culture of korea

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CULTURE OF KOREA Traditional arts Main article: Korean art Dance Jinju geommu As with music, there is a distinction between court dance and folk dance. Common court dances are jeongjaemu (정정정) performed at banquets, and ilmu ( 정 정 ), performed at Korean Confucian rituals. Jeongjaemu is divided into native dances (정정정정, hyangak jeongjae) and forms imported from Central Asia and China (정정정정, dangak jeongjae). Ilmu are divided into civil dance (정정, munmu) and military dance (정정, mumu). Many mask dramas and mask dances are performed in many regional areas of Korea. [5] The traditional clothing is the genja, it is a special kind of dress that women wear on festivals. It is pink with multiple symbols around the neck area. Traditional choreography of court dances is reflected in many contemporary productions. Painting Main article: Korean painting A scenery on Dano day The earliest paintings found on the Korean peninsula are petroglyphs of prehistoric times. With the arrival of Buddhism from India via China , different techniques were introduced. These

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Page 1: Culture of Korea

CULTURE OF KOREA

Traditional arts

Main article: Korean art

Dance

Jinju geommu

As with music, there is a distinction between court dance and folk dance. Common court dances are jeongjaemu (정재무 ) performed at banquets, and ilmu (일무 ), performed at Korean Confucian rituals. Jeongjaemu is divided into native dances (향악정재, hyangak jeongjae) and forms imported from Central Asia and China (당악정재, dangak jeongjae). Ilmu are divided into civil dance (문무 , munmu) and military dance (무무 , mumu). Many mask dramas and mask dances are performed in many regional areas of Korea.[5] The traditional clothing is the genja, it is a special kind of dress that women wear on festivals. It is pink with multiple symbols around the neck area.

Traditional choreography of court dances is reflected in many contemporary productions.

Painting

Main article: Korean painting

A scenery on Dano day

The earliest paintings found on the Korean peninsula are petroglyphs of prehistoric times. With the arrival of Buddhism from India via China, different techniques were introduced. These techniques quickly established themselves as the mainstream techniques, but indigenous techniques still survived.

There is a tendency towards naturalism with subjects such as realistic landscapes, flowers and birds being particularly popular. Ink is the most common material used, and it is painted on mulberry paper or silk.

In the 18th century indigenous techniques were advanced, particularly in calligraphy and seal engraving.

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Arts are both influenced by tradition and realism in North Korea. For example, Han’s near-photographic "Break Time at the Ironworks" shows muscular men dripping with sweat and drinking water from tin cups at a sweltering foundry. Jeong Son’s "Peak Chonnyo of Mount Kumgang" is a classical Korean landscape of towering cliffs shrouded by mists.[6]

Crafts

Lacquer drawer with mother-of-pearl inlay, at the National Museum of Korea in Seoul

There is a unique set of handicrafts produced in Korea. Most of the handicrafts are created for a particular everyday use, often giving priority to the practical use rather than aesthetics. Traditionally, metal, wood, fabric, lacquerware, and earthenware were the main materials used, but later glass, leather or paper have sporadically been used.

Ancient handicrafts, such as red and black pottery, share similarities with pottery of Chinese cultures along the Yellow River. The relics found of the Bronze Age, however, are distinctive and more elaborate.

Many sophisticated and elaborate handicrafts have been excavated, including gilt crowns, patterned pottery, pots or ornaments. During the Goryeo period the use of bronze was advanced. Brass, that is copper with one third zinc, has been a particularly popular material. The dynasty, however, is renowned for its use of celadon ware.

During the Joseon period popular handicrafts were made of porcelain and decorated with blue painting. Woodcraft was also advanced during that period. This led to more sophisticated pieces of furniture, including wardrobes, chests, tables or drawers.

Ceramics

Main articles: Korean pottery and porcelain and Celadon

A celadon incense burner from the Goryeo Dynasty with Korean kingfisher glaze

The use of earthenware on the Korean peninsula goes back to the Neolithic. The history of Korean Ceramics is long and includes both Korean pottery a later development after the traditional use of coils and hammered clay to create early votive and sculptural artifacts. During the Three Kingdoms period, pottery was advanced in Silla. The pottery was fired using a deoxidizing flame, which caused the distinctive blue grey celadon color. The surface was embossed with various geometrical patterns.

In the Goryeo period jade green celadon ware became more popular. In the 12th century sophisticated methods of inlaying were invented, allowing more elaborate decorations in different colours. In Arts of Korea, Evelyn McCune states, "During the twelfth century, the production of ceramic ware reached its highest refinement. Several new varieties appeared simultaneously in the quarter of a century, one of which, the inlaid ware must be considered a

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Korean invention."[7] Neither the Chinese nor the Japanese had produced inlaid celadon, which was unique to Goryeo wares. William Bowyer Honey of the Victoria and Albert Museum of England, who after World War II wrote, "The best Corean (Korean) wares were not only original, they are the most gracious and unaffected pottery ever made. They have every virtue that pottery can have. This Corean pottery, in fact, reached heights hardly attained even by the Chinese."[8]

White porcelain became popular in the 15th century. It soon overtook celadon ware. White porcelain was commonly painted or decorated with copper.

During the Imjin wars in the 16th century, many potters were abducted to Japan where they heavily influenced Japanese ceramics.[9][10][11] Many Japanese pottery families today can trace their art and ancestry to these Korean potters whom the Japanese captured by the thousands during its repeated conquests of the Korean peninsula.[12][13][14]

In the late Joseon period (late 17th century) blue-and-white porcelain became popular. Designs were painted in cobalt blue on white porcelain.

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Lifestyle

Homes

Main article: Korean architecture

Traditional house, hanok

Traditional farmer's house; Folk Village, Seoul

Sites of residence are traditionally selected using traditional geomancy. Although geomancy had been a vital part of Korean culture and Korean Shamanism since prehistoric times, geomancy was later re-introduced by China during the Three Kingdoms period of Korea.

A house should be built against a hill and face south to receive as much sunlight as possible. This orientation is still preferred in modern Korea. Geomancy also influences the shape of the building, the direction it faces and the material it is built of.

Traditional Korean houses can be structured into an inner wing (안채, anchae) and an outer wing (사랑채, sarangchae). The individual layout largely depends on the region and the wealth of the family. Whereas aristocrats used the outer wing for receptions, poorer people kept cattle in the sarangchae. The wealthier a family, the larger the house. However, it was forbidden to any family except for the king to have a residence of more than 99 kan. A kan is the distance between two pillars used in traditional houses.

The inner wing normally consisted of a living room, a kitchen and a wooden-floored central hall. More rooms may be attached to this. Poorer farmers would not have any outer wing. Floor heating (온돌 , ondol) has been used in Korea since prehistoric times. The main building materials are wood, clay, tile, stone, and thatch. Because wood and clay were the most common materials used in the past not many old buildings have survived into present times. Today, however, people live in apartments and more modernized houses.

Gardens

Hyangwonjeong, a garden in Gyeongbokgung, Seoul

The principles of temple gardens and private gardens are the same. Korean gardening in East Asia is influenced by primarily Korean Shamanism and Korean folk religion. Shamanism emphasizes nature and mystery, paying great attention to the details of the layout. In contrast to Japanese and Chinese gardens which fill a garden with man made elements, traditional Korean gardens avoid artificialities, trying to make a garden more natural than nature.

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The lotus pond is an important feature in the Korean garden. If there is a natural stream, often a pavilion is built next to it, allowing the pleasure of watching the water. Terraced flower beds are a common feature in traditional Korean gardens.

The Poseokjeong site near Gyeongju was built in the Silla period. It highlights the importance of water in traditional Korean gardens. The garden of Poseokjeong features an abalone-shaped watercourse. During the last days of the Silla kingdom, the king's guests would sit along the watercourse and chat while wine cups were floated during banquets.

Clothing

Main article: Hanbok

Hwarot, bridal robe

See also List of Korean clothing. The traditional dress known as hanbok (한복, 韓服) (known as joseonot [조선복 ] in the DPRK) has been worn since ancient times. The hanbok consists of a shirt (jeogori) and a skirt (baji). The traditional hat is called gwanmo and special meaning is attached to this piece of clothing.

According to social status, Koreans used to dress differently, making clothing an important mark of social rank. Impressive, but sometimes cumbersome, costumes were worn by the ruling class and the royal family. These upper classes also used jewellery to distance themselves from the ordinary people. A traditional item of jewellery for women was a pendant in the shape of certain elements of nature which was made of precious gemstones, to which a tassel of silk was connected.

Common people were often restricted to un-dyed plain clothes. This everyday dress underwent relatively few changes during the Joseon period. The basic everyday dress was shared by everyone, but distinctions were drawn in official and ceremonial clothes.

During the winter people wore cotton-wadded dresses. Fur was also common. Because ordinary people normally wore pure white undyed materials, the people were sometimes referred to as the white-clad people.

Hanbok are classified according to their purposes: everyday dress, ceremonial dress and special dress. Ceremonial dresses are worn on formal occasions, including a child's first birthday (doljanchi), a wedding or a funeral. Special dresses are made for purposes such as shamans, officials.

Today the hanbok is still worn during formal occasions. The everyday use of the dress, however, has been lost. However, elderly still dress in hanbok as well as active estates of the remnant of aristocratic families from the Joseon Dynasty.

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Cuisine

Main article: Korean cuisine

Rice is the staple food of Korea. Having been an almost exclusively agricultural country until recently, the essential recipes in Korea are shaped by this experience. The main crops in Korea are rice, barley, and beans, but many supplementary crops are used. Fish and other seafood are also important because Korea is a peninsula.

Fermented recipes were also developed in early times. These include pickled fish and pickled vegetables. This kind of food provides essential proteins and vitamins during the winter.

A number of menus have been developed. These can be divided into ceremonial foods and ritual foods. Ceremonial foods are used when a child reaches 100 days, at the first birthday, at a wedding ceremony, and the sixtieth birthday. Ritual foods are used at funerals, at ancestral rites, shaman's offerings and as temple food.

A distinguishing characteristic of Temple Food is that it does not use the common five strong-flavoured ingredients of Korean cuisine--(garlic, spring onion, wild rocambole, leek, and ginger), and meat.

Kimchi is one of the famous foods of Korea. Kimchi is pickled vegetables which contain vitamins A and C, thiamine, riboflavin, iron, calcium, carotene, etc. There are many types of kimchi including cabbage kimchi, string onion kimchi, cucumber kimchi, radish kimchi, and sesame kimchi.

For ceremonies and rituals rice cakes are vital. The colouring of the food and the ingredients of the recipes are matched with a balance of yin and yang.

Today, surasang (traditional court cuisine) is available to the whole population. In the past vegetable dishes were essential, but meat consumption has increased. Traditional dishes include ssambap, bulgogi, sinseollo, kimchi, bibimbap, and gujeolpan.

Tea

Main article: Korean tea

Tea in Korea dates back over 2000 years and was imported from China.[15] It was part of a number of worship recipes, hoping that the good scents would reach the heavenly gods. Although the origin of tea is obscure, tea was introduced in Korea, and later gave rise to the Korean tea ceremony, of which Korea has over 3000.

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Originally tea was used for ceremonial purposes or as part of traditional herbal medicine.Some of teas made of fruits, leaves, seeds or roots are enjoyed. Five tastes of tea are distinguished in Korea: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and pungent.

Festivals of the lunar calendar

Main article: Korean calendar

The traditional Korean calendar was based on the lunisolar calendar.[16] Dates are calculated from Korea's meridian, and observances and festivals are rooted in Korean culture. The Korean lunar calendar is divided into 24 turning points (절기 , jeolgi), each lasting about 15 days. The lunar calendar was the timetable for the agrarian society in the past, but is vanishing in the modern Korean lifestyle.

The Gregorian calendar was officially adopted in 1895, but traditional holidays and age reckoning are still based on the old calendar.[16][17] Older generations still celebrate their birthdays according to the lunar calendar.

The biggest festival in Korea today is Seollal (the traditional Korean New Year). Other important festivals include Daeboreum (the first full moon), Dano (spring festival), and Chuseok (harvest festival).

There are also a number of regional festivals, celebrated according to the lunar calendar. See also Public holidays in North Korea and Public holidays in South Korea.

Games

There are a number of board games played in Korea. Baduk is the Korean name for what is known as Go in English. This game is particularly popular with middle-aged and elderly men. It has a similar status as has chess in Western cultures. There is a Korean version of chess called Janggi, based on an old version of Xiangqi. Yut is a popular family board game enjoyed throughout the country, especially during holidays.

No longer commonly played, except on special occasions, Chajeon Nori is a traditional game involving two teams of villagers in a giant jousting match.

Many folk games are associated with shamanistic rites and have been handed down from one generation to the next. Three rites are important with regards to folk games: Yeonggo, Dongmaeng and Mucheon. Yeonggo is a drumming performance to invoke spirits. Dongmaeng is a harvest ceremony, while Mucheon is dances to the heaven. These performances were refined during the period of the Three Kingdoms and games were added.

Ssireum is a form of traditional wrestling. Other traditional games include pitching arrows into a pot, tuho and a game of stick-tossing (jeopo). There are also stone fights (seokjeon), swing riding (geunetagi), masked dance drama, and a ball game (gyeokku).

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Beliefs

Main articles: Korean shamanism, Buddhism in Korea, Korean Confucianism, and Christianity in Korea

The original religion of the Korean people was Shamanism, which though not as widespread as in ancient times, still survives to this day. Female shamans or mudang are often called upon to enlist the help of various spirits to achieve various means.

Buddhism and Confucianism were later introduced to Korea through cultural exchanges with Chinese dynasties. Buddhism was the official religion of the Goryeo dynasty, and many privileges were given to Buddhist monks during this period. However, the Joseon period saw the suppression of Buddhism, where Buddhist monks and temples were banned from the cities and confined to the countryside. In its place a strict form of Confucianism, which some see as even more strict than what had ever been adopted by the Chinese, became the official philosophy.

Even today, Confucianism still plays a major role in Korean society, and respect for elders is still a major part of Korean family life. Throughout Korean history and culture, regardless of separation, the traditional beliefs of Korean Shamanism, Mahayana Buddhism and Confucianism have remained an underlying influence of the religion of the Korean people as well as a vital aspect of their culture, remembering that all these traditions coexisted peacefully for hundreds of years that still exist in the more Christian South[18][19][20] or the pressure from Communism's atheist government in the North.

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HOMES

TRADITIONAL HOUSE, HANOK

TRADITIONAL FARMER’S HOUSE; FOLK VILLAGE, SEOUL

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GARDEN

HYANGWONJEONG, A GARDEN IN GYEONGBOKGUNG, SEOUL

CLOTHINGS

HANBOK

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HWAROT, BRIDAL ROBE

CUISINE

BIBIMBAP

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TEA

DARYE, KOREAN TEA CEREMONY

FESTIVAL OF THE LUNAR CALENDAR

DAEBOREUM

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GAMES

YUT BOARD GAME

BELIEFS

HAEINSA

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Korean literature

Korean literature is the body of literature produced in the Korean language. For much of Korea's 3,000 years of literary history, it was written both in Hanja and in the Korean script Hangul.[1] It is commonly divided into classical and modern periods, although this distinction is sometimes unclear. Korea is home to the world's first metal and copper type, world's earliest known printed document and the world's first featural script.

The Modern Literature of Korea

The Literature of the Enlightenment Period

Korean modern literature was formed against the background of the crumbling feudalistic society of the Choson Dynasty, the importation of new ideas from the West, and the new political reality of rising Japanese imperial power in East Asia. The first stage in the establishment of Korea's modern literature extends from the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, and is designated as the literature of the Enlightenment (kaehwa kyemong) period.

The change from traditional to modern literature during the Enlightenment period was largely due to the effects of the New Education and the Korean Language and Literature movement. After the Kabo Reforms of 1894, a new brand of education was enforced, new Western-style schools were established, and new textbooks for teaching Western knowledge were published. The literature of the Enlightenment Period secured its social base through newly emerged media like newspapers. Most newspapers, including the Tongnip Shinmun (The Independent), Hwangsong Shinmun (The Imperial City Newspaper), Taehan maeil Shinbo (Korean Daily News), Cheguk Shinmun (Imperial Newspaper), Mansebo (The Forever Report), Taehan minbo (The Korean People's Report) all published serial novels, as well as shijo, and kasa. It was at this time that a class of professional writers also began to form. Commercial publishing of literary works became possible with the introduction of new printing techniques and the emergence of publishing companies.

In this period, the ch'angga (new type of song) and the shinch'eshi (new poetry) were hailed as the new poetic forms. They contributed greatly to the formation of the modern chayushi (free verse poem). Receiving their influence from free verse poetry, the shinch'eshi abandoned the fixed meter of traditional poetry, thus making new genres possible in poems like Ch'oe Nam-son's Hae egeso sonyon ege (From the Sea to the Youth) (1908), Kkot tugo (Laying Down the Flowers) and T'aebaeksan shi (Poems of Mt. T'aebaeksan). But despite the novelty of the new forms, there were also many instances where the poetic voice was politicized, a sharp contrast to the lyric poetry of old, which gave primary expression to individual sentiment and feeling.

This period also saw the emergence of many biographical works based on enlightenment tastes, designed to cultivate patriotism and awaken the national consciousness. Representative works include, Aeguk puinjon (Tale of the Patriotic Lady) (Chang Ji-yon, 1907) and Elchi Mundok (Shin Ch'ae-ho, 1908). The biographies presented images of the kind of hero called for by the realities of the period. An Kuk-son's Kumsu hoeuirok (Notes From the Meeting of the Birds and Beasts) (1908) is the representative of this kind of work: it centers around the orations of animals who criticize the human world's moral depravity.

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While a professional class of writers began to be formed by men like Yi In-jik, Yi Hae-cho, Ch'oe Ch'an-shik and Kim Ko-je, a new literary form called the shinsosol (new novel) secured a popular readership base. Yi In-jik's Hyoluinu (Tears of Blood) (1906) and Ensegye (The Silver World) (1908), were followed by Yi Hae-cho's Kumagom (The Demon-Ousting Sword) and Chayujong (The Freedom Bell). Ch'oe Ch'an-shik's Ch'uwolsaek (The Color of the Autumn Moon) (1912) is also a well-known work. The shinsosol, all written in Han-gul, achieved mass popularity. These novels portrayed Enlightenment ideals against the background of the realities of contemporary life, and the unrealistic, transcendental worlds of old are not found in their plots. It was in the shinsosol that "time reversal" was first applied as a structural technique. The authors also adopted a vernacular prose style that brought them closer to the form of the modern novel. However, in the wake of the Japanese takeover of Korea in 1910, the character of the shinsosol began to change. The later works gave more weight to the fates of individual characters, and commonplace love-struggles became more prominent.

Literature of the Japanese Colonial Period

Korea suffered a great deal under Japanese colonial rule (1910-1945). Coercing the Korean government to conclude the Korean-Japanese Annexation Treaty, Japan then installed a Governor-General in Korea and enforced military rule. Restrictions governing speech and publications were especially severe. As a result, Korea's spirit of self-reliance and independence, together with its will to proceed with the Enlightenment ideals, no longer could find expression in its literature.

The Korean literature of the Japanese colonial period began with the March First Independence Movement of 1919. It was during this period that the Korean people began to exhibit a more positive attitude in coping with their national situation. Strengthened by feelings of national self-awakening which had been stirred up by the March First Independence Movement of 1919, the literature of that period began to show an interest in themes of self-discovery and individual expression, as well as an increased interest in concrete reality. Literary coterie magazines emerged, like Ch'angjo (Creation) (1919), P'yeho (The Ruins) (1920), and Paekcho (White Tide) (1922), and literary circles formed. With the publication of magazines like Kaebyok (The Opening) (1920), creative literary efforts also began to become more actively developed. In particular, the publication of national newspapers, like the Dong-A Ilbo and the Chosun Ilbo, contributed toward establishing a broad base of support for artistic endeavors.

In the early 1920s, the base support for Korea's modern literature began to expand as people experienced a renewed self-awakening and recognition of their national predicaments in the wake of the March 1919 uprising. The novels of this period describe the sufferings of the intellectual who drifts through reality, and expose the pathetic lives of the laborers and farmers. Yi Kwang-su's short story Sonyonui piae (The Sorrow of Youth) in which he writes of the inner pain of the individual, was followed by his full-length novel Mujong (Heartlessness) (1917), the success of which placed him at the center of Korean letters. Mujong was not thoroughgoing in its apprehension of colonial period reality, but as a novel combining the fatalistic life of the individual with the Zeitgeist of the period, it is recognized as being modern in character. With Paettaragi (Following the Boat) (1921) and Kamja (Potatoes) (1925), Kim Tong-in also contributed greatly to the short-story genre. In it, he minutely describes in realistic detail the shifting fates of man. Hyon Chin-gon's Unsu choun nal (The Lucky Day) (1924) is also a work which employs superb technique in describing people coping with the pain of their reality. Yom Sang-sop's P'yobonshilui ch'nonggaeguri (Green Frog in the Specimen Gallery) (1921) deals again with the wanderings and frustrations of the intellectual; and in Mansejon (The Tale of Forever) (1924), Yom gives expression to the colonial realities of a devastated Korea.

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The poetry of this period also established a new and modern Korean poetry as it borrowed from the French techniques of vers libre. Both the free verse of Chu Yo-han's Pullori (Fireworks) (1919) and Kim So-wol's poetry collection Chindallae kkot (Azaleas) (1925) made enormous contributions toward establishing the foundations of modern Korean poetry. Kim reconstructed the meter of the traditional folk ballad, successfully giving poetic shape to a world of sentiment. Yi Sang-hwa, in his works entitled Madonna (Madonna) and Ppaeatkin Turedo pomun onun-ga (Does Spring Come to Those Who Have Been Plundered?), attempted to come to terms with the suffering of the age and the agony of the individual, through the poetic recognition of the realities of colonialism. Based on Buddhist thought, Han Yong-un, in his Nimui ch'immuk (Thy Silence) (1926) sang of "Thou" as an absolute existence, and tragically compared the reality of Koreans' loss of their nation to that of the loss suffered by a woman who must endure the separation of her loved one or husband.

In the mid-1920s, Korean literature was divided into national and class literatures, in accordance with the democratic and socialist ideals that were popular that time. By 1925 the class literature movement began to solidify with the organization of the Korea Proletarian Artist's Federation (KAPF). The proletarian literature movement, by expanding its organization and targeting the elevation of class consciousness through literature, sought to strengthen class ideology in society. In order to achieve mass support from the farmers and laborers, it poured its energies into the creation of a "labor literature" and a "farmer literature." Most notable of this kind of novel include Ch'oe So-hae's T'alch'ulgi (Record of an Escape) (1925), Cho Myong-hui's Naktonggang (The Naktonggang river) (1927), Yi Ki-yong's Kohyang (Hometown) (1934), and Han Sol-ya's Hwanghon (Twilight). These works are for the most part based in class consciousness and emphasize the struggles against colonialism, with farmers and laborers playing the central protagonists in that struggle. In the case of poetry, Pak Se-yong, Im Hwa and Kim Ch'ang-sul all took aim at the class contradictions under colonialism and published many "tendency poems" (kyonghyangshi) emphasizing the consciousness of class struggle.

During the 1930s, Korean literature underwent important changes as Japanese militarism was strengthened and ideological coercion began to be applied to literature. Pursuit of the communal ideology, which until that point had formed the course of Korean literature, became a thing of the past. New and various literary trends began to emerge.

Many novels written during this period experimented with new styles and techniques. In Nalgae (Wings) and Chongsaenggi (Record of the End of a Life), for example, Yi Sang used the technique of dissociation of the self from the world around him. Yi Hyo-sok's Memilkkot p'il muryop (When the Buckwheat Flowers Bloom) and Kim Yu-jong's Tongbaek kkot (Camellia Blossoms) are counted as masterful works of this genre. Also, Pak T'ae-won's Sosolga Kubossiui Iril (Days of Kubo the Novelist) (1934) and Yi T'ae-jun's Kkamagwi (The Crow) (1936) opened up new vistas for the novel with their new stylistic sensibilities. In these novels, novelistic space grows from within the interior of the self. By contrast, the full length novels of Yom Sang-sop's Samdae (The Three Generations) (1931), Pak T'ae-won's Ch'eonbyon p'unggyong (Views by the Riverside) (1937), Ch'ae Man-shik's T'angnyu (The Muddy Stream) (1938), and Hong Myong-hui's Im Kkok-chong chon (Tale of Im Kkok-chong) (1939), all narrate the story of the lives of their characters against the backdrop of Korea's tumultuous history.

The modernism movement is the most impressive feature of the poetry of this period. It emerged as sunsushi (pure poetry). The pioneering poems of Chong Chi-yong and Kim Yong-nang embody poetic lyricism through intricate linguistic sensibility and refined technique. Yi Sang, in particular, played a central role in the development of this new kind of experimental poetry. Also, aligned with this movement was the so-called Saengmyongp'a (the life poets) movement which included writers like So Chong-ju and Yu Ch'i-hwan. Another significant trend during this period was the nature-poems of Pak Tu-jin and Pak Mok-wol,

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among others. The poetry of Yi Yuk-sa and Yun Dong-ju was also important in that it captured the emotion of the people in their resistance to Japanese imperialism.

Literature of the Period of National Division

After the liberation from the Japanese in 1945, Korea became embroiled in the political maneuvers of the World Powers, and the division into South and North became unavoidable. This division in political thought also made a significant impact on the literary world, as the factionalism and struggles began to occur between Southern and Northern literatures. The Korean War(1950-1953) was a tragic interim which solidified Korea's division into South and North. Postwar Korean society's emergence from the wounds and chaos of that war had a considerable impact on the development of Korean literature.

For the most part, the postwar novel in South Korea deals with the struggles of the Korean people to achieve deliverance from their national pain and anguish. The writings of Kim Tong-ri and Hwang Sun-won are representatives of this new type of literature. Also included in this genre is An Su-kil, whose novel Pukkando (1959) portrays the pioneering fortitude and steadfast spiritual power of Koreans who migrate to Manchuria. In addition, many of the postwar generation writers took as their predominant theme the collapse of the traditional socio-moral value systems, as seen in Oh Sang-won's Moban (Revolt) (1957) and Son Ch'ang-sop's Injo in-gan (Artificial Man) (1958). Pak Kyong-ri's Pulshin shidae (The Age of Mistrust) (1957), Chong Kwang-yong's Kkoppittan Li (Captain Lee) (1962) and Yi Bom-son's Obalt'an (A Bullet Misfired), in particular, deal squarely with the chaos and moral collapse of postwar society. Yi Ho-ch'iol's Nasang (The Nude Portrait) (1957) and Ch'oe Sang-gyu's P'oint'du (Point) (1956) describe people living their lives in a veritable pit of bleak reality.

The search for a new poetic spirit and technique was also a significant feature of Korea's postwar poetry. Among the postwar trends was the Chont'ongp'a (traditionalists), movement, marked by a style rooted in traditional rhythms and folk sentiment. The centrality of individual sentiment and sensibility in the Chont'ongp'a, combined with the traditional rhythmic base, brought a broad, folkish sentiment into the realm of poetry. In addition to Pak Jae-sam, whose P'iri (Flute) and Ulum i t'anun kang (The Saddened River) was inspired by the world of traditional sentiment and folk feeling, Ku Ja-un, Yi Tong-ju and Chong Han-mo were also significant contributors to this movement. Another trend in postwar poetry was the Shilhomp'a (experientialists) who, while venturing to bring new experiences to poetic language and form, concentrated on changing the tradition. Kim Kyong-rin, Pak In-hwan, Kim Kyu-dong, Kim Ch'a-yong and Yi Pong-rae, as well as a coterie of writers called the Huban-gi (The Later Years), were central to this new postwar modernist movement. In particular, Pak Pong-u and Chon Pong-gon, brought critical recognition and a satirical approach to social conditions through poetry.

At the close of the 1950s, writers like Kim Sung-ok, Pak T'ae-sun, So Jong-in, Yi Ch'song-jun, Hong Song-won and Ch'oe In-hun made their literary debut. Ch'oe In-hun's Kwangjang (The Square), for example, gave expression to the agony, wanderings and frustrations of the intellectual using a unique novelistic structure. Kim Sung-ok, in his Seoul 1964, Kyoul (Seoul, 1964, Winter), wrote about the life of the petit bourgeois.

Shortly after the April 19th Revolution of 1960, poetic trends also changed. Poets like Shin Tong-yop and Kim Su-yong emphatically rejected the sentimental escapism of the postwar period and began to advocate the necessity to engage its readership with the political reality of the times. Kim Su-yong's Tallara Cui changnan (The Prank of the Moonland) (1959) and Shin Tong-yop's long poem Kumgang (The Kumgang

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river) (1967) for example, both express this new realistic sensibility by advocating the view that poetry become a significant means for political expression.

During the 1970s, Korean society found itself in the throes of rapid industrialization in which the gap between the rich and the poor, as well as regional disparities in industrial development, became markedly visible. As the political angst among the people increased, a new anti-establishment literary movement exploded onto the scene. The most important characteristic of the Korean novel during this period was its positive concern for various social problems which began to appear during the industrialization process. Yi Mun-gu's Kwanch'on sup'il (Kwanch'on Essays) (1977), for example, portrays the actual conditions of farmers who were neglected and became impoverished in the midst of the industrial development of the nation. The lifestyles of Seoul's "border citizens" (those living in the outskirts of the city) and the labor scene were also vividly portrayed in Hwang Sok-yong's Kaekchi (The Strange Land) (1970) and Samp'o kanun kil (The Road to Samp'o) and Cho Se-hui's Nanjang-iga ssoa ollin chagun kong (Small Ball Thrown by a Dwarf) (1978). Clearly, these novels opened up new possibilities for the "labor" novel as they gave new expression to the depravities and sufferings borne by the lives of the laborers in Korea during this period in history. Yi Ch'Song-jun's Tangshindul Cui ch'ion-guk (Your Heaven) (1976), Chaninhan toshi (The Cruel City) (1978) and O jong-hui's Yunyon Cui ttul (The Garden of Childhood) (1981), all examine the theme of human isolation and alienation which marked these laborers' experiences of industrial development. The social satire apparent throughtout Pak Wan-so's Hwich'aonggorinun ohu (The Reeling Afternoon) (1977) and Ch'oe Il-lam's T'aryong (The Tune) (1977) are representative of important tendencies in the novel of this period.

There also emerged during this period what has been referred to as the "division novel" (pundansosol) which brought to the fore a critical examination of national division. Kim Won-il's Noul (Sunset)(1978), Chon Sang-guk's Abeui kajok (Abe's Family) (1980) and Cho Jong-rae's T'aebaeksanmaek (The T'aebaeksan Mountains) are representative of this new type of novel. Also noteworthy is the roman-fleuve, like Pak Kyong-ri's T'oji(The Land), judged to be one of the most important achievements of modern Korean literature.

In the realm of poetry, the works which centered around the experiences of the minjung (roughly translated "oppressed people" or "oppressed masses") most clearly defined the poetic trends of the times. Shin Kyong-rim's Nongmu (Farmer's Dance) (1973) and Ko EUn's Munui maule kaso (Going to Munui Village) (1974), for example, both clearly demonstrate this concern for the lives of the minjung (people). Kim Chi-ha's T'anun mongmarum uro (Towards a Thirst) (1982), in particular, gave expression to the fighting spirit of the minjung in its struggle against industrial exploitation.

The Translation of Korean Literature in Foreign Languages

Korean literature was largely unknown to the world until the 1980s, when translations of Korean literary works began to appear in foreign countries. Since then, the types of works selected for translation have become increasingly diverse, and the quality of the translations themselves have improved steadily. Furthermore, as the translations principally are being published by overseas publishers, the translations have became available to a wider reading public.

Since the 1980s, Korean literature in English translation has spread widely in the English-speaking countries. Anthologies of Korean modern short stories such as Flowers of Fire (Peter H. Lee, University of

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Hawaii Press, 1974); and Land of Exile (Marshall R. Pihl and Bruce Fulton, New York: M.E.Sharpe, 1993) are widely used as textbooks in universities all across the English-speaking world.

The Korean novelists whose works have been most widely translated are Hwang Sun-won and Kim Tong-ri. Hwang's novel Umjiginun song (The Moving Castle) was translated in the United States by Bruce Fulton. Other works, including Collected Short Stories by Hwang Sun-won translated by Edward Poitras, and another similar collection by Professor Holman, have also been available in English. Important works by Kim Tong-ri such as Elhwa (Eulhwa, The Shaman Sorceress), Munyodo (The Portrait of the Shaman) have been translated and published. Poetry selections by Han Yong-un (Your Silence), So chong-ju(Winter Sky) and Hwang Dong-gyu (Wind Berial) can also be found in English translation.

In francophone countries, the scope of literary translation activities from Korean is limited compared to those in English-speaking countries; but in these countries too, projects are actively underway. Yi Mun-yol has had their greatest overseas exposure through French translations. Translated works by Yi Mun-yol include Uridurui ilgurojin yongung (Notre Heros Defigure) and Shiin (Le Poete) . Other Korean novels available in French are Cho Se-hui's Nanjang-iga ssoa ollin chagun kong (La petite Balle Lancee par un Nain). Translations of poetry by individual authors include those of Han Yong-un and Gu Sang. Such translation projects will continue in the future in an ongoing effort to introduce Korean literature to readers throughout the world.

The Character of Korean Literature

Korean literature is usually divided chronologically into a classical and a modern period. But the basis for such a division is still being questioned. Great reforms swept Korea after the mid-19th century as its society actively absorbed Western things.

Korea's classical literature developed against the backdrop of traditional folk beliefs of the Korean people; it was also influenced by Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. Among these, Buddhist influence held the greatest sway, followed by enormous influences from Confucianism - especially Song Confucianism - during the Choson period.

Modern literature of Korea, on the other hand, developed out of its contact with Western culture, following the course of modernization. Not only Christian thought, but also various artistic trends and influences were imported from the West. As the "New Education" and the "National Language and Literature Movement" developed, the Chinese writing system, which had traditionally represented the culture of the dominant class, lost the socio-cultural function it had previously enjoyed. At the same time, the Korean script, Han-gul was being used more and more frequently, resulting in the growth and development of Korean language and literature studies. With the advent of the "new novel" (shinsosol) came a surge in novels written in the Korean script. Music and classical poetry, formerly fused together in a kind of a song called ch'anggok, were now viewed as separate endeavors. New paths opened up for the new literature. While Korea was importing Western culture via Japan or China, it was also carrying out literary reforms from within.

Linguistic expression and manner of transmission are issues of utmost importance in the overall understanding of Korean literature. Korean literature extends over a broad territory: literature recorded in Chinese; and literature written in Han-gul. These two aspects of Korean literature greatly differ from each other in terms of their literary forms and character.

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Korean literature in Chinese was created when Chinese characters were brought to Korea. Because Chinese characters are a Chinese invention, there have been times in Korea's history when efforts were made to exclude literature written in Chinese from the parameters of what constitutes Korean literature. But in the Koryo and Choson cultures, Chinese letters were central to Koreans' daily lives. We also cannot overlook the fact that the literary activity of the dominant class was conducted in Chinese. While Chinese-centered ideas and values are contained in this literature - a feature shared by most of East Asia during this period - they also contain experiences and thought patterns that express the unique way of life of the Korean people.

The use of the Korean script began during the Choson period with the creation of the Korean alphabet (Hunmin Chong-um). The creation of the Korean alphabet in the 15th century was a crucial turning point in Korea's literary history. Compared with the literature written in Chinese which was dominated by the upper classes, Korean script made possible the broadening of the literary field to include women and commoners. This expanded the social base of Korean writers and readers alike. The Korean script (Han-gul) assumed its place of leading importance in Korean literature only during the latter half of the 19th century. After the Enlightenment period, the use of Chinese letters swiftly declined and the popularity of Korean letters greatly increased. As soon as the linguistic duality of "Chinese" and "Native" within Korean life was overcome, literature in the Korean script became the foundation upon which the national literature developed.

THE PRIDE TO BE AN AFRICAN

BY:Fasan paul 

My Africa My Africa My AfricaMy Africa of which everybody imitatesMy Africa of which culture exceed the GreekMy Africa of which everyone is jealous of

My Africa My Africa My AfricaMy Africa of enormous natural endowmentMy Africa of Non-ViolenceMy Africa of Amorous populates

My Africa My Africa My AfricaMy Africa of patriot men and womenMy Africa of shelter and vintage hospitality

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My Africa of great ancestral mythology

My Africa My Africa My AfricaMy Africa that bore fruits of black diamondsMy Africa which is a gift to the whole worldMy Africa of great leadership

My Africa My Africa My AfricaMy Africa of learned youthsMy Africa of a bright generationMy Africa true tradition

My Africa My Africa My AfricaMy Africa of black pageant womenMy Africa of strong menMy Africa from who we all hail fromFor every African deserves a Nobel Prize inExistence.

Singapore

Poem

REMINISCENCE

Xiang Yeow Tan Yeokky,

Bask in the golden warmth of the sun,And hear the child-like joy and fun.But...too bad the past has gone and now it's time for the future anon!

Take a deep breath of the rejuvenating air,

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Embolden thy hearts despite nightmares.Let not leaving thy spirits tear-Farewell is an occasion that you can bear...

Fear not the ramifications of the past,Heartaches and anxieties disappear fast.What must happen will come and fade-the repercussions of past mistakes made.

Brave the biased stares and glares,Reciprocate it with a knowing glance.Be the feelings coal or gold,Time will tell the truth a thousandfold.

Grass

by Kim Su-yŏng

 

The grass is lying flat.

Fluttering in the east wind that brings rain in its train,

the grass lay flat

and at last it wept.

As the day grew cloudier, it wept even more

and lay flat again.

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The grass is lying flat.

It lies flat more quickly than the wind.

It weeps more quickly than the wind.

It rises more quickly than the wind.

 The day is cloudy, the grass is lying flat.

It lies low as the ankles

low as the feet.

Though it lies flat later than the wind,

it rises more quickly than the wind

and though it weeps later than the wind,

it laughs more quickly than the wind.

The day is cloudy, the grass's roots are lying flat.

 

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SUBMITTED BY:

SONGAHID, MARY ANN

SUBMITTED TO:

MRS. MARY JANE E. ROMO