Kri&e+ 2.1.(Ann0 #evin0 3Pro&otin% @alkin% and )icyclin%: Assessin% the ,videnceto Assist Planners4 )2!+T ,!.M,T .+ I . 5"Cyclin% =indin%s$ =or cyclin% the story is diff erent0 and cyclin% infrastructure is i&portant$ The literature

consistently su%%ests that the dearth of cyclin% infrastructure is a &aFor detri&ent in ter&s of spurrin%cyclin%$ The unresolved &att er relates to understandin% which type of cyclin% infrastructure is best andfor who& =or e;a&ple0 &ore bicyclin% facilities 9 on- and off -street 9 appear to provide %reatadvanta%es (Dill0 766B"$ )ut once analysis drills down to specifi cs it can be diffi cult to understand the effects of diff erent types of cyclin% infrastructure$ This is lar%ely because of: (" the lack of reliable data onthe &att erE (7" the wide ran%e of diff erent types of treat&ents so that it is diffi cult to co&pareevaluationsE (I" the role that diff erent kinds of intersections playE and (5" the relatively wide ran%e of skillslevels of users (co&pared to pedestrians"$

2


30/34

A2 CA4ITALISH STCy'lin% is a $oor #asis for anti9'a$italist resistan'eorton 2+=(Dave0 ,SC Postdoctoral =ellow 3,nviron&entalis& and the )icycle4 ,nviron&entalPolitics0 ol$ 80 o$ 0 5 9 8",nviron&ental activists certainly want their cyclin% to be noticed$ =irst of all0 they want to be visible to the&aFority of road users with the potential to kill the&E the ai& of li%hts0 fluorescent Fackets and lu&inouswrist and ankle bands is to render the cyclist &ore noticeable to &otorists$ )ut0 second0 activists often talkabout their cyclin% as de&onstratin% to others the viability of alternatives to the car$5 Activists0 then0 are

not only contributin% to the virtuous %reen practice of cyclin% directlyE they also see their own cyclin% as apractice which observers &i%ht strive to e&ulate0 and thus as for&in% part of a virtuous circle and helpin%to pro&ote still &ore cyclin%$ And third0 the perfor&ance of cyclin% earns distinction within %reen cultureEas an iconic %reen practice0 it builds a specifically %reen capital$ Cyclin% enables the creation of the senseof oneself as a >%ood' or >authentic' environ&entalist0 while drivin% a car sabota%es such a sense ofoneself and tends to produce feelin%s of %uilt and inadeJuacy (see ?orton0 766Ia"$ ?owever0 a&on%environ&ental activists is cyclin% a strate%y of distinction of the kind su%%ested by =rench sociolo%ist0Pierre )ourdieu (B5" !s cyclin%0 in other words0 part of a class-based atte&pt to ascend the socialhierarchy It is notAlthou%h clearly a distinction-seekin% and distin%uishin% practice0 activists' cyclin%cannot si&ply be e;plained as a class-based and class-ai&ed strate%y of distinction0 directed atproducin% and reproducin% activists' location in the social structure$ Activists not only ride bikesE unlike the&aFority of cyclists they also actively ca&pai%n for &ore people to ride bikes0 and thus seek to under&inethe distinctiveness of their own privile%ed practice$ .f course0 unlike &any cyclists0 activists also enrol the

obFect of the bicycle and the practice of cyclin% into the asse&bla%e of a distinctive and oppositionallifestyle0 but a%ain this is a lifestyle they wish to see &ore widely e&ulated for the sake of >sustainability'$,nviron&entalists do not advocate the addition of the bicycle to an otherwise >ordinary' life$ ather0 thebicycle is seen as ideally for&in% one part of a &uch wider0 new0 sustainable0 %reen lifestyle$ The bicycleis not a &ere appenda%e to >business as usual'0 but a vehicle which helps to re-evaluate0 restructure andreor%anise everyday life in conte&porary societies$

.


31/34

BIKES A-E BAD >FENE-IC STGBi'y'lin% $oses health ris+-eynolds et al: ). " visitin% research fellow at the !nstitute for esources0 ,nviron&ent andSustainability0 2niversity of )ritish Colu&bia$ (Conor et al$0 3The !&pact of Transportation !nfrastructure on)icyclin% !nFuries and Crashes: A eview of the +iterature04 ,nviron&ental ?ealth0 670 vol$ no$" /S!t is clear that the health benefits of cyclin% are si%nificant0 and at this point there is no reason to assu&ethat health risks outwei%h those benefits$ ?owever0 a full public health understandin% reJuires thatattention be paid not only to lon%-ter& population health and environ&ental benefits of bicyclin%0 but also

to the factors that influence risk of inFury and fatality$ )icyclists are vulnerable because they &ustfreJuently share the sa&e infrastructure with &otoriGed vehicles0 and yet bicycles offer their users no$hysi'al $rote'tion in the e(ent of a 'rash!n addition0 the &ass of a typical auto&obile is at least anorder of &a%nitude %reater than a bicycle plus its rider0 and &otoriGed vehicles have top speeds that areconsiderably faster than bicycles$ As a result0 bicycle riders who are involved in a crash are e;posed to a&uch hi%her risk of inFury co&pared to &otor vehicle users (with the e;ception of &otorcycle riders"$ Todate0 &ost studies of cyclin% safety - especially in orth A&erica - have e&phasiGed hel&et desi%n0re%ulation0 and i&ple&entation to &iti%ate the severity of cyclin% inFuries when a crash occurs Q70IR$This is particularly true for children Q508R$ !n &any orth A&erican Furisdictions children who cycle (andso&eti&es also adult cyclists" are reJuired by law to use hel&ets0 althou%h this is not the case in &ost,uropean countries$ @hile hel&ets are effective in reducin% the severity of head inFuries0 they do notaddress i&pacts to other parts of the body Q0HR$ More i&portantly0 they do not prevent incidents fro&occurrin% in the first place QR0 and le%islatin% their use &ay even discoura%e cyclin% QBR$

No need for $romotin% #i+e rides " measres already ta+enTeschke et al$0 '6 - professor at the School of Population and Public ?ealth in the 2niversity of )ritishColu&bia$ (#ay et al$0 3)icyclin%: ?ealth isk or )enefit4 2)CM/0 March0 vol$ I no$ " /S

!n the last decade0 there has been new interest in pro&otin% cyclin% as a &ode oftransportation in orth A&erica$ Two of the lar%est cities in the 2nited States0 ew *orkand Chica%o0 have set a%%ressive tar%ets for increased cyclin%0 and to &eet the&0 havelaunched pro%ra&s to construct connected networks of bicycle infrastructure$ Canadiancities are also seein% chan%es0 as illustrated in our three lar%est cities$ Montreal has a syste& ofseparated bike lanes throu%hout its downtown core and i&ple&ented its pioneerin% )![! bikeshare

syste& in 766B$ Toronto adopted the )![! syste& in the su&&er of 760 and is considerin% buildin%separated lanes$ ancouver be%an installin% separated lanes on &aFor streets in its downtown core in766B as a co&ple&ent to a syste& of desi%nated bike routes elsewhere in the city$

Bi'y'le 'ltre doesnMt translate in nited StatesMellinger, 09- Gwyn Mellinger is the chairwoman of the department ofcommunications and mass media at Baker University. She is teaching thissemester at Harlaxton ollege near Grantham! "ngland#$Bicycle ulture %oesn&

'ranslate in United States(! )*+,So&e thin%s Fust arenWt transferable to A&erican culture$ Take0 for e;a&ple0 the ,uropean love affair withthebicycle$ ThatWs clearly not the sort of thin% weWre %oin% to encoura%e on our streets$ =or %ood reason$!n &ost 2$S$ cities0 the traffic infrastructure doesnWt easily acco&&odate

critical bikes neg mndi

Documents