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INSTITUIA: ACADEMIA NAVALMIRCEA CEL BTRN

TITLUL CRII: CURS DE LIMBENGLEZ. ANUL I EXPLOATRI PORTUARE, FORMAFRECVENREDUS

AUTOR: LECT. UNIV. DRD. CAMELIA ALIBEC

CONSTANA, 2004

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PREFA

Cursul de limb englezpentru exploatri portuare contribuie la nsuirea cunotinelor

generale de limb englezprecum i a termenilor de specialitate, fiind structurat n opt

uniti. Cursul este destinat studenilor de anul I de la specialitatea exploatri portuare,

forma frecven redus i este un mijloc eficient de formare i instruire a viitorilor

specialiti.

Cursul i propune consolidarea cunotinelor de baz n domeniul gramaticii limbii

engleze precum i dezvoltarea capacitilor de nelegere i exprimare oral, citire i

scriere n limba englez, extinderea vocabularului, nsuirea i aplicarea normelor

gramaticale n exprimarea situativconform tematicii prevzute n unitile de studiu din

program. Extinderea vocabularului se face prin abordarea textelor care con in temeni de

specialitate referitori la nomenclatura navei, operaiuni portuare precum i expresii

recomandate pentru traficul maritim i portuar

Limbajul de specialitate este dublat de cel lingvistic care are ca scop folosirea corecta

diverselor structuri gramaticale n scris sau n conversaie.

Cursul poate fi considerat i un punct de plecare pentru aprofundarea studiului de

specialitate, de cunoatere mai detaliat a structurilor limbii engleze i folosirea lor n

ndeplinirea atribuiunilor profesionale.

Cursul este structurat in 8 uniti, fecare unitate fiind compus dintr-un text despecialitate, urmat de traducerea vocabularului si expresiilor aferente textului. Partea de

vocabular este urmat de problema de gramatica, care este introdus de elemente de

teorie urmate de un grup de exercitii pe tema de gramatic respectiv. Exercitiile sunt

completate cu cheia de raspuns. Dupparcurgerea celor 8 uniti, cursul se incheie cu 2

teste de autoevaluare cu cheie de rspuns, o list de verbe neregulate si n final

bibliografia.

Nu uitati c acest curs este un instrument de autoinstruire i chiar dac problemele de

gramaticnu sunt tratate n mod exhaustiv, putei svcompletai cunotinele alegnd

orice altculegere de gramaticde limbenglez.

Good luck and keep up your English!

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INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

GENERAL REMARKS

Why do you learn a foreign language? Because it is a necessity, an act of culture, it is

something you like, it is fun, it is challenging!

Speaking about English, learning it, it is more than a necessity, it is an emergency!

English is a global language. It is the language of world diplomacy, business, finance,

science, and technology.

#350 million people speak and write English as their native language.

#An additional 350 million people speak and write English as their second language.

#Half of the worlds books are published in English.

#80 % of the worlds computer text is in English.

Last but not least, the international language for airline pilots is English. No matter whereyou fly, that is what is spoken.

You are able to say that you know a language well if you know how to communicate in

that language. Good writingand speakingmeets five basic standards: it is clear,

complete, correct, efficient, and effective.

In order to write and speak well you have to know the grammar rules that seem to be

scary, more frightening than a sail on the Titanic or a night with Michael Jackson!

English rules are scary, yes- but difficult, no.

What is grammar? Grammar is a branch of linguistics that deals with the form and

structure of words. Grammar is one of the oldest fields of study, as well as one of the

most durable. Even Plato can be labeled an early grammarian, because he was responsible

for dividing the sentence into subject and verb.

Apart from grammar we also deal with usage.Usage is the customary way we use thelanguage in speech and writing. Because we use language for different purposes, there

exists various levels of language:

formal usage (They have done nothing)

informal usage ( Theyve done nothing)

Nonstandard usage ( They aint done nothing)

Standard English is composed of formal and informal usage. It is the language of

education, legal, professional, and governmental documents.

Good or bad it indicates social class. It is the right stuff of speech and writing.

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An adjectivegives further information about a noun; they are also called describing

words(a tallperson, a bigship, a rustyhull).A determineris used to point more precisely to the person, thing, or idea to which

reference is being made. Among the determiners are definite and indefinite articles and

possessives (aship, thecaptain, mycompany, their voyage).

An adverb gives information about the way that an action is performed or when and

where it takes place: She ran quicklydown the path/ He lifted the box slowly.

A prepositionis one of a small group of words that can be used with nouns and verbs.

They give information about position or movement (onthe deck, tothe harbour, atthe

gates, overthe bridge).

A conjunctionjoints two or more nouns or clauses to each other; they are sometimes

called joining words (He picked it up andran over to her).

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CONTENTS

UNIT 1. SEA TRANSPORT. VOCABULARY. THE NOUN. GRAMMAR PRACTICE.

GRAMMAR PRACTIC.ANSWER KEY.

UNIT II. PORT DESCRIPTION. VOCABULARY. THE ARTICLE AND OTHER

DETERMINERS. GRAMMAR PRACTICE. GRAMMAR PRACTICE.

ANSWER KEY.

UNIT III. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF A SHIP. VOCABULARY. THE PRONOUN

AND THE NUMERAL. GRAMMAR PRACTICE. GRAMMAR PRACTICE

ANSWER KEY.

UNIT IV. EXAMINING THE SHIP BY THE CUSTOM. VOCABUKARY. THE

ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB. GRAMMAR PRACTICE. GRAMMAR

PRACTICE ANSWER KEY.

UNIT V. RECEPTION OF CARGO. VOCABULARY. THE PRESENT TENSE SIMPLE

AND CONTINUOUS. . GRAMMAR PRACTICE. GRAMMAR PRACTICE

ANSWER KEY.UNIT VI. DELIVERY OF CARGO. VOCABULARY. THE PRESENT PERFECT

SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS. GRAMMAR PRACTICE. GRAMMAR

PRACTICE ANSWER KEY.

UNIT VII. DRY-DOCKING AND REPAIRS. VOCABULARY. THE PAST TENSE

SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS. GRAMMAR PRACTICE. GRAMMAR

PRACTICE ANSWER KEY.

UNIT VIII. WEATHER AND SEASONS. VOCABULARY. THE PAST PERFECT

SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS. GRAMMAR PRACTICE. GRAMMAR

PRACTICE ANSWER KEY.

SELF-TEST I. ANSWER KEY.

SELF-TEST II. ANSWER KEY.

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS.BIBLIOGRAPHY

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UNIT 1

SEA TRANSPORTTHE NOUN

Objectives:after studying the course and the seminar the students will be able torecognize the nouns and use them properly in sentences; interpret easy maritime texts

and translate few maritime words and expressions.

Historical perspective: The first boats

Nobody knows exactly when people first started using craft to travel on water, but it musthave been tens of thousands of years ago. The first craft were probably extremely simple-

just a log, an inflated animal skin, or a bundle of reeds tied together.People discovered that craft like these could help them to cross a stretch of water moreeasily. These craft probably developed into early simple boats, such as dug-out canoesand skin-covered boats, in which a person could sit while fishing or travelling along ariver. The basic designs are still in use in many areas of the world today and have manyadvantages over modern boats.

Facts:A dug-out canoe is made by hollowing out a thick tree trunk to leave a thin

wooden hull. The hull is smoothed and shaped so that it moves easily through the

water.

In 1970, Norwegian Thor Heyerdahl built a large Egyptian-style reed boat called

Ra II. He sailed it from Africa to the Caribbean. This proved the Egyptians would

have been able to reach America more than 4,000 years ago.

The age of sail

Sails capture the wind and use it to push ships and boats along. Sails first appeared onships on the river Nile in about 3500BC. These ships had one simple square sail on asingle mast. They were only useful when the wind was blowing in the same direction thatthe crew of the ship wanted to go. Viking boats in the AD600s used square sails to sailthe coasts of Scandinavia.In the Middle Ages, the lateen (triangular) sail allowed ships to be sailed with the windfrom the side. This type of sail was invented by the Chinese and Arabs.From the 1100s, European sailors began building fully rigged ships with a combination ofsquare and lateen sails. This allowed them to make the maximum use of the wind.

Steam power

The first steam engines were developed in the early 1700s for pumping water out of themines. By the end of the century they had become small and engineers began to use themin trains and ships. Steam power meant that a ship could keep going even if the wind wasin the wrong direction.Early steamships used paddles, but propellers gradually proved to be more efficient. Afterthe 1850s, shipbuilders began to use iron instead of wood. The superior strength of iron

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meant that much larger ships could be built, which could also be fitted with more

powerful steam engines. Facts: The first craft to use steam power was a small river boat called the

Charlotte Dundas, launched in 1802.

Ship PowerThere are many different ways of propelling boats and ships through the water. The most

basic, such as rowing and paddling, are human- powered. Today they are only used insmall vessels.Sails harness the natural power of the wind to propel a boat or a ship. Engines convert theenergy stored in fuel into the movement of a propeller. As the propeller spins, its bladesforce water to rush backwards, which thrusts the boat or ship forwards. Most enginesused in boats and ships are diesel engines.Other types of marine engine are petrol engines, gas turbine engines and steam turbineengines. Other craft, such as hovercraft, have aircraft-like propellers.

Facts:In 1845, two ships, one with a propeller and one with paddlewheels, foughta war. The battle was to find the most efficient. The propeller easily won .

VOCABULARY

Craft = ambarcatiuneBundle of reeds = snop de stuf

Stretch of water = intindere de apaHollow out = a scobiHull = corpul, coca naveiDug-out canoe = piroga, luntre din trunchi scobitSail = panza de corabie, velaMast = catargRigged ships = nava cu velaturaSteam = aburSteamship = vapor cu aburPaddle = zbat, padelaPropeller = eliceHarness = a intensifica

Spin = a se rotiBlade = pala de elice,paleta de turbinaThrust = a impingeHovercraft = ambarcatiune pe perna de aer

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THE NOUN

What is a noun?A noun is a word that names a person, place, or thing. The word noun comes from theLatin word nomen, which means name. Nouns are of different kinds: common nouns,

proper nouns, abstract nouns, compound nouns and collective nouns.Proper nounsname a specific person, place, or thing. They are written with capital lettersBob, Bucharest, Britain, Monday, April, Mars, the War of the Roses, etc.The days of the week and the months of the year are always written with capital letters(unlike in the Romanian language) and also the names of nationalities and languages, nomatter the position in the sentence.Some proper nouns have become common nouns, therefore they are not written withcapital letters anymore. Here there are examples of: objects named after their place oforigin (china, holland, oxfords) or objects named after those who invented, discovered,inspired them (a hovercraft, a mackintosh, an Oscar, a tommy-private in the army, a volt,a watt).Common nounsname any one of a class of person, place, or thing: boy, city, dog, family,

food, water, happiness. They are divided into the following groups, according to theirmeaning:

Abstract nouns name actions, states, sensations, senses, relations, considered to benotions. They refer to intangible items. Examples:joy, love, friendship, greatness, labour,rest, force,etc.Concrete nounsname objects, plants, things, phenomena and events, which we are awareof using our senses. They refer to tangible items. Examples: moon, lion, tree, John, rain.

Collective nouns name groups of people or things: audience, family, team, crowd,council, association, government, crew, congress, the public, etc.Compound nouns are two or more nouns that function as a single unit. A compoundnoun can be two individual words (time capsule), hyphenated words (great-uncle),combined words (basketball).Another important criterion in selecting nouns is their countability. According to this, wecan divide nouns into: countable and uncountable nouns.Count nounsrefer to things that we can count; they have singular and plural forms andcan be preceded by the definite article a, an. Examples: one (a) cat, two cats, flowers,children families, days, birds, crowds,etc.Uncountable nounsname objects that cannot be counted, they do not have plural formand do not get the definite article. In this category we have: names of sports (football,

tennis, rugby), material or concrete mass nouns (steam, smoke, meat, silver), naturalproducts (fat, marmalade, milk, oil), fruit, vegetables and cereals (corn, maize, rice, rye,celery, spinach, cabbage), abstract mass nouns (admiration, applause, age, homework,

peace, youth).!Note that nouns that are uncountable in English may be count nouns in other languages(information, advice), or there are nouns used only in the plural form even when we aretalking about one item (trousers, clothes, jeans). We have to use a partitive noun with ofwhen referring to a single item (a pair of trousers, an item of clothes, a pair of jeans ).

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Gender of nouns

Gender is the grammatical category specific to nouns and it represents the form of nounsto show sex difference, when speaking about animates, and the absence of gender whenspeaking about inanimates.English grammar has 3 types of gender:Gender of personal nouns: -masculine gender: man, actor, landlord, hero, bull, brother

- feminine gender: woman, actress, landlady, heroine, cow,sister.

This type of gender can be expressed in 3 ways:a) lexically - with the help of different words: brother/ sister, king/ queen, man/ woman,uncle/ aunt.

b) morphologically by adding a suffix to the masculine form (actress, hostess, princess,goddess, waitress, heroine).

- by adding a suffix to the feminine form (widow- widower, bride-bridegroom)

c) common gender one form for both masculine and feminine: artist, cook, doctor,friend, musician, cousin, parent, person, student, teacher, writer.

Gender of animate nouns animate nouns are classified into:a) names of big animals, which are generally of male gender (horse). There can be a

distinction male-female: horse (stallion-mare); deer (stag-hind); sheep (ram-ewe), oradding suffixes (lion-lioness, tiger-tigress).

b)

names of small animals, which are neuter, being replaced by it. In some cases thereare lexical differences: cock-hen, gander-goose, dog-bitch. There are also specialgender words: he goat-she goat, Tom cat-she cat, male frog-female frog.

Gender of inanimate nouns these nouns are neuter: Where is my umbrella?Itis in mybag/ The truth will emerge; italways does.

Case of nouns

Case is the way in which a noun can be given a change of spelling (an inflection), whichindicates that the noun has a particular function in a clause, Case is used to denote thesyntactical functions of nouns.The nominative case for the nouns which are subjects in a sentence (My boyis waiting

for his friend), or predicates (He is a teacher).The accusative case is the case of the direct object (I ate an ice-creaman hour ago).If there is only one object in the sentence, this is a direct object in the accusative ( Shut thewindow, please); if there are two objects, both could be direct objects in the accusative (I

asked him a question), or one indirect object in the dative and one direct object in theaccusative (I lent her my umbrella).The following verbs are followed by two accusatives: ask, envy, excuse, give, forgive,offer, save, strike, etc.The dative case is the case of the indirect object. It is marked by the prepositions toandfor(She gave some sweets to the children/ I bought a presentfor my mother).The genitive caseexpresses possession and the syntactical function of attribute. Thereare several types of genitive:

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a) Thes genitive(synthetic genitive) operates as follows: for singular nouns (girls

dress, Annsbag, teachersbook), for irregular plural nouns (mens car, childrenstoys), for plural nouns (boyscars, Dickenslife).

b) The of genitive is used as an equivalent of the s genitive (the plays ofShakespeare). It is used with nouns, names of things (the title of the book), withgeographical places (the city of London), for emphasizing (the arrival of his

grandfather), with names of small animals (the tail ofthe mouse).c)

The implicit genitive no s: audience participation, student hostel, afternoon tea(this type of genitive is used in contemporary English, especially in journalism).

d)

The double genitive s genitive + of genitive with names of people (this joke ofPeters).

The vocative caseBob, hurry up! / Have you got a minute, Mr. Brown?

Number in nounsSingular numberis used when the noun refers to one item. Plural numberis used whenthe noun refers to more than one item. Count nouns have both singular and plural forms.Uncountable nouns and mass nouns do not normally have a plural form.The regular plural ending of an English noun iss(cat-cats, ship-ships, sailor-sailors).These are the exceptions to the normal pattern:

Singular noun ending Plural noun ending

-s, -ss, -ch, -x, -zz -es`examples:focus-focuses, princess-princesses, church-churches, box-boxes, buzz-buzzes-o -s or esexamples: hero-heroes, piano-pianos, potato-potatoes

consonant + y -iesexamples: baby-babies, hobby-hobbies, spy-spiesvowel + y -sexamples: boy-boys, key-keys, ray-rays, play-plays-f -s or vesexamples: thief-thieves, wolf-wolves, leaf-leaves, roof-roofs, dwarf-dwarfs/ dwarves-fe -vesexamples: life-lives, knife-knives

Irregular pluralsSome nouns have two plural forms (fish-fish/ fishes). Some of them have the same formin the singular and plural (a sheep-ten sheep, a deer-ten deer). A few change a vowel toform the plural (man-men, woman-women, foot-feet, goose-geese, tooth-teeth, mouse-

mice, louse-lice). Some nouns form the plural inen(child-children, ox-oxen).Compound nouns normally form the plural by addingsto the last word of the compound(a girl friend-two girl friends, a bookcase-two bookcases). A compound noun formedfrom a verb and an adverb adds sto the last word (a take-away/ two take-aways), but acompound noun formed from a noun and an adverb makes the first word plural (a passer-by/ two passers-by).Compound nouns with man or woman as the first word make bothwords plural (a manservant-two menservants, a woman doctor- two woman doctors).Some nouns referring to clothes and tools where two equal parts are joined together(trousers, binoculars, scissors) are treated as being plural and are followed by a verb in

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the plural (My trousers are torn/ The scissors are on the table). To talk about one of these

items we use the expression a pair of(John bought a pair of jeans). To talk about morethan one we talk about however many pairs of(Martina bought five pairs of tights).When used as ordinary numbers, words such as dozen, thousands, million have no pluralform (nine million stars/ two dozen glasses). When used to mean an indefinitely largenumber, they do have a plural form, which can be used as a partitive ( There arethousandsof people here/ I saw dozens of children in the playground).Foreign plurals

Nouns that have come into English from foreign languages can:-

keep the plural form of the language they come from (an axis-two axes, a crisis-twocrises, a thesis-two theses, datum-data)

-

have plural formed according to the rules for plural in English in preference to theforeign plurals (a memorandum-two memorandums/ memoranda, a stadium-two

stadiums/ stadia)

-

have two plurals: one from the foreign language and the other formed according tothe rules for plural in English (an index-indexes/ indices, a formula-formulas/

formulae)

The foreign plural is usually kept for scientific or specialized use.

Agreement

Singular and plural verbs

Generally if we want to talk about one thing we use a singular noun/pronoun and asingular verb-form:

This is the new engine. The engine/It worksvery well.If we talk about more than one thing we use a plural noun/pronoun and a plural verb-form:

Have you seen the new engines? The new engines/They workvery well.

Subject-verb agreement means choosing the correct singular or plural verb after thesubject for present. An uncountable noun takes a singular verb-form:

Seawater isgetting colder and colder in winter.

Singular and plural subjects

Two or more phrases linked by andtake a plural verb:Jamie and Emma gosailing at the weekends.

Wheat and maze areexported.

When the two words express something that we see as a whole we use a singular verb:Bread and butter wasall we had.When two phrases are linked by orthe verb usually agrees with the nearest:

Either my sister ormy neighbours arelooking after the dog when Im at sea.

A phrase of measurement takes a singular verb:Ten miles istoo far to walk.

Thirty pounds seemsa reasonable price.

Titles and names also take a singular verb when they refer to one thing:Star Wars wasa very successful film.

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A phrase with as well as, with, and, in brackets or between commas takes a singularverb:

George, together withsome of his friends, isbuying a yacht.

After not only...but also, the verb agrees with the nearest phrase:Not onlyGeorge but alsohis friends arebuying the yacht.

If a phrase comes after a noun, the verb agrees with the first noun:The shipbetween the two ferries isdamaged.

After a subject with one ofthe verb is singular:One of these messages isfor you.

When a plural noun is preceded by: a number of, majority of, a lot ofthe verb is in theplural:

A large number of letters werereceived.

We use a singular verb after a subject with everyand each,and compounds with every,some, any, no:

Every student hasto take a test.

Nothingever happensin this place.Alland somewith a plural noun take a plural verb:

Some passengers weresitting on the deck.

We use a singular verb after whoor what:Who knowsthe answer?

After what/which + noun, the verb agrees with the noun:Which day isconvenient?

After none of/ either of/ neither of/ any of+plural noun phrasewe can use either a

singular or a plural verb. The plural is more informal.I dont know if either(of the batteries) is/aregood.After there, the verb agrees with its complement:

There was an accident.

There weresome accidents.

Nouns with a plural form: a plural noun takes a plural formSome nouns are always plural: belongings, clothes, congratulations, earnings, goods,odds, outskirts, particulars, premises, remains, riches, surroundings, thanks, troops,tropicsetc. : Thegoods werefound to be defective.Some nouns have a plural form but a singular meaning: news; subjects(of study); sports;games: billiards, darts; illness: measles, mumpsetc. therefore the agreement is made

with the singular verb:Billiards isa game.

Pair nouns: binoculars, glasses,jeans, pants, pincers, pliers, pyjamas, scales,scissors, shorts, spectacles, tights, trousers, tweezersetc. A plural noun takes a pluralverb: Where are the pliers?Group nouns, also called collective nouns, can take a verb in the singular or plural,depending whether we see the noun as a whole or as a number of individuals:

The crew was/werein a cheerful mood.

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Some group nouns are: army, association, audience, board, choir, class, club, college,

committee, community, company, council, crew, crowd, enemy, family, firm, gang,government, group,jury, majority, navy, orchestra, party, population, press, public,school, staff, team, union, universityetc.The names of institutions, companies and teams are also group nouns:

Brazil is/areexpected to win.

Grammar Practice. Noun

Exercise 1. Use a collective noun for the following:1. father, mother, sonsand daughters;2. the eleven players in a game of football;3. a multitude of persons;

4. the group of sailors working on a ship or boat;5. scores of sheep together.

Exercise 2. Use a compound noun to illustrate:1. a desk for writing at;2.an engine driven by steam;3. a wall made of stone;4. a man who makes a wall by laying bricks one on top of the other;5. a machine for washing clothes;6. a box for holding matches;7. a room in which you sleep;8. a room in which you wash;9. a pen containing ink in it;10.a railway carriage in which people can take their meals.

Exercise3. Give the plural of the following nouns .Use them in sentences.a) bus, town, woman, box, fly, key, bee, Englishman. tooth, wish, goose, city, potato,

book, child, leaf, life, foot, apple, toy, ball, wolf, safe, ox.b) brush, thief, Chinese, German, donkey, shelf, fish, cliff, Swiss, inch, sheep, louse,bamboo, handkerchief, axe, proof, phenomenon, dynamo, means, piano.c) echo, loaf, niece, half, chief, volcano, Japanese, deer,

mouse, knife, birth, daughter, buffalo, atlas.

Exercise 4. Give the plural of the following nouns; explain the differences between thetwo forms and use them in sentences: fruit, fish, damage, air, compass, pain, color.

Exercise 5. Fill in the gaps with the most suitable noun:Model: a. . . of cards; a pack of cards:

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1. a ... of boots; 2. a of sheep; 3. a of cattle; 4. a of hounds; 5. a of birds; 6. a

of mosquitoes; 7. a of fish; 8. a of trousers; 9. aof swine; 10. a of robbers;11. a of stockings; 12. a of whales; 13. a of footballers; 14. a of wolves;15. an at a concert; 16. a of flowers; 17. a of lies;

Exercise 6. Give the feminine correspondents of the following masculine nouns:a) man, father, brother, milkman, Englishman, son-in-law,. sportsman, nephew, boy,

Mr., husband, uncle, chairman.b) widower, wizard, waiter, bachelor, lord, king, bridegroom, hero, dog, bull, horse,

gander, ram, peacock ,drone.

c) duke, prince, actor, god, host, waiter, manager, tzar, sultan, poet, nephew, vixen.

Exercise 7. Form nouns by adding the appropriate noun-forming suffixes to thefollowing adjectives:

SUFFIX 1 2 3-ness short existential mean-ism cruel foolish childish-th sane social anxious

-dom gay short long-(i)ty/iety free wide strong

Exercise 8. Give the corresponding nouns for the following verbs and adjectives:oTo bleed, to bath, to sing, to believe, to breethe, to feed, to lose, to live, to prove, to

choose;oBroad, deep, long, strong, wide, new.

Exercise 9. Use the Saxon genitive (s)in the following sentences:1. He knows nothing about the climate of this country. 2. Do you know the name of the

typist of the manager? 3. The new car of the friend of his cousin is a Dacia 1300. 4. Janedoesnt know the time table of her daughter. 5. She does not doubt the good intentions ofthe parents of her husband. 6. You can easily notice die first signs of spring. 7. Thedresses of the shop-girls are the best advertisement. 8. They all welcomed the protectionof the police. 9. These are the best plays of 0.8. Shaw. 10. He has been studying thefolklore of Scotland for several years. 11. The parents of all the children are present at themeeting. 12. She wont say a word about the purpose of her life. 13. The industry ofRomania is in full swing. 14. The high note of the nightingale can be easily heard.

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Exercise 10. Translate into Romanian:1. Weve run out of orange juice; youd better go to the grocers and buy some.2. My husbands new suit is not ready yet; it is still at the tailors.3. When you go to UK dont miss the chance to go to Madame Tussauds.4. They usually buy fresh fruits at the greengrocers every Monday morning.5. Have you ever seen St. Jamess?6. They decided to go to the lawyers tomorrow at noon.7. On your way home you might stop at the tobacconists and buy some cigarettes forme.8. I have been an employee at Fords for twenty years.9. Ill go to the hairdressers later.

I0. Before my coming back home, I dropped into the bakers where I bought aloaf of soft bread and these delicious rolls.

Exercise 11. Translate into English paying attention to the genitive case:1. Strzile acestui orasunt foarte largi.2. Cstoria copiilor prietenilor mei a avut loc acum dousptmni.3. Acesta este noul profesor de matematical fiului meu.4.nainte de a ncepe orele, am fcut o plimbare de douzeci de minute.5.

Personalul acestei companii este format din treizeci de oameni.6.

In intervalul de o luncare urmeaz, terminm toate examenele.7.

La vrsta lui, o cltorie de zece ore cu trenul trebuie sfie foarte obositoare.

8.

Nu trebuie suitm niciodatde drepturile celor sraci.9.

0 ateptare de cinci minute nu mai conteaz.10. Ziarul de ieri a publicat multe tiri interesante.

Exercise 12. Form derivative nouns from the following Verbs:1.

to decide 2.to approve 3. to discuss 4. to refer 5. to discover 6. to teach7. to weigh 8.to grow 9. to pay 10. to perform 11.to limit 12. to betray.

Adjectives:1.national 2.wise 3. likely 4. free 5. great 6. weak 7. kind 8. happy 9. true 10. deep

11.high 12.warm

Nouns:1.dictator 2. friend 3. scholar 4. leader 5. child 6. piano 7. music 8. mathematics

9.science 10. host 11. widow 12. waiter.

Exercise 13. Rewrite in the plural:1.This is a box. 2. Thats a lorry. 3. Wheres the knife? 4. Is it your watch? 5. This is anew house.6. Thats an old chimney. 7. That isnt my dress. 8. Thats a shoe. 9. Whosthis man? 10. Hes a farmer and this is his wife. 11. Thats a row of people. 12. Is it a new

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bridge? 13.There is a match in the box. 14. Theres no child in their family.15. Is there a

dictionary on his

desk? 16. Is there a desk in that room? 17. The face of that woman isattractive. 18.The house isnt large but its comfortable. 19. Whos that person? 20.Which book is yours?

Exercise 14. Put into the singular:1. Balls are round. 2. Houses have roofs. 3. These are phonemes. 4. Foxes are

animals.5. Roses are beautiful flowers. 6. Watches are small clocks. 7. Dogs have tails. 8.Those boys are good friends. 9. These are simple sentences. 10. These arent boxes. 11.The children are at school. 12. These are my notebooks. 13. My friends want to studyGerman. 14.His brothers work hard all day. 15. Housewives have to work very hard. 16.Children receive a lot of pleasure from this game. 17. They live in small houses. 18. The

postmen bring letters three times a day. 19. The boys wake up at six. 20. There are somepictures on the walls.

Exercise 15. Match A and B in order to obtain compound nouns. Use them in sentences: arm sitter

bottle pagesfast heatingYellow chairlawn directory

telephone mowerchewing conditionercentral bagair openertea foodalarm gum

post clockbaby stopheart tale

burglar attackfairy officecredit lenses

bus cardbank alarmcontact account

Exercise 16 Underline the nouns in the texts and put the plural ones in the singular:1. Thieves stole the cameras and videos from two shops in Stapleton Road yesterday.They also took several boxes of video cassettes and hundreds of audio cassettes.

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2. Two police officers were injured in a fight last night. One policeman lost four teeth.

Three other people were also injured. The police were called to the Central car parkwhere there was a fight involving about two dozen young men and women. Dozens ofcars and two buses were damaged.Example: pl. thieves = sg. thief

Exercise 17. Complete the sentences with the plural form of the words in brackets:My hotels a bit primitive. Ive seen (1 mouse)_____ in my room! And there are (2fly)_____ everywhere during the day and (3 mosquito) _____ at night. But the (4 beach)

_____ are beautiful.There are a lot of old (5 church) _____ on the island and Ive taken lots of (6 photo)

_____ of them.Every day I buy two small (7 loaf) _____ of bread and some (8 fruit) _____ , usually (9

peach) _____ , (10 orange) _____ and (11 tomato) _____ . but the (12 shelf) _____ in theshops are almost empty, so yesterday I went fishing and caught two (13 fish) _____ formy lunch.There arent any (14 bus) _____ so I walk everywhere. My (15 foot) _____ really hurt. Iwant to go into the mountains. They say there are (16 wolf) _____ there.The (17 person) _____ are very friendly. Sometimes (18 family) _____ come out to sayhello when I walk past. The (19 man) _____ have two or three (20 wife) _____ anddozens of (21 child) _____. I dont think their (22 life) _____ have changed for (23century) _____. Its certainly one of the most unspoilt (24 country) _____ Ive ever beento.

Exercise 18. Which are the 15 countable nouns in this news report?Hi! Youre listening to GWR Radio. What a terrible morning! There have been severalaccidents on the roads. A number of people were hurt in an accident on the M 32motorway when two cars crashed near Junction 4. And there are a few problems for railtravelers. Many trains between cities in the west and London are running twenty to thirtyminutes late.

Exercise 19. What are the eight uncountable nouns in the news report of the explosion atBrislington?

An explosion has destroyed a chemical factory in Brislington. Thanks to the courage ofthe firefighters no one was hurt. The air around the factory is still thick with smoke, andfor their own safety, residents have been told not to drink the water. Residents are worriedabout their childrens health and the damage to the environment caused by the explosion.

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Noun + verb agreement

Exercise 20. Choose the right form of the verbs in brackets:

1. His family (is/ are) in Bucharest now.2. The news (was/ were) a great surprise for all of us.3. People (rush/ rushes) home when the days work is over.4. Our football team (plays/ play) this evening.5. Your group (is/ are) made up of thirty students.6. The audience (is/are) listening to the piano player.7. The cattle (is/are) entering the ranch yard.8. The committee (agrees/agree) with all the changes.9. The furniture in my daughters room (is/are) new and modern.10. The crew of the ship (was/were) gathered on the upper deck.11. The parliament (is/are) voting a new law.12. The luggage (was/were placed) on the luggage rack.13. Where (is/are) my glasses?14. Mathematics(is/are) his favourite subject at school.15. My cousins trousers (is/are) very expensive.16. Proceedings of the conference (is/are) published within a week.17. The particulars of the witness (is/are) taken down by a young policeman.18. There (is/are) enough money in the drawer.

19. Measles (is/are) a very dangerous catching disease.20.The customs (is/are) not far from here.

Exercise 21. Choose the correct form of the verb:1.Clothes (isnt/ arent) cheap nowadays.2.People (doesnt/ dont) buy clothes that are too expensive.3.60 pounds (is/ are) a lot of money for a pair of jeans.4.The government (is/ are) trying to keep prices low.

Exercise 22. Choose the correct verb forms:His clothes (1 are/ is) _____ very old. His trousers (2 has got/ have got) _____ holes in

them and his glasses (3 are/ is) _____ broken. All his belongings (4 is/ are) _____ in abag on his back. The police often (5 stops/ stop) _____ him and (6 asks/ ask) _____ himquestions. People (7 avoid/ avoids) _____ him in the streets. His earnings (8 are/ is)

_____ very small. He gets 40 pounds a week from social security. For him 40 pounds (9is/ are) _____ a lot of money. Im not interested in possessions, he says, mathematics(10 are/ is) _____ my passion.

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Answer Keys of the exercises

Exercise 1. 1 family, 2 team, 3 crowd, 4 crew, 5 flock.

Exercise 2. writing-desk, steam-engine, stone wall, bricklayer, washing machine, mach-box, bedroom, bathroom, fountain-pen, dining car.

Exercise 3. a) buses, towns, women, boxes, flies, keys, bees, Englishmen, teeth, wishes,geese, cities, potatoes, books, children, leaves, lives, feet, apples, toys, balls,wolves, safes, oxen.b) brushes, thieves, Chinese, Germans, donkeys, shelves, fishes, cliffs, Swiss,inches, sheep, lice, bamboo, handkerchiefs, axes, proofs, phenomena,dynamos, means, pianos.c) echoes, loaves, nieces, halves, chiefs, volcanoes, Japanese, deer, mice,knives, births, daughters, buffaloes, atlases.

Exercise 4. fruits (varietati de fructe), fishes (soiuri de pesti), damages (despagubiri), airs(aere), compasses (compas), pains (osteneala), colours (steag, drapel).

Exercise 5. pair, flock, herd, pack, flight, cloud, shoal, pair, herd, gang, pair, school,team, pack, audience, bunch, pack.

Exercise 6. a) woman, mother, sister, milkwoman, Englishwoman, daughter-in-law,sportswoman, niece, girl, Mrs., wife, aunt, chairwoman.

b)widow, witch, waitress, spinster, lady, queen, bride, heroine, bitch, cow,

mare, goose, sheep, hen, bee.c)duchess, princess, actress, goddess, hostess, waitress, manageress, tzarina,sultana, poetess, niece, fox.

Exercise 7. 1. shortness, cruelty, sanity, gaiety, freedom2. existentialism, foolishness, socialism, shortness, wideness,3. meanness, childishness, anxiousness, length, strength.

Exercise 8. blood, bath, song, belief, breath, food, loss, life, proof, choice,Breadth, depth, length, strength, width, novelty.

Exercise 9 1.He knows nothing about this countrys climate. 2. Do you know the name of

the managers typist? 3. The new car of his cousins friend is a Dacia 1300. 4.Jane doesnt know her daughters timetable. 5. She does not doubt the goodintentions of her husbands parents. 6. You can easily notice the springs firstsigns. 7. The shop-girls dresses are the best advertisement. 8. They allwelcomed the polices protection. 9. These are G.B. Shaws best plays. 10. Hehas been studying Scotlands folklore for several years. 11. All the childrens

parents are present at the meeting. 12. She wont say a word about her lifespurpose. 13. Romanias industry is in full swing. 14. The nightingales highnote can be easily heard.

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Exercise 10.1. Nu mai avem suc de portocale; mai bine te-ai duce la bcnie sa cumperi.2. Costumul cel nou al soului meu nu este gata nc; se afla la croitorie.3. Cnd mergi in Regatul Unit, sa nu pierzi ocazia sa mergi la muzeul Tussaud.4. De regul, ei cumprfructe proaspete de la aprozar in fiecare luni dimineaa.5. Ai vzut vreodata palatul St. James?6. Ei s-au decis sa meargla biroul de avocatura mine la amiaza.7. In drumul tu ctre casa, te-ai putea opri la tutungerie sa-mi cumperi nite igri.8. Sunt angajat al firmei Ford de 20 de ani.9. Mvoi duce la coafor mai trziu.10. nainte de a mntoarce acas, am trecut pe la brutrie, de unde am cumprat o pine

proaspti aceste delicioase cornuri.

Exercise 11.1. The streets of this town are very large.2. The marriage of my friends children took place two weeks ago.3. This is my sons new teacher of mathematics.4. Before starting my classes, I took a twenty minutes walk.5. The staff of this company is made up of thirty people.6. In the next months interval we are going to finish all our exams.7. at this age, a ten hours travel by train must be tiresome.8. We must never forget about the poors rights.9. A five minutes wait does not matter any longer.

10. The yesterdays newspaper published many interesting news.Exercise 12.

o Decision, approval, discussion, referral, discovery, teacher, weight, growth,payment, performance, limitation, betrayal,

o Nationalism, wisdom, likelihood, freedom, greatness, weakness, kindness,happiness, truth, deep height, height, warmth

o dictatorship, friendship, scholarship, leadership, childhood, pianist, musician,mathematician, scientist, hospitality, widowhood, waiting.

Exercise 13.1. These are boxes. 2. Those are lorries. 3. Where are the knives? 4. Are they your

watches? 5. These are new houses. 6. Those are old chimneys. 7. Those arent mydresses. 8. Those are shoes. 9. Who are these men? 10. They are farmers and these aretheir wives. 11. Those are rows of people. 12. Are they new bridges? 13. There arematches in the boxes. 14. There are no children in their family. 15. Are there dictionarieson his desk? 16. Are there desks in that room? 17. The faces of those women areattractive. 18. The houses arent large, but they are comfortable. 19. Who are those

persons? 20. Which are your books?

Exercise 14.

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1. The ball is round. 2. The house has a roof. 3. This is a phoneme. 4. The fox is an

animal. 5. The rose is a beautiful flower. 6.A watch is a small clock. 7. The dog has a tail.8. That boy is a good friend to the other one. 9. This is a simple sentence. 10. This isnt a

box. 11. The child is at school. 12. This is my notebook. 13. My friend wants to studyGerman. 14. His brother works hard all day. 15.A housewife has to work very hard. 16. Achild receives a lot of pleasure from this game. 17. He lives in a small house. 18. The

postman brings letters three times a day. 19. The boy wakes up at six. 20. It is a pictureon the wall.

Exercise 15. armchair, bottle- opener, fast-food, yellow pages, lawn mower, telephonedirectory, chewing gum, central heating, air conditioner, tea bag, alarmclock, post office, babysitter, heart attack, burglar alarm, fairy tale, creditcard, bus stop, bank account, contact lenses.

Exercise 16. 1. camera, video, shop, box, cassette, hundred.2. officer, tooth, person, man, woman, dozen, car, bus.

Exercise 17. 1 mice, 2 flies, 3 mosquitoes, 4 beaches, 5 churches, 6 photos, 7 loaves, 8fruit, 9 peaches, 10 oranges, 11 tomatoes, 12 shelves, 13 fish, 14 buses, 15feet, 16 wolves, 17 people, 18 families, 19 men, 20 wives, 21 children, 22lives, 23 centuries, 24 countries

Exercise 18. radio, morning, accidents, roads, people, accident, motorway, cars, junctionproblems, rail, travelers, trains, cities, minutes.

Exercise 19. courage, air, smoke, safety, water, health, damage, environment.

Exercise 20. 1. are, 2. was, 3. rush, 4. play, 5 .is made up, 6. are listening to, 7. areentering, 8. agree, 9. is, 10. were gathered, 11. are voting, 12. was placed,13. are, 14. is, 15. are, 16. are published, 17. are taken down, 18. is, 19. is,20. is.

Exercise 21. 1 arent, 2 dont, 3 is, 4 is/ are trying,

Exercise 22. 1 are, 2 have got, 3 are, 4 are, 5 stop, 6 ask, 7 avoid, 8 are, 9 is, 10 is.

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UNIT 2

PORT DESCRIPTIONTHE ARTICLE AND OTHER DETERMINERS

Objectives: after studying the course and the seminar the students will be able to

recognize the articles and the other determiners and use them properly in sentences and

describe a port using some technical words and expressions.

What is a port?

A port is a place where goods, passengers and mail are transferred to, from, or between

carriers of the same or different modes.

Ships and cargo move cargo and people from one place to another place, so they needports where ships they can load and unload.Every port has areas called docks where ships tie up along the quayside. The docks areoften inside an area of water called a harbour, which is protected from the sea by amassive stone wall or natural cliffs. On the docks there are huge cranes for unloading theships and warehouses for storing cargo.In the port area there may be ship repair yards, parts shops and customs offices. Untilrecently, large numbers of people were employed as dockers and many major coastaltowns and cities have grown up around ports. But the increased use of containers has

dramatically reduced the number of workers.Huge merchant ships now dock at purpose-built ports or terminals, which are speciallydesigned for handling cargoes, such as containers, oil and gas.Tying up.Berthing ropes hooked over bollards are used to tie ships to the quayside.Quays may also be known as wharves.The pilot.The entrance to a harbour is often narrow and busy. It may also havetreacherous shallow areas such as sandbanks outside it. A pilot is a person who knows theharbour well. He or she always takes control of large ships to guide them as they enterand leave the port.

High and dry.Repair and maintenance facilities in port may include a dry dock.Scaffolding is erected to keep the ship upright.Unloading in port.Dockside cranes unload ships in the port. The crane can be moved

along the dockside on railway tracks. Facts: A marina is a small harbour area where leisure craft such as motorboats

and sailing yachts tie up. Marinas are usually separate from the normal harbour.

They are also common on coasts where there are few natural harbours for small

boats to shelter in. each bay, called a berth, in a marina has water and electricity

supplies.

Port location. The location of a port is a major consideration with regard to its economicfunctions. Geographers consider location in terms of siteand situation.Siterefers to thecharacteristics of the area occupied by the port; situationrefers to the relations of the port

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location to the hinterland and to overseas or forelands with which the port has

connections.

What is the difference between a port and a harbour?

Nearly all ports include portions of one or more harbours; a harbour may serve a single

port, as in the case of a large harbour (San Francisco Bay), several ports, or several

harbours may serve one port (London, Chicago, Sydney).

VOCABULARY

Load= a incarcaUnload= a descarcaTie up = a legaQuay = cheiCrane = macaraWarehouse = depozitShipyard = santier navalHandle = a manevra, a manipulaHook = a indoi, a incovoiaBollard = bolard, baba, bintaWharf, ves = chei, debarcader, pontonTreacherous = inselator, nesigurShallow area = zona cu apa micaMaintenance = intretinere

Scaffolding = schelarieRailway track = sina de cale ferataShelter = adapostBerth = danaLeisure craft = ambarcatiune de agrementHinterland = regiune situata in interior (dincolo de tarm sau de granita)Foreland = cap, promontoriuSite = loc, amplasament

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THE ARTICLE AND OTHER DETERMINERS

DETERMINERS

Definite article - themanIndefinite article - atree, an appleZero article - men, trees, applesDEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES - thisnewspaper,

- that magazine- these/thoseships

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES - my/your/his/her/its

our/their uniformINTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES - what/which/ whose

book do you want?INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES - eachstudent, every

day, somebooks,any officer, norules,eitherside,neithersailor

PREDETERMINERS precede the determiners:a) allthebooks, bothmychildren, both ofthesefeatures, half these cadets

b) multiplicative numerals: twicetheamount, threetimes the sumc)

fractions: one-thirdthetime, three quartersthetotalPOSTDETERMINERS

a)

ordinal numerals: the first three important events

b)

theothername, thenextduty station, thelastshipmentTHE ARTICLE is the part of speech which individualize objects and phenomena in alinguistic context; it does not have any flexionary forms; it works as a determiner.The definite article: THE

Functions: it is used to express a unique referencea)

deictic function: with nouns whose preference is immediately understood bythe speakers within a context- in a room: the door, the window: Close thewindow, will you?; in a forest: The ground is covered with dry leaves; in a city:Can you tell me how to get to theharbour?b) anaphoric function: with nouns which were previously mentioned:

I bought a book yesterday; thebook is interesting.

c) cataphoric function: when the definite determination is after the noun, expressed

by a relative clause: The man who is commanding the shipis the master of thatship.

d) generic function: the noun is used in a general way, as representing a whole

class: Thehorse is a useful animal.The definite article used with:proper nouns- theUK, theUSA, theUniversity ofBucharest;plural nouns- the Browns, theAlps, theCarpathians;geographicalnames: theDanube, the Olt, the Suez Canal, theSahara; names of institutions:theLido (Hotel), theNational Theatre, theBritish Museum; newspapers: theTimes, theGuardian; names of ships: theTransylvania.

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The indefinite article: A, AN

Functions: a) epiphoric function: to introduce a word which was not mentionedpreviously: There is ayoung officer waiting for you.

b)numerical function: the indefinite article has the meaning of oneShe bought adress, two blouses, and anumbrella.

A/onehundred people are on this ship.

c)generic function: to represent an entire class of objects or beingsAnofficer is a gentleman.

The zero article: She drinks *tea every day;*Clothes do not make the name;

In these situations the absence of the article(*) is equal to the presence of it.Functions: 1) generic function:I like coffee/ literature/long walks.

2) for the unique referenceof proper nouns and some common nouns indifferent contexts:Peter and Mary will go to school in autumn.

Proper nouns used with the zero article:a)

names of people:Peter, Dr. Smith, Lord Nelson, father, uncleb)

time divisions:Monday, January, Christmasc) geographical names:Asia, England, Parisd) proper nouns followed by common nouns:Bran Castle, Oxford Street

Other determiners:The demonstrative adjective: this/that/these/thoseIt determines a noun, saying how far or close is from the speaker.

Functions: a) deictic function(space or time orientation in a context)This is my desk./ What are thosepeople doing?

b) anaphoric function:I saw an English teacher in his new car. Thiscar isreally something.

c)cataphoric function: Theselittle children are very pretty.d) emotional function: (to highlight the determined noun)This Tom Brown is always playing the piano at night.

The possessive adjective replaces the possessor and determines the name of thepossessed object:Peters stamp collection is valuable.Hisstamp collection is valuable.Possessives are used to specify the ownership of an item or, if the noun refers tosomething animate, to specify a relationship: Mr. Smith was my teacher when I was a

student in the Academy.

The possessive phrase acts just like a possessive word but is a noun or noun phraseending in s or s. A possessive phrase acts as a possessive determiner but may itselfinclude one of the other determiners: Sallys new job; a good dayswork; the residentsdining room; the visitorsroom.

*the body parts are always preceded by the possessive adjective (myhand, his leg, herarm) and clothes items also(hiscoat, hergloves, myuniform).The demonstrative adjective

We use demonstratives to show a certain thing or person in a special situation. Thisandthese refer to something near the speaker. That and those refer to something furtheraway. Thisand thatare singular. Theseand thoseare plural.When we are in a place or situation or at an event, we use this, notthat, to refer to it:

How long is this weathergoing to last?

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We can use thisor thatto refer to something mentioned before:

I havent got time. This/Thatis the problem.We can use that/thoseto replace a noun phrase with theto avoid repeating the noun:

The temperature of cooling water is lower than thatof the seawater.In informal English, you can use thator thosein front of a noun to refer to things that arealready known to the person you are speaking to:

That idiot Antoniohas gone and locked our cabin door.

Grammar Practice. Article

Exercise 1. Put the following sentences into singular:1. Nouns are words.2. Cities are big towns.3. Horses are animals.4. Roses are beautiful flowers.5. Tables are pieces of furniture.

Exercise 2. Fill the blanks with the requested articles and translate the text:

LITTLETOMMY AND ... HORSETommy: Father, . . . teacher does not know what horse is.

Father: Why do you think so, Tommy?

Tommy:You know, I drew ... horse yesterday and showed it to ... teacher and heasked me what it was.

Exercise 3. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate article:1. Would you like ... cup of ... tea and ... cake?2. It is better to tell . . . truth than tell . . . lies.3. Where is ... hat I bought yesterday?4. Smith, ... man I told you about, is ... very man.5. I like to eat . . . bread and ... butter in . . . morning.6. Little Tommy goes to ... school only in morning.7. He went to . . . bed with . . . bad cold.

8. He crossed ... lake in ... record time.9. He collects . . . butterflies, . . . stamps, and matchboxes.10. In ... autumn of ... 2003 we went on ... excursion to . . . Danube Delta.

Exercise 4. Fill the gaps with the appropriate articles:1. Take... little tea; it will do you ... lot of good.2. Out ofsight, out... mind.3. l like lot of. . . sugar in my tea.

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4 ... supper is... last meal of... day.

5. ... bad drivers are punished by law.6. Take ... chair and make yourself at home; he will be back in ... minute.7. This is . . . answer to ... problem ... teacher gave us.8. There wont be another train for at least hour.9. We had ... dinner together at ... good restaurant yesterday.10. ... Danube, ... Rhine and ... Thames are three important European rivers.

Exercise 5. Put the articles a, an, theinto the gaps:1. He came to see me ... last week and brought English handbook with him.2. good dictionary is . . . great help to . . . students.3. ... last night I met Tommy; he said he would come here today if . . . weather

were fine.4. Come to see me on ... Saturday at ... latest.5. He works hard by day and sleeps soundly at night.6. ... help came at ... last and ... swimmer was rescued.7. He works every ... day from . . . early morning till late at . . . night.8. He went into ... inn and asked for ... bread and butter.9. By ... way, he said, where is ... shop you told me about?10. What is matter? Have you had ... accident?

Exercise 6. Put the articles into their correct places:Our sun is enormous body with diameter about 108 times that of earth. It would take

train, moving at 60 miles hour; over five years to travel round its circumference. Butthose little pinpoints of light we call stars are also suns, and some of them are verymuch larger and brighter than one which warms our earth. One of them has diameterthree hundred times greater than that of our sun. Of thousands of millions of stars,which can be seen through powerful telescope, only six thousand or so are visible tonaked eye, and their distance from earth is so tremendous that their combined light isonly about hundredth of that shed by full moon.

(The Childrens New Illustrated Encyclopedia)

Exercise 7. Fill in the blanks with the right articles:When ... sea was not too rough we were often out in little rubber boat ... taking

photographs. I shall not forget ... first time ... sea was so calm that two men felt like putting ... balloon-like little thing into water and ... going for ... row. They had hardlygot clear of raft when they dropped ... little oars and sat ... roaring with ... laughter.And as ... waves lifted them away and they disappeared and reappeared among seas,they laughed so loud ... every time they caught glimpse of us that their voices rang outover ... desolate Pacific. We looked round us with ... mixed feelings, and saw ... nothingcomic but our own ... bearded faces; but as ... two in ... boat should be accustomed tothose by now; we began to have ... suspicion that they had suddenly gone mad. Sunstroke,

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perhaps ... two fellows could hardly get back on ... board ... Kon-Tiki for sheer

laughter, and gasping, with tears in their eyes, begged us just to go and see for ourselves.Two of us jumped down into ... dancing rubber boat, and were caught by ... sea

which lifted us clear. We sat down at ... once and roared with ... laughter. We had neverbefore had ... outside view of ... ourselves in open sea. ... raft looked exactly like oldNorwegian hay-loft lying helpless, drifting about in ... open sea, hay-loft full of ...sunburnt bearded ruffians. If anyone had come paddling after us at ... sea in ... bath weshould have felt ... same spontaneous urge to ... laughter.

(Thor Heyerdahl)

Exercise 8. Fill in the spaces with the definite article wherever necessary:1. She is not ... Mrs. Smith I am looking for.2.

My parents live on ... upper floor of an old house; when ... wind blows, all ...windows rattle.

3.

... Carpathians are not so high as ... Alps.4.

... Danube is Romanias longest river.5. ... clock in ... dining room is just striking6. ... room Helen rushes into as soon as she arrives home is ... kitchen.7. Spring is ... first season of ... year.8. Id like to see Mr. Smith, please. Do you mean ... Mr. Smith who works in our

department or ... Mr. Smith ... sales manager?9.

... British Library is one of ... largest libraries all over ... world.10.

What is... French for ... boy?11.

... Mike you met at my place yesterday was not ... Mike I was talking about a

week before.12.

I have never feared ... death but ... death of my father was ... greatest loss of mylife.

13.Ask them to come downstairs when ... breakfast is ready.14.

... Eatons have also been invited to ... diner at ... Ritz.15.

She goes to school in ... morning and plays tennis in ... afternoon.16.

She has always said that ...English language is difficult.17.

On ... Sundays I like to stay in ... bed till ... noon and spend ... time reading ...Sunday papers and magazines.

18.Up to a point, Creangis Mark Twain of ... Romanian literature.19. I have always appreciated ... sublime of ...landscapes in ... Alps.20. If you leave ... home at 7 you can reach ... school in ... time.

21.

My mother comes to ... school sometimes to speak to ... headmaster.

Exercise 9. Put the indefinite article aor anin the blanks wherever necessary:1.We usually have ... lunch at 1 oclock, which, as ... rule, consists of three courses:...salad, ... dish and ... sweet.2.Go to the grocers and buy ... dozen oranges and ... pound of coffee beans.3.The Smiths I am talking about live in ... wonderful house and drive ... new Ford.4.... old man suffering from ... cold should be given hot tea three times ... day.

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5.What ... name to give to ... cat!

6.There was once ... lonely old woman who lived in ... hut in the outskirts of ... largetown.7.What ... hot day for November! Its such ... pity we cant go for ... hike or take ...long walk in the wood.8.Jack! ... Mr. Thomson wants to see you at once!9.Our friends gave us ... wonderful supper at the ambassador.10.She needs ... moments peace after such ... bad piece of news.11.The youngster was driving with sixty miles ... hour when all of ... sudden ... deercrossed the motorway. He stopped ... few moments later and fled in ... panic withouttaking ... back look.12.He was puzzled that he should be in his office at ... time when the GeneralManager was so busy.13.During the installation of ... newly selected government there may appear many ...surprise.14.Mr. Sydney did not appear to be ... man who was making ... joke.15.He was not ... addicted smoker but, now and then, late at ... night, he was longingfor ... cigarette.

Exercise 10. Fill in the spaces with the definite, indefinite or zero article wherevernecessary:1.Good ... morning ..., uncle, said ... boy with ... large smile on his face.2. From ... photos of ... friends and ... relatives, Mr. Abbot selected ... picture of ... Nick

Price, ... man who had come to visit them, sometime in ... early 50.3. She put ... book back on ... piano and went to look out of ... window.4. His voice was low and carefully modulated ... voice of ... man self-conscious about... impression he made. Have you ever been to ... Argentine? he asked with ... undertoneof... regret in his voice. .5. Most ... critics admit that ... writer we are talking about is ... new Shaw of ... Englishliterature.6. Let me offer you ... cup of ... coffee, Professor.7. He speaks ... French and ... English quite fluently but he has never been to ... France or... United Kingdom.8. ... sky was starry, ... moon was shining brightly and ... night was so warm and lovelythat all ... guests decided, all of ... sudden, to take ... bath in ... cool waves of ... Atlantic

0cean.9. That was not ... sort of ... remark expected of ... right sort of ... chap whostudied at ... UCLA.10. Nick was reminded of ... joke he had heard at his club at ... lunch.11. He had ... terrible feeling that ... operation was going to be ... Waterloo of his career.

12. You may go either to ... National Theatre to see ... play or to ... Capitol Cinema to see... film.13. ... Prime Minister picked up ... telephone and changed his days appointments to make... time to see ... deputy secretary in ... Cabinet Office. 14. ... few days later we went to ...

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Henrys dinner at ... Ritz where we met ... old Mr. Snow who claimed to be ... uncle of

my wife.15. Such ... power and ... freedom of ...decision had only five times before been given to... American president.

Exercise 11. Here are some expressions with the nounhand,preceded by the definite,indefinite or zero article:

a. to bite the hand that feeds one; to give smb. the glad hand; the hidden hand; by the lefthand; to have/get the upper hand; the skips hand; a picture by the same hand; on the righthand; on the one hand; on the other hand; at the best hand; to be on the growing hand .

b. to have a free hand; to have an open hand; not to lift a hand; with a heavy hand; a handfor; an old hand at; a good hand at/in; a poor/bad hand at; to have a hand like a foot; acool hand; to have a hand in smth.; to take a hand at a game; to make a (good/ fine/fair)hand.c. hand in hand; the matter in hand; to take in hand; light in hand; at hand; by hand; to

bind hand and foot; supplies on hand; to have a free hand; to have an open hand; to shakehands; clean hands; off hand; hand and glove; hand over; from hand to mouth; out ofhand; at first hand; second hand; from good hands.A. Choose some of them and make sentences of your own.B. Find some more new set expressions and build up sentences of your own.

Exercise 12. Put the definite or the indefinite article into the blank spaces where

necessary. Translate the jokes.

A) (1. ...) landlord was sitting with his shephard on (2. ...) hill commanding (3. ...) fineview of (4. ...) valley. Seeing (5. ...) flock of (6. ...) sheep at (7. ...) rest in (8. ...) shadiestnook, he observed to his companion, John, if I were (9. ... ) sheep, I would prefer to liein(10. ...) sun. Ah, my lord, retorted (11. ...) shepherd, were you (12. ...) sheep, youwould have more sense.

B) If (1. ...) earthquake engulfed England, (2. ...) English would manage to meet among(3. ...) ruins and organize (4. ...) dinner just to celebrate (5....) painful event. Thats what(6. ... ) people of (7. ... ) other nationalities are apt to say about (8. ...) English. Should (9....) English be consulted on (10. ...) subject they would say (11. ...) same thing about (12.

...) French and their love of (13. ...) good dinners.

C) (1. ...) outside temperature being ten degrees below (2. ...) zero, it was unusually coldin (3. ...) school room.

What is (4. ...) Latin for cold? asked (5. ...) school-master addressing one of hisboys, who seemed to be suffering from cold more than (6. ...) others. Oh, sir, answered(7. ...) lad, his hands thrust in his trousers pockets, I cant tell you for (8. ...) moment,although I have it at my fingers ends.

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D)Dr. Crisp was invited to (1. ...) party in (2. ...) country place. (3. ...) dinner being late

and(4. ...) company not quite to his taste, (5. ...) doctor strolled out into (6. ...) garden andthen to (7. ...) nearby churchyard. When (8. ...) dinner was served at last and (9. ...) doctorhad not yet returned, one of (10. ...) guests wondered where he could have gone. (11. ...)master of (12. ...) house, annoyed by Dr. Crisps (13. ...) absence, explained that (14 )churchyard being not far from there, (15. ...) doctor had gone to visit his former patients.

E)(1. ...) Englishman, driving in (2. ...) hackney-coach through France, was annoyed at (3....) slowness of (4. ...) pace. He tried to make (5. ...) coachman drive faster but all in vain.(6. ...) man couldnt understand either his English or his broken French. Then it occuredto (7. ...) Englishman, both his English and his French being Greek to (8. ...) coachman, touse (9. ...) high-sounding words that might frighten (10. ...) fellow. So he roared into hisear. Westmorland, Cumberland, Northumberland, Durham! which had (11. ...) desiredeffect, (12. ...) coachman taking these words for some terrible threat.

F) In 1870 Mark Twain was walking along (1. ...) streets of Boston when he noticed in (2....) shop window (3. ...) machine he had never seen before. He entered (4. ...) shop, asked(5. ...) shop-assistant how (6. ...) ,,monster functioned and bought it for 125 dollars. He

brought home (7. ...) machine he had nicknamed (8. ...) monster and started practicingon it at once. (9. ...) machine was (10. ...) typewriter and Mark Twain typed (l1. ...) whole

book on it. When he brought his manuscript to (12. ...) editor, (13. ...) latter wasdelighted. He made Mark Twain promise him to bring everything he would write later ontyped, on this wonderful machine.

(14. ...) Tom Sawyer was (15. ...) first book Mark Twain had typewritten.

G) You certainly know that (1. ...) waterproof coat is often called (2. ...) mackintosh. Butperhaps you dont know that (3. ...) word is (4. ...) surname.

In (5. ...) year 1823 in (6. ...) Scotland there lived (7. ...) man whose (8. ...)namewas Charles Mackintosh. (9. ...) climate of his country being rainy, he would often getdrenched to (10. ...) skin and heartily disliked it. One day, having some rubber at hisdisposal, he decided to rubberize his coat. Now he could walk outdoors in any weather,his rubberized coat protecting him from (11. ...) rain. Most of his friends and (12. ...)friends of his friends admired (13. ...) waterproof coat and wanted to have their own coatsrubberized likewise. Soon (14. ...) tradesmen took up his invention. (15. ...) Waterproofcoats became all (16. ...) fashion and (17. ...) staple product of (18. ...) town, (19. ...) name

of (2o. ...) inventor, though not (21. ...) inventor himself, getting (22. ...) worldwidepopularity.

Exercise 13. Fill in the gaps with thewhere necessary.I hate 1 ___ November! It doesnt get light till 2 ___ 8 oclock in 3 ___ morning. Thenits dark again as early as 4 ___ 4 oclock in 5 ___ afternoon. After 6 ___ Christmas, 7

___ days start to get a bit longer, but 8 ___ weather starts to get colder. On 9 ___ Friday

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10 ___ last week, 11 ___ temperature was minus 10 C. 12 ___ next week 13 ___ weather

forecast is 14 ___ same.

Exercise 14. Put aor anbefore these words: 1 job, 2 union, 3 unusual name 4 enormousice cream 5 holiday, 6 honest man.

Exercise 15. Put in a/ anwhere necessary:1. She works in restaurant in street near the station.2. For lunch she only has apple and glass of milk.3. Anns friend works in pub. Shes barmaid. She works three evenings week. She earns 4.50/ hour.Exercise 16. Match the two parts of the sentences.a. I normally go to the dentist once 1. a dozen

b. These roses cost $20 2. a litrec. The car was doing 150 kilometers 3. a yeard. Lamb is selling at 7.50 4. a weeke. The Sunday Mail is published once 5. a metref. Electric cable costs 50 cents 6. a kilog. How much is the oil? ~ 2.50 7. a dayh. The mail is delivered twice 8. an hour

Exercise 17. Complete the sentences with a/ an or the.

1. ___ taxi they phoned for arrived late at their house.2. ___ taxi-driver didn't say he was sorry.3. ___ traffic jam was caused by ___ accident on___ motorway. ___ car had collided with

___ lorry.

Exercise 18. Put in the where necessary:1. We had ___ breakfast at ___ home in London before we left.2. ___ bus station was on 38th Street.3. We went to ___ hotel by ___ taxi.4. We're flying home ___ next Thursday.

Exercise 19. Complete the sentences, using the where necessary.1. Our hotel manager went to ___ school in England, then went to ___ university in theStates.2. The New York police arrested a man for the shooting. He was a cleaner at ___university.3. He'll appear in ___ court next week. He'll definitely go to ___ prison.

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Exercise 20. There are seven examples of the in this text. How do you know which thing

or person the writer is referring to, in each case?a. because it is only one in the immediate situation;

b. because it is only one anywhere;c. because it has been referred to before, in the text;d. because the writer is specifying which one, by adding extra information. NeilArmstrong was the first person to set foot on the surface of the moon. The words that hesaid are famous: 'That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for the mankind.' He andhis co-pilot Buzz Aldrin then planted a flag and collected rocks. The flag is probably stillthere. The rocks have helped the scientists understand the history of the solar system.

Exercise 21 Complete the sentences with a or an, the or no article.1. 'How much are the leeks?' 'They're 80 pence a pound.'2. I went to ___ wonderful concert by ___ London Symphony Orchestra.3. ___ local school is soon to be closed.4. I usually go to ___ work by ___ train.5. Is ___ meat in ___ oven?6. Is this ___ first time you've been to ___ Isle of Man?7. He's ___ art teacher and she's ___ electrician.8. A lot of people give ___ money to ___ charity at this time of the year.9. What ___ beautiful face that child's got!10. ___ British usually have ___ butter on their bread.11. ___ life is very difficult for ___ unemployed these days.12. ___ Leader of ___ Opposition is in danger of losing her seat at ___ next election.

13. I like to have ___ cup of ___ tea when I wake up in ___ morning.14. I saw ___ fox this morning. I think it must have been ___ same one that I saw lastweek.15. Can I have ___ apple?16. Have you ever seen ___ Acropolis in ___ Athens?17. ___ police have had a lot of support from ___ general public over this issue.18. ___ shirts on ___ washing-line should be nearly dry now.19. ___ people don't like him because of his selfish life.20. I bought my sister ___ book and ___ bottle of ___ perfume for her birthday but I don'tthink she liked ___ perfume.

Grammar Practice Possessives

Exercise A. Put the correct possessive adjective or pronoun:1. I cant play tennis because Ive forgotten _____ tennis shoes.2. Jessica cant play because shes forgotten _____ too.3. Amy cant play because hes broken _____ arm.4. Rachel and Amanda cant play because theyve forgotten _____ rackets.5. Jilly and Laura have lost _____ !6. Clares at home. Shes looking after her cat. Its broken _____ leg.7. Can you play Lee? Or have you forgotten _____ racket?

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Grammar Practice Demonstratives

Exercise A Complete this dialogue with this, these, thator those:Customer: Can I have half a kilo of 1_____ tomatoes on the shelf behind you?Assistant: 2 _____ here, do you mean?Customer: Yes, thats right. And have you got any of 3 ______ oranges you had last

week?Assistant: No, we havent got any of 4 _____ but 5 _____ here are just as nice.Customer: All right, Ill have a kilo of 6 _____ please.Assistant: Anything else?Customer: Yes, can I have a cabbage please?Assistant: How about 7 _____ one?Customer: Yes, 8 _____ looks fine.Assistant: Anything else?Customer: No, 9 _____ s all thanks.Assistant: 10 _____s 3.45 altogether.

Answer Keys for Grammar Practice

Answer Keys for Grammar Practice Articles

Exercise 1: 1.A noun is a word. 2.A city is a big town. 3.A horse is an animal. 4.A rose isa beautiful flower. 5.A table is a piece of furniture.

Exercise 2: the, the, a, the.

Exercise 3: 1.a ,-, a. 2. the ,-. 3. the 4. the, the 5.-, -, the 6.-, the 7.-, a 8. the, - 9.-, -, 10.the, -, an, the.

Exercise 4: 1.a, a 2.-, - 3.a, - 4.-, the, the 5.-, the 6.a, -, a 7. the, the, the 8. an 9.-, a, -10.the, the, the.

Exercise 5: 1.-, the(an) 2.a, a, the 3.-, the 4.-, the 5.-, - 6.-, -, the 7.-, -, - 8. an, -, - 9. the,

the 10 .the, an.

Exercise 6. an enormous, a diameter, the earth, a train, an hour, the stars, the one, adiameter, the thousands, a powerful, the naked, the earth, a hundredth, the full.

Exercise 7. the, the, -, the, the, -, the, the, -, a, the, the, -, -, the, the, -, a, the, -, -, -, the,the, a, the, -, -, the, the, a, -, -, an, -, the, the, an, the, a, -, -, a, the, -.

Exercise 8. 1. the 2. the, the, the 3. the, the 4. the 5. the, the 6. the, the 7. -, the, the 8. the,

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the, the 9. the, the, the 10. the, - 11. the, the 12. -, the, the 13. - 14. the, -, the 15. -, the, the

16. the 17. -, -, -, the, the 18. the, the 19. the, the, the 20. -, -, - 21. -, the.

Exercise 9. 1 .-, a, a, a, a 2. a, a 3. a, a 4. an, a, a 5. a, a 6. a, a, a 7. a, a, a, a 8. a 9. a 10. a,a 11. an, a, a, a, a, a 12. a 13. a, a 14. a, a 15. an, -, a.

Exercise 10. 1. -,-,the, a, 2. the, the, -, a, -, a, the 3. the, the,the 4. the, a, the, the, an, -5. -,the, the,the 6. a, -, 7. -, -, -, the 8. the, the,the , the, a, a, the, the 9. the, -, the, -, -10. the, -11. the/ a,the, the 12. the, a, the, a 13. the, the, -, the, the. 14 a ,the, the, the/an, the/an 15. -, -, -, an.

Exercise 12 : A)1.a, 2.a, 3.a, 4.the, 5.the, 6.-, 7.-, 8.the, 9.a, 10.the, 11.the, 12.a.B)1.an, 2.the, 3.the, 4.a, 5.the, 6.-, 7.-, 8.the, 9.the, 10.the, 11.the, 12.the, 13.-.C)1.the, 2.-, 3.the, 4.the, 5.the, 6.the, 7.the, 8.theD)1.a, 2.a, 3.the, 4.the, 5.the, 6.the, 7.the, 8.the, 9.the, 10.the, 11.the, 12.the, 13.-, 14.the,15.the.E)1.an, 2.a, 3.the, 4.the, 5.the, 6.the, 6.the, 7.the, 8.the, 9.-, 10.the, 11.the, 12.the.F)1.the, 2.a, 3.a, 4.the, 5.the, 6.the, 7.the, 8.the, 9.the, 10.a, 11.a, 12.the, 13.the, 14.-,15.the.G)1.a, 2.a, 3.the, 4.a, 5.the, 6.-, 7.a, 8.-, 9.the, 10.the, 11.the, 12.the, 13.the, 14.-,15.-, 16.the, 17.a, 18.the, 19.the, 20.the, 21.the, 22.a.

Exercise 13. 1 -, 2 -, 3 the, 4 -, 5 the, 6 -, 7 the, 8 the, 9 -, 10 -, 11 the, 12 -, 13 the, 14 the,

Exercise 14. 1 a, 2 a, 3 an, 4 an, 5 a, 6 an

Exercise 15. 1 a restaurant, a street 2 an apple, a glass, 3 a pub, a barmaid, a week, anhour.

Exercise 16. a-3, b-1, c-8, d-6, e-4, f-5, g-2, h-7

Exercise 17. 1. The, 2. The, 3. The, an, the, A, a.

Exercise 18. 1. -, -, 2. the, -, 3. the, -, 4.-

Exercise 19. 1. -, -, 2. the, 3. -, -

Exercise 20. d, d, d, c, c, d, b

Exercise 21. 1. the, a 2. a, the 3. the 4. -, -, 5. the, the, 6. the, the, 7. an, an, 8. -, -, 9. a, 10.the, -, 11. -, the, 12. the, the, the, 13. a, -, the, 14. a, the, 15. an 16. the, -, 17. the, the, 18.the, the, 19. -, 20. a, a, -, the

AnswerKey Grammar Practice Possessives

Exercise A. 1 my 2 hers 3 his 4 their 5 theirs 6 its 7 your

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Answer Key Grammar Practice Demonstratives

Exercise A. 1 those 2 These 3 those 4 these 5 these 6 those 7 this 8 that 9 that 10 That

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UNIT 3

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF A SHIPTHE PRONOUN AND THE NUMERAL

Objectives: after studying the course and the seminar the students will be able to

describe a ship using the words related to the parts of a ship and recognize the

different types of pronouns and numerals and use them correctly in sentences .

What is a ship?

People have used rafts, boats and ships to travel across water for many thousands ofyears. At its simplest, a ship is any craft that travels on water, but ships havedeveloped from simple log rafts to vast oil tankers. This development has affectedlife on land, in shipbuilding yards, and at ports where hundreds of people workloading and unloading cargo.The difference between a ship and a boat is not very clear. Generally, ships are largerand travel across seas and oceans. Boats are smaller and usually travel on rivers,lakes and coastal waters.Ships and boats come in a huge variety of shapes and sizes and have a wide range ofuses from simple rowing boats to massive cruise liners.Different types of ships do a wide range of jobs in different fields like transport,commerce, leisure, exploration and combat.

Parts of a ship

The fishing trawler looks similar to many other ships and boats. The body of the boatis called the hull. The backbone of the hull is the keel. The bow (front) is sharply

pointed to cut easily through the water. A deck provides a watertight covering for thecrew to work on. An engine-driven propeller pushes the ship along. The rudder at thestern (back) is used for steering.Ships and other objects that float can do so because the water they are floating in

pushes upward against them. This pushing force is called upthrust. An object willfloat if the upthrust of the water is great enough to overcome the downward push ofthe objects weight. The simplest boats float because the material they are made of isless dense than water. Heavy metal ships float because they are specially designed to

displace a large weight of water. Not all water has the same density. Salt water isdenser than fresh water and gives a stronger upthrust. Ships float higher in saltyseawater than in fresh lake water.

Facts: One of the earliest uses of boats was fishing. Today there are fishing boats

designed to catch different fish in all sorts of conditions- from calm lakes to the

deep oceans. Fishing trawlers drag nets through the water behind them.

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The largest moving machines ever built are big cargo ships. There are different

types designed to carry different types of cargoes. Submersibles and submarines are the only types of boat designed to travel under

the water as well as on top. Submersibles are small craft used for underwater

research, exploration and repairs to pipes and cables. Submarines are usually

larger and most are for military purposes. They are used to launch missiles and

sink ships.

The fastest boats are racing powerboats. They are one of many types of boats

used for having fun on the water. Their hulls are designed to rise out of the

water and skim the surface at high speed.

VOCABULARY

Trawler = traulerDeck = punteBridge = punte de comandaFunnel = cos de navaHull = coca navei,corpul naveiKeel = chilaBow = provaStern = pupaRudder = carmaSteering = guvernare, mentinere pe drumWatertight = etans la apa

Upthrust = (mec) forta ascensionalaCargo = incarcatura(transportata pe mare)Cargo ship = nava de marfuri, cargouPipe = teava, conductaMissile = rachetaSkim the surface = a tangenta suprafata apei

THE PRONOUNThe pronoun is the part of speech that replaces a noun, a whole noun phrase oranother pronoun. It has the grammatical category of person, gender, number andcase. Different from the noun the pronoun has:

a)

marked gender in the 3rdperson singular- he/ she/ itb)

marked number using different words- I/ we/ he/ theyc)

the contrast between accusative/ dative I/ me, he/ himThe pronoun has three cases:a) Nominative (pronoun as subject) : I, you, he, she, it, they, we, who

b) Objective ( pronoun as object): me, you, him, her, it, us, tem, whomc) Possessive (pronouns showing ownership): my/mine, your/ yours, his, her/ hers,

its, our/ ours, their/ theirs, whoseThere are seven types of pronoun, classified according to their meaning and use.

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The personal pronoun

This type of pronoun shows the persons that take part in a dialogue or replaces theobject we talk about; it has gender, number and case, and different syntacticalfunctions.

Person category. In English, the pronoun and the verb are the only parts of speechthat have the grammatical category of person:Iam a captain.Heis a sailor.The pronoun is the only indicator of a person, that is why, it is mentioned incommunication in English:Ispeak English. (Eu) vorbesc engleza.The personal pronoun can have a generic function: Hewho laughs last laughs best(universal truth). Cine rade(that one who)The pronoun you is sometimes used as an indefinite: You can never tell (nu sestie)They,having the meaning of people in general: Theymake ships in the shipyard.Gender category. This category appears with the 3rd person singular: he (malegender), she (female gender), it (neuter gender). He/ she may also replace someanimate or inanimate nouns of neuter gender: The ship/ shehas already arrived.

Number category. The personal pronoun we has two uses: exclusive we, meaningI+he (Can we come at 8 oclock?); inclusive we, meaning I+you (How are we

feeling today?)

The form you is used both for the second person singular and second person plural.The plural you is an inclusive plural (you=you+he).Only the 3rdperson plural is a real plural: they=he+he+he.

Syntactical functions:1. subject:Heis an officer.2. predicate:It is hewho did it.

3. indirect object: Can you tell methe way to the harbour?4. direct object:I like her.The reflexive pronoun

This type of pronoun has the following particularities: it has the 1st, 2

nd, 3

rdperson

like the personal pronoun; gender forms for the 3rd

person singular (himself, herself,itself); they are spelled self in the singular (myself, yourself) and selves in the

plural (ourselves,yourselves, themselves).The reflexive pronoun is used when the speaker is referring to an action that he orshe has caused to happen and of which he or she is the object: I cut myselfbadly.It is also used when the direct object or prepositional object of a sentence has thesame reference as the subject:John dressed himselfin his most formal suit.The reflexive form oneself can be used to refer to persons in general: One should

keep oneself as warm as possible this winter.There are verbs with obligatory reflexive pronoun: absent oneself, behave oneself,

prideoneself (I pride myselfon my boats).There are verbs after which the reflexive pronoun can be omitted, without changingthe meaning: comb, dress, shave, wash (He went into his cabin and washed himself/washed).

Syntactical functions: direct object: She helped herselfto another piece of cake.indirect object:He allowed himselfa break.

predicate: She is always herself.

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The reflexive can also be used to make some clauses more emphatic. To make a

strong point, we sometimes use a normal subject or object pronoun and areflexive pronoun as well: The sailor himself drew the map/ The sailor drew themap himself.

Its syntactical function is that of an apposition: The captain himselfhelped thecrew.

The possessive pronoun

The possessive pronoun replaces both the name of the possessed object and thepossessor; it has gender, person, number and case. They are used when you want toindicate who owns or is associated with an item.The forms are: mine/ yours/ his/ hers/ ours/ theirs.Attention!Do not confuse the possessive pronouns with the possessive adjectives(which are noun determiners):It is myship/ It is mine.The interrogative pronoun

The interrogative pronouns who, whom and whose are used only for reference topeople. The interrogative pronouns which and what can be used for reference topeople and things. These type of pronouns allow us to build questions around thething that the pronoun refers to: Who is dancing with Lucy?/ Whose are theseclothes?/ Whichis the best book you have aver read?Who is used to ask questions about people in general: Who did this?Whatis used to ask for things in general: Whatis she?/ Whatis the meaning of thisword?

Which implies selection among a limited number of persons or objects: Whichof thetools do you need?/ Whichis your favourite poet?

Whoseis the possessive form of the pronoun: Whoseis the car over there?Whom is the object form of who. It is the formal word, used in writing especially:Whodo you have in writing?/ Whomhaveyou in mind?/ Who were you speakingto?/ To whomwere you speaking?The relative pronoun

The relative pronouns are: who, whom, which, and that. They link a subordinateclause to a main clause:I know people who/ thatdont like the job of a sailor.A subordinate clause introduced by a relative pronoun is called a relative clause.Relative pronouns refer back to a noun phrase or pronoun that has just beenmentioned. This is called the antecedent of the relative pronoun. It is usually thenearest noun phrase or pronoun. Some of these pronouns (who, whom) can introducedescriptive relative clauses (sentences which bring supplementary, nonessential

information): My superior, to whom you were speaking just now, wants you tofollow his orders.They also introduce restrictive relative clauses (sentences which bring informationnecessary to clarify the meaning): The boy who threw the anchorwill be punished.Who and whomare restricted to human antecedents: The man whojust left is mycaptain.

Whichis not used for human subjects or objects, and introduces both descriptive andrestrictive relative clauses: Swimming, which is an enjoyable sport, makes people

strong and healthy; The bottle which you are drinking out ofhas just been brought.

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That is used only in restrictive sentences: The chair that was broken yesterdayhas

been mended.The relative pronouns can also be omitted in restrictive sentences: The magazine(that) you lent me is very interesting.The indefinite pronoun

The indefinite pronouns are used in a general sense when you do not know or do notneed to say precisely who or what you are referring to. They show global (all) or

partial (each,either) objects or phenomena.The indefinite pronouns can be grouped according to meaning, as follows:a)

general amounts and quantities: most, some, none, any, all, both, half, several,enough, many, each;

b) choice or alternatives: either, neitherc)

undefined singular or multiple persons and things: someone-somebody-something, anyone-anybody-anything, no one-nobody-nothing, everyone-

everybody-everything.Some is used in affirmative sentences: There are some on the deck./ He boughtsome. It can also be used in interrogative sentences when you offer something: Will

you have some?

Anyis used in interrogative and negative sentences:Have you got any? I havent gotany.

Eachrefers to the members of a group, one by one:Each of them wanted to try.Either(negative form neither) i