daoist diet longevity eating your way to immortality

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Eating Your Way to Immortality

Early Daoist Self-Cultivation Diets

SHAWN ARTHUR

Abstract

This paper examines health and bodyrelated claims made in the LingbaoWufuxu (ThePrefacetotheFiveLingbaoTalismansofNuminousTreasure), anearlymedievalDaoisttextthatcontainsseventyrecipesforattaininghealth,longevity,andspiritualbenefit.Synthesizingthetextsmyriadclaimsandanalyzingtheirimplicitassumptions,Iworktodevelopanintegratedpictureofwhatwasconsideredcrucialforahealthybody,what techniqueswereusedtoattainthisideal, and what goals were sought using these practices. I examine the textsclaimsaboutbecomingphysicallyandspirituallyhealthy,itsproposedstagesofpurificationandrefinement,andtherangeofindicatorsbywhichadherentscanmeasure progress toward their ideal state.Not only does this study provide anewinterpretationoftheWufuxusdietaryregimens, italsoillustrateshowChinesemedical theories influenced the textsauthors to present immortality as alogical evolution of healthperfectingpractices. This analysis leads to questionsof how the idea of perfecting ones health functionswithin theworldview andritualpracticesofearlyDaoists.

Daoists arewell known for their emphasis on selfcultivationpracticesaimed to attune them to theDaoand toachieve longevity.Onesignificantpracticewhichhasreceivedrelativelylittleattentionisreligiousdietaryasceticism.AswithotherDaoistpractices,dietaryregimesintegrateawiderangeof ideassuchascosmologicalcorrelation,medical theories,andreligioussymbolismtodevelopabeneficialandcomprehensive exercise that is expected to compliment other selfcultivation andreligiousritualpractices.

Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/33

Thisproject focusesontheTaishanglingbaowufuxu(Preface to the FiveMostHighNuminousTreasureTalismans),1whichwaswrittenandedited from the second to the fifthcenturiesCE in theJiangnan region in southeasternChina.TheWufuxus first juan (scroll/chapter) includes instructions for specializedbreathingpracticesaswellasadescriptionofthe idealized lineageassociatedwiththetextanditstalismans fromitsemergenceduringthegenerationofthecosmosthrough itsvarious attributedowners includingancientmythologicalfigures,MastersofEsoterica (fangshi), and famous immortals.ThetextsthirdjuanincludesadetailedtransmissionritualforthefiveLingbao talismans, which are presented (3.9b111b) and which are wellknownfortheirclaimedabilitytoprotecttheirwearerfromharmwhenexploring wilderness areas in search of immortality elixir ingredients.2

Theformaltransmissionritual,firstpresentedinthisjuan(3.3a7b3),becametheritualmodeladoptedbyDaoistsfromthefifthcenturyforward(Raz2004,8,15,36381).3

Situated between these sections, the middle juan of this text provides an extensive and detailed example of Daoist dietary practices manyofwhichareattributedtothefiguresdiscussedinearlierpartsofthe text. This section, whose contents is the subject of this essay, is atechnicalmanualofseventyrecipes(listedintheappendix)thatfocuseson theattainmentofperfectedhealthandphysical immortality throughtheingestionofherbal andvegetalbasedprescriptions.4

1DZ388;hereaftercitedasWufuxu.Thenumberingsysteminthisworkisbased on that found in Komjathys Title IndextotheDaoistCanon (2002). For adetaileddiscussionofthehistoryofthevariouseditionsofthistextanditscloserelation to other earlymanuscripts such as theLingbaojing and Lingbaowufu ,seeRaz(2004,912,142150).

2Forexample,seeWufuxu 3.8b79a10;GeHongs Baopuzi (BookoftheMasterWhoEmbracesSimplicity,DZ1185)11.3a18a2;trl.Ware1966,p.1796.

3Foracomplete listofthecontentsofthetexts firstand thirdscrolls,seeRaz(2004,3137).

4 Although lacking an explicit explanatory statement, the context andplacementoftheserecipesalsoseemtoindicatethattheyfunctionaspreparatorypractices for participation in the later formal ritual which relies on the adepthavingattainedmanyofthegoalspresentedintherecipes,suchashavingonesenergypurifiedandstrengthened,havingtheabilitytofast,beingincommunicationwiththegods,andhavingtheprotectionoftheJadeMaidens.

34/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)

TechniquesTointroduceDaoistdiets,itmustberecognizedthatalloftheWufuxusdietarypracticesandtheirexpectedbenefitsare predicatedonearlyChinesemedicalunderstandingsof thephysicalbodyand the food itconsumesinenergeticterms.Qi (organic,materialessentialenergy)isthefundamentalenergythatisfoundineverythingthroughoutthecosmos,includingthehuman body,whichrequires qi tomaintainhealthandlife.

ThisideaisreflectedthroughouttheWufuxu,especiallyinitsmanyrecipes thatpresent benefiting and increasing qi as abasic selfcultivation achievement.5For example, properly ingesting a compoundofChinaRootfungus(fuling;Poriacocos),Rehmannia(dihuang;Rehmanniaglutinosa Libosch),sesameseed(huma;Sesamumindicum),andasparagusroot(tianmendong;Asparaguscochinensis)powdersis thought to strengthen ones qi in just thirty days and to double itwithinonehundreddaysnecessaryattainmentsbefore furtherrefinementcantakeplace(2.15a38;recipe20).

Oneresultofthisworldviewisanattempttoingestthemostefficaciousformsofqiinorder tohave thebeststartingplace forproficientlyrefiningandtransformingonesbodytoitsultimatepotential.Forexample,thetextstates:Eatingthatwhichiscleanandpurebringslonglife,andeatingthatwhichisuncleanandcorruptcausesoneslife(ming)to be interrupted (2.23b2; recipe 28). Therefore, proper selection andpreparation of foods is crucial to Daoist selfcultivation. In fact, theWufuxuisfilledwithadmonitionstoingestonlyingredientsthatareharvestedandpreparedonparticulardaysassociatedwithoptimalqi conditionsandcorrespondences.

TheWufuxu contains seventythree different ingredients, themostpopularofwhichareSesameseeds,Asparagusroot,Rehmannia,Chinarootfungus,Pinetreesap(songzhi;Pinus),Pokeroot(shanglu;Phytolaccaacinosa),Locusttreeseeds(huaizi;Sophorajaponica),Wolfberries(Gouqi;Lyciumchinense),andGinger(jiang;Zingiberofficinale).6Eachingredienthasitsownmedicinalproperties,manyofwhich

5Seerecipes1,2,7,12,14,20,25,27a,28,36,43,44,46. 6 The text contains fortyone plantbased active ingredients, as well as

twelvevarietiesofrice(mi),wheat(mai),andmillet(chishumi,shu


arestatedexplicitlyinthetextandwhichcorrespondtootherearlymateriamedicainformation(seeArthur2006a,190213).

In addition to the ingredients innate qualities, the text stipulatesthatadeptsmusttakeintoconsiderationvariousimportantcosmologicalcorrelationsespeciallydates,seasons,yinyangstates,andFivePhasesenergieswhen collecting,preparing, and ingesting thevarious ingredients.Forexample,ARecipeforLengtheningYearsandImprovingLifeExpectancydiscussesharvestingthechrysanthemumplant(ju;Chrysanthemummorifolium),eachpartofwhichhasaspecialnameindicatingitskeyproperty, and says:

Duringthecourseofthethreespringmonths,onthe jiayin day in themiddle of the day, gather transform lifeleaves.Duringthecourseofthethreesummermonths,onthebingyindayinthemiddleoftheday,gatherthereplenishandrefillstalkDuringthethreeautumnmonthsontheyuyi dayintheafternoon,gatherthesunsessence . SunsEssence isthechrysanthemumsflower.Alwaysinthewinterinthetenthmonthonthewuyindayatdawn,gather the spirit essence These are the chrysanthemumsseedsInwinter intheeleventhortwelfthmonthontherenyindayatsunset,gatherlongevity.Longevityisthechrysanthemumsroots. (2.7a99a1;recipe12)7

Inotherwords, tomaximizeefficiency inattaining theirgoals,adeptsmustremainawareofthemedicinalandqibasedpropertiesof theingredientstheyareingesting.Thisisdoneinpartbecausethesecharacteristicscanchangedependinguponthetimestheplantsareharvested,prepared,and ingested,butalsobecause thisrequiresadeptstobecognizantoftheirownenergeticneedswhenchoosinganappropriatediet.

daomi ) thatarefermentedtoproducealcoholswiththeadditionofvegetalactive ingredients.Additionally, there are a fewnonvegetal active ingredients[mica(yunmu),deerantler(mijiao),mercury(shuiyin),andtin(xi)],andmanynonvegetal,nonactiveingredientssuchaswater,honey,andtheanimalfatsusedforfryingin somerecipes.

7SeeArthur 2006, 605 andRaz2004,3612 for discussion of theChinesecalendricalsystemanditsusageinthe Wufuxu.


Ideally,normaleatinghabitsalsoshouldbeabandoned in favorofingestingspecialelixirlikecompounds andcosmicqi,sincethesecontainmore specialized and rarified qi than normal foods. Accordingly, theWufuxu contains three basic types of selfcultivation dietary regimen,eachrequiringadifferentlevelof commitment.

The first of these I label mildly ascetic because it involves eatingspecialvegetalandherbal formulasassupplements tonormalmealsorslightly reduced food intake. Many of theWufuxu diets proclaim thatpractitionersshouldingestherbalmedicationsbefore(recipe16)orafter(recipes 12, 14, 34) eating meals, or with any other foods they desire(recipes 9, 21, 47, 66). For example, afterharvestingandpreparing theorchid RedArrow(chijian ; Gastrodiaelata),thetextsays:

Asregardsthepropermethodofingestion,takea small spoonful aftermeals.This generally retards old age.After tendaysyouwill know its effectiveness.After thirtydaysyour qiwillbecomegreat.Onceyouhavetakenitforover100days,inadditiontotheabove,yourbodywillbecomelight,andyourearsand eyes will become astute and clear. After one year, teethandhairwillregrow. (2.9b22.10b3;recipe14)

Theleastdemandingofthetextsregimens,thisdiettypeseemstofocusonimprovingoverallhealthandasanintroductiontomoresophisticated techniques. Similar to typicalmedical practices, the ingredientsused in thesemildly ascetic recipes are expected to retain their efficacyregardlessofany additionalfoods that areingested.

Second,manyof theWufuxusrecipesadvocatean asceticdiet involvingfoodreplacementtherapy.Thispracticeinvolvessmallamountsofspecial ingredientsandherbalvegetalcompoundsbeingconsumedintheformofpillsorcakesorherbinfusedalcohols withoutadditionalordinary foodstuffsotherthanwater.Forexample,ACommonRecipeforIngestingandEatingNonGlutinousRice,followingastring of similar recipes, implies that adepts should not eat additionalfoodswhenitsays:

Takeone dou (; apeck)ofnonglutinous rice(gengmi),three douofalcohol,andcombinethetwothings.Soak[therice]until all thealcohol hasdissipated; then stop and take it out.Onlyeatalittleofit.Ifyouarethirsty,thendrinkwater.After


thirty days thiswill be used up, and you canmakemore asabove.(2.35b46;recipe63)

Althoughonlytenrecipes8statethatthemedicinalpreparationsaretobeused in lieuofnormal foodconsumptionduring theregimen,thetenorofthetextcombinedwiththefactthatmostrecipesadvocatethecontinuedingestionofamedicinalcompoundindicatesthatthisformof asceticism is the expected dietary norm. Subsequently, this type ofasceticdiet functionsonmultiple levels forDaoistadepts:asan important selfcultivation practice, as a basic fasting purificationmethod forritual preparation, and as a useful survival technique when food wasscarceorwhentravellingaloneinthemountainsinsearchofspecialingredientsandspiritplants(excrescences, zhi ) forimmortalityelixirs.

For example,whendiscussing thebenefits of ingesting SolomonsSeal (huangjing ; Polygonatum sibiricum), the Wufuxu claims, Thegods canbringaboutlongevityandcanextend[life],but[typical] peopledonotsucceed.Eventhoughthegodsarebright,theyareeasiertoseeifyou eat this food (18b89; recipe 27a). Furthermore,people can ingestsmallspoonfulsofthespringharvestedrootoreggsizedportionsofthesummerharvested root three timesdaily, and itwill function as foodwhenthereisnotenoughtoeat.Inunfortunateyears,thisherbcanhelptheoldandyoungceaseeatinggrainsandcanfeedthem(22a45;recipe28).

Whilethisregimenwouldbedemanding,thethirdandmostimportant of theWufuxus diets requires a strongly ascetic commitment toextensivefastingpracticeswhichincludeavoidingdietarystaples,eatingnofoodatall,andingestingcosmicqithroughspecializedbreathingandvisualizationpractices.TheWufuxucontainstenrecipesthatusethetermbigu(lit.toavoidgrains)oritsequivalent.9Theoriginalintentionofthetermbiguwaslikelyarigorousfastingregimenthatrequiredthepractitionertostopeatingthefivemaingraindietarystaplesofrice,

8Recipes7,8,10,15,18a, 53, 59,60,61,64. 9Severalothertermsexpressthesamebasicideaasbiguandareusedinter

changeablyintheliterature.Theyincludeduangu(tocutoffgrains),quegu (to eliminate grains), xiuliang (to cease cereals), and jueli (toabandonthestaples).SeeArthur2006,10511.Recipes7,8,9,15,20,27a,28,43,65,66.


wheat,oats,millet,andbeans;however,notallusesofthetermindicatestrenuousortotalfasting.10

TheWufuxuusesthetermindifferentcontexts,typicallyinrecipeswhichprohibit ingestinganyfoodsorwhichclaimthatadeptswill losetheir appetite naturally and will be able to live without normal foodstuffs.Forexample,APerfectedOnesRecipeforGrainAbstentionandEating Sesame claims that mixing steamed andpounded sesame seeds with China Root fungus and honey will allowadeptstoobtainstrengthandincreaseitveryquickly.Youwillbeabletoreplenishyourvitalessence(jing)andmarrow(sui).Graduallyyouwillnothunger.Ifyouthirst,thenjustdrinkwater(2.6a106b1,recipe8).

Theothermajorpracticeassociatedwith bigu isthemostasceticofDaoistdietaryregimens:qiingestion(shiqi).Inthispractice,adeptsutilizevariousbreathingandvisualization techniques toswallowtheqiofthesun,moon,stars,andFivePhasesinordertonourishtheirbodiesand to enhance their connections to cosmic energies and deities. Qiingestionpractices,duringwhichtheadeptforgoeseatinganyphysicalfood substances, are discussed throughout the Wufuxu as superior toingesting vegetal substances, which are thoughtmerely to function ashealthrelatedpreparationswhichcanacclimate thebody tomore serious and subtle energy regimens.As such, shiqiregimens arenecessaryforproperselfcultivation,ritualpurification,andformaltransmissionofthe Wufuxuanditstalismans.11

For example, in arecipe for thekey selfcultivationpracticeof expelling theThreeWorms (sanchong)withChinaRoot Fungus andpokeroot, an addendumstates: Locustseeds arealsogood ifyouareabletoingesttheirqi.Donotusethese[earlierstatedpreparation]techniquesifyoucanalsoingest theirqi.TheperfectedqiistheessenceoftheGreenSprout(qingya)oftheFiveDirections.Daoistsingestthisfor

10See Kohn 1993, 149; Arthur 2006, 94, 11417; Eskildsen 1998, 4344, 60;Zhang2003,288.

11Shiqi isonlymentionedinrecipes28,29,and44,butitplaysaprominentrole in other parts of the text (1.11b514b9; 1.18b826a8; 3.21a522a1). See alsoHarper1998,3049; Huang1987;Jackowicz2006,6888;Raz2004,382397.


twentyonedaysandtheThreeWormsfleeand leave (2.24b68;recipe29).

Although not consistent throughout, theWufuxu indicates that qiingestionisthemostefficaciouspracticeforachievingthehighestlevelsof immortality,suchaswhen itstates:Thosewhoareable tocultivatewuwei () and ingest qi and their own salivawill ascend (2.23a34,recipe28).Asaresult,manyofthetextsselfcultivationorientedrecipespromotetheadoptionofanasceticlifestylewhilereplacingnormalfoodintakewith special vegetal and herbal preparations.The text indicatesthatitis throughthesustainedpracticeof theseregimensthatadeptscanbest attain their religious goals, such as health, physical and energeticperfection,communicationwiththegods,andimmortality.

Perfecting HealthIn spiteofanyhopes to thecontrary, theWufuxu clearly indicates thatachievingitsreligiousgoalsisnotasimpletask.Rather,thetextsrecipespresentimmortalityastheculminationofagenerallylengthyandarduousprocessthatbuildingontheideaofacontinuumbetweenprevailingmedicaltheoriesandreligiousperspectivesbeginswithperfectingoneshealththroughingestingthepropermedicinalsubstances.

Through a structuralist analysis (see LviStrauss 1966) involvingtheconcurrentexaminationoftherecipesstructureandcontents,multiple patterns and details become evident within the texts presentationand organization of information; and these discernable patterns, alongwith frequent attributions to important figures in the texts lineagedtransmission, indicate the lengths towhich the texts redactorswent inorder to produce a cohesive, consistent, and unified text. Synthesizingthe texts myriad health and bodyrelated claims and analyzing theirimplicitassumptions,theremainderofthisarticleillustratestheincorporationofideasregardingwhatwasconsideredcrucialforahealthybodyandhowthisdirectlyrelatestotheperceivedstagesthatleadtoimmortality.

TheWufuxus recipes followauniformstyleandformatbeginningwith the recipes title and ingredient list, followed by discussion ofpreparationandingestionmethods,andendingwithdeclarationsaboutexpectedbenefitsthatwilloccurifanadeptproperlyadherestotherec


ipesdirections.Oneofthe mostconciseexamplesofthisformat,ARecipeforExtendingtheYearsandIncreasingLongevity ,states:

Placeripelocusttreeseedsinacowsintestine(niuchang ),andputthisinadarkplacetodryforonehundreddays.Afterthat, swallow one piece with your meal in the morning andevening. After ten days your body will lighten. After thirtydays yourwhite hairwill revert to black.After onehundreddaysyourfacewillbecomeradiant.After twohundreddays,agallopinghorsewillnotbeabletokeepupwithyou.(2.16a9b2;recipe23)

Therecipesalsocontaindescriptionsofthevariouschangesthatareexpected to occur within the body from having ingested the recommendedmedicines.Also similar in style, organization,andcontent, therecipesmanyproclamationsbeginwithhealingthebody asthefirstgoalofpractice;andthistypicallytakesplaceinthefirstfewyears.Afterthis,thebodyitsthoughttogainextraordinaryabilities,andonlythencanitbecomeperfectedandspiritualizedastheadeptcomesintocontactwiththecosmicandbodygodswhogive theadeptsbodyevengreaterandmore miraculous powers. Finally, the adept is expected to become animmortalandtoascendtotheheavenlyrealminasfewasfivehundreddays(recipe30),butitmaytakeasmanyasfiftythousanddays(recipe17).Forexample,ThePerfectedOnesRecipeforFermentingAsparagusAlcohol says:

Ifyouingestthismedicinefor threeyearsthehundreddiseaseswillallhealthemselves,andskindiseasesandwormswillallborethroughtheskinatthejointsandwillbeexpelled.Ingestit for three [more] years andyour baldingheadwill regrowhair.Ingestitfortenyearsandyouwillbeabletocontrolyourdestinyandthechaosofyourpreviouslife.Ingestitfortwentyyearsand inthewinteryouwillnotbecold,and inthesummer youwill not behot. Ingest it for thirtyyearsand an oldmanofonehundredyearsofagewilllooklikeayoungmanoffifteen.

Afteringestingitforfortyyears,youwillbeabletocommunicatewiththegods;andatthistime,therewillbeaspiritmaidentobringmedicineandtoencourageyou.Ifyouobtain


it, ingest this spiritmedicine. Threedays later,youwill shedyourbodylikeacaterpillarshedsitsskinandattainimmortality. Even if you have already obtained and ingested a spiritelixir, obtaining this alcohol stillwill be beneficial andauspicious. (2.31a6b5; recipe49)

My analysis of the text indicates thatpurifying thebody andperfectingitshealthcanbedividedintofourmajorcategories,thefirstthreeofwhicharecuringdisease,expellingtheThreeWorms,andeliminatinghunger all indicative of strengthening the physical bodys structureandinternalfunctionalcomponents.Thefourthhealthcategoryinvolvesrefining the external physical body and its components, especiallythroughattention to transforming thebodys abilities andoutwardappearance.

Curing DiseaseTobegin thepath towardperfectionand immortality,adeptsmust firstattainhealthandridthebodyofdisease,whichhasphysiological,energetic,andparanormalorigins.Inall,morethanhalfoftheWufuxusrecipesdirectlyrefertocuring illness inthebody includingthe twentyonerecipesmakingthegeneralclaimthattheyareabletocurethehundredillnesses (baibing; i.e., all illness) and the eight recipesclaimingtomakethebodyhealthybynaturallybenefitingit(yi )andnourishing it (yang).12 In fact,health issuescomprisea largerproportionofWufuxusrecipesthananyotherconcern. This indicatesthat thehealthofthebodyisofparamountimportancetoattaininganymajorreligiousgoals;andsubsequentlytherearetwobasicclassesofillnessthatneedtobecured:energeticissuesandailmentsofdailylife.

ClearlyindicatingthatthetextsredactorshadatleastbasicknowledgeofChinesemedicalideasanddiagnosticterminology,theidealpattern of qiflow is presented as balanced, strong, and smoothflowingthroughout the body. One central form of illness that is essential toeliminateiswaywardandpathogenic(xie)qiflow,which involvesqi

12Recipes1,7,8,12,16,21,25,28,35,37,40,44,45,46,47,49,50,51,52,53,57 for curing illness; and recipes 1,2, 10, 17, 26,27a, 35, 52 for benefiting andnourishingthebody.


blockagesandexcessiveflow,especiallyduetotheeffectsoftheSixPerniciousInfluences:excesscold,dampness,heat,wind,dryness,summerheat(see Kaptchuck1983,14657;Despeux2001,126).Forexample,referring to cakesmade of amixture of pine sap, ChinaRoot fungus, andhoney,thetextclaims:

Afterahundreddaysyourbodywillbecome light.Aftertwohundreddaysyouwillhavenomorecoldorheat.Afterthreehundreddaysyouwillhavenomorewindyheadandblurryeyes.After four hundred days youwill have nomore of thefivetroubles(lao)ortheseveninjuries(shang).Afterfivehundreddaysyouwillhavenomorecoldbelly,indigestion,orconcealedobstructionsof qi. (2.12b810;recipe17)

Supposing that previous exercises had rid the body of heteropathic qiandhadbalanced and strengthened the internalbody, another facet ofhealth in theWufuxu involves refining thebodysothercrucial internalenergy:jing .Oftentranslatedasvitalessence,jingisthesexualenergyassociatedwith thekidneyandreproductivesystem,andsevenrecipesfocuson protectingand increasing jingbecauseoncejing isexhausted,deathoccurs.13

Thesecondtypeofdiseaseemergesfromtheproblemsofdailylife.ThirteenWufuxurecipespurporttoalleviatejointpainsandrheumatism,to counteract the five troubles and seven injuries associated with lifeand work, and to deal with womens gynecological and birthrelatedproblems.14 Infact,onerecipestitleexplicitlystatesthatthemedicineisthoughttobeparticularlyusefulforlabororientedandwomenshealthissues: The Recipe for Expelling the Three Worms; Killing the ConcealedCorpses;HealingBlackFacial [Disease];BenefitingWisdomandRemembering;andCuringAlloftheFiveTroublesandSevenInjuriesofMenandWomen,WivesBreastMilk,BearingOffspring,ExcessBelowtheBelt Illnesses,andRedandWhiteSecretions

13Recipes1,2,8,14a,17,27a,36.SeeUnschuld1985,1267. 14Foralleviatingjointpains,seerecipes25,52,54.Forhealingthefivetrou

blesandseveninjuries,seerecipes15,17,40,43,54.Forgynecologicalissues,seerecipes:4,14,15,43,45.


(2.10b102.11a7;recipe15).15

The focus of curing common ailments and pregnantwomen indicatesthatsomeoftheserecipeslikelyoriginatedamongsourcesoutsidetheLingbaoDaoistschool.The lineageassociatedwith thecompilationof theWufuxu was predominately comprised ofmale members of theliteraticlassmeaningwelleducatedandwelltodopatronswith timeandmoneytopracticetheoftenasceticregiments found intheLingbaocorpus(Yamada2000).

Originally,theWufuxusrecipeswerepropagatedbyfangshi,whosesocial roles included acting as wandering doctors and magic workersthroughout eastern and southern China. These fangshi are thought tohavesoldtheirrecipestoaristocrats,merchants,andfarmers,andpossiblyusedrecipessuchasthoseinthe Wufuxu tocurethegeneralpopulace(seeRaz2004,3849;Campany2002,6).Recipesfocusedoncuringissuescommon to laborers and women indicate that they were culled andadapted from extant recipes and medical treatment techniques beingpropagatedby fangshi ratherthanoriginatingwithliteratiDaoists.

Expelling the Three WormsTheothermaincomponentsofstrengtheningthephysicalbodysstructureandfunctionalcomponentsinvolveintestinalissues.Previousstudies of the Wufuxu (such as Yamada 1989) have focused on the ThreeWorms(sanchong)ascentraltothetext;however,onlyelevenrecipesmentionexpelling theThreeWormsand ConcealedCorpses (fushi)fromthebody.16

Thesemalevolentcreaturesareunderstoodtobebothparasitesandspiritualagents that live inpeoplesbodies,feedondecayingmatter inthe intestines,andhastentheirdeathbycausingdiseasessuchasthoseemphasized throughout the text,by rendering foodandmedicine ineffective, and by causing peoples destined lives (ming ) to be short

15The names of these womens problems Excess Below the Belt Illnesses;andRedandWhiteSecretionsrefertovenerealdiseases,genitalinfections,menstrualproblems,andotherissues.

16Recipes15,16,17,18,22,27a,28,29,34,43,49.


ened.17ThelaterhappenswhentheThreeWorms,actingasmoralagents,emergefromtheirsleepinghostonthegengshendayjustbeforethenewmoon(thefiftyseventhoftheChinesesexagesimalcalendricalcycle)andreportthepersonstransgressionstotheheavenlyDirectorofDestinies(Siming)whothendecreasesthelengthofthepersonslifebytheproperamountaccordingtotheinfraction.

One method for expelling the Three Worms involves fermentingChinaRootfungus,pokeroot,alcohol,wheatflour,andyeast,andthenmaking largepills(dan)whichare ingested thricedaily foronehundreddays.Therecipeexplains:

These three Corpses are born together with the person, andtheyoftendesiretocausethepersontodie.Whenthelastdayof thedarkmoon and the first day of thenewmoon arrives,they will want to ascend toHeaven [in order to report] thetransgressionsof commoners.When the lastdayof themoonarrives, youmust grasp your heavenly soul (hun) and restrainyourearthlysoul (po)and thenguard themthroughthe nights gengshen hour. Through this action, the ThreeCorpseswillbeunabletorousetoactionTheThreeCorpsesgenerallydesire theperson to die; therefore, theywant toattackandsnatchawaythatwhichisbeingdiscussed [i.e.,souls].

Generally,Daoists(Daoshi )arealsodoctors;howevertheyknowhowtocultivatethebodywithrecipesbutdonotknowthat the Concealed Corpses that live in peoples abdomenslimitthedrugspowersandcausethemedicine tobe ineffective.18This isall causedbytheThreeWormsIfyouareunabletoexpungethem;however,youjustcheatyourself.Onceyou expel them, then you will not again have hunger. Your

17See Wufuxu2.24a; Arthur2006,1024; Campany2002,4952,166;2005,434;Yamada1989,10710; Kohn1993,149;Eskildsen1998;andForke190711,2.363.Aninthcenturytext,theChusanshijiuchongbaoshengjing(TheScripture onExpelling theThreeCorpses andNineWorms to Protect Life;DZ871),provides one of themost comprehensive anddetaileddiscussions of thisphenomenon.

18ThiscriticalreferencetoDaoistsalsoindicatesthatDaoistsdidnotcreatetherecipe.


heart/mind(xin)willbepeacefulandwithoutthoughts,andyouwillbeabletoobtainandfollowthelifeofaPerfectedPerson(zhenren ). (2.24a3b3;recipe29)

According to theWufuxu, progressing towards a healthy state requires that theThreeWormsmustbe eliminated. Ridding thebody ofthese parasites, and keeping them from returning through ingestinganthelmintic,parasiteremoving, medicineorperformingbigufastingisalso equated with the adept being able to retain a high level ofmoralthought andaction, thus introducingan importantmoraldimension toDaoist selfcultivation. In addition to allowing the adept to live outhis/heroriginallifespan,killingtheThreeWormsisalsoacrucialsteptocalmonesheart/mind, to attempt advanced selfcultivation, and togetridofhungeralsoaweaknessofthebodythatcanbecuredbyfollowingthe Wufuxusregimens.

Physical ImprovementsInadditiontocuringdisease,refiningthebodysenergies,andexpellingthe Three Worms, theWufuxus redactors included fortyfive differentclaims that explainways to improve thephysicalbodyand itspsychological attributes through furtherdevelopmentof thebodys integratedphysical and energetic components. Interestingly, the aspects of thephysicalbodythataresubjecttoproposedimprovementscanbedirectlycorrelatedtothemostapparentcharacteristicsofayoungperson,suchasclear eyesight, acute hearing, strong bones and muscles, supple flesh,blackhair,beinglight,beinginvigorated,andhavingallofonesteeth.Inother words, these Daoists were explicitly concerned with overcomingthemanifestationsofanagingbody.

The most common enhancements are to the adepts eyesight andhearing with eleven and ten recipes respectively.19 Besides healthrelatedbenefits, eyesightandhearingalso are important toDaoist religiouspracticessuchasbeingabletoreadatextduringanighttimeritual,honing ones ability to see various spirit beings and excrescences, and

19Recipes2,5,12,14,15,17,25,27,28,43,45foreyesightimprovement,andrecipes1,2,5,12,14,15,25,27,43,45forhearingimprovement.


beingabletolistentocommunicationfromspiritbeingsandgods.20Additionally,wecaninterpretclaimsabouttheeyesandearsintermsoftheFivePhasescorrelativetheoryusedthroughoutthetextinordertohighlight another level ofpossiblemeaning forbasichealth improvements.Accordingly, eyesight improvement is related to lessening anger andincreasing courage; while curing hearing loss can be related to kidneyissuessuchasincreasing jing,perfectingwisdom,andlesseninganxiety(see Kohn 2006, 57). Thus, health of the physical body corresponds tomentalhealthaswell.

The other major aspect of perfecting the physical body relates toimprovingthebodysappearance.Analyzing the text indicates thatappearanceisoneofthemostimportantsignsofbeinghealthyandhavingstrong qi. In fact, of all of theWufuxus specific healthrelated claims,morearerelatedtorejuvenatingthecomplexion;makingtheskinlookglossy, smooth, shiny, and youthful; andmaking thewhitehair of oldageregrowandreturntoblack thantoanyotherissue. 21

For example,onerecipewhichadvocateseating smallcakesmadeof pine tree sap, China root fungus, alcohol, and honey addresses improvements to thebodyand its appearance;and readerscan easilydeducethathealthandyouthfulnessarebutinitialstepsalongthelengthypathtowardsimmortality.The recipesays:

After six hundred days your facial complexionwill be stabilized.Aftersevenhundreddays,youwillhavenomoreblackfacialskin.Aftereighthundreddaysnewblackhairwillgrow.After nine hundred days burns and scarswill be eradicated.Afterathousanddaysbotheyeswillbecomeclear.Aftertwothousanddays the complexionwill change.After three thousanddaysyouwillbeabletowalkwithoutleavingatrace.Afterfourthousanddayseverymark[onthebody]willbeeliminated.After five thousanddaysnighttimewillappear illuminated.

20See Baopuzi 11.3a18a2;trl.Ware1966,p.1796. 21Recipes 1, 2, 4, 12, 13, 15, 17, 20,20a, 28, 36, 43, 45 for rejuvenating the

complexion;recipes2,4,5,12,14,17,23,27,28,35,45,48,49forregrowingblackhair;andrecipes4,12,15,17,28,39,43,45,48,49,50forskinimprovements.


Aftersixthousanddaysthemusclesandskinwillchange.Afterseventhousanddaystheskinandpulseswillbeabletobeconcealed.Aftereightthousanddaysthejingandshenwillbestrong.Afterninethousanddaystheyouthfulnessofachildwillbereached.Aftertenthousanddays[27+years]thebodywillbenaturallyhealthy.(2.12b10 13a6;recipe17)

Here,intheoverallprogresstowardsimmortality,thereisevidenceof someconceptsof reversalbutonly to arightfullyhealthy state. Inotherwords,toothloss,hairloss,wrinkles,andwhitehairareallsignsofunnecessaryagingandbodilydecaywhichwilldisappearonceahealthystate is regained. This seems to signify that the intended audience forthese recipes would have been the older generations, especially of thearistocracyamongwhich the textcirculated,whowouldhave the timeandabilitytoadoptasceticpractices.Agereversal,itwashoped,wouldalso give interestedpeople additional time and an increased chance ofachievingtheirreligiousgoals.

Overall,theWufuxusproposedhealthimprovementscorrespondtocommonailments and limitationsof thebody as it grows older. Thus,Daoisthealthdoesnotmerelyindicatealackofdisease.Thetextsredactors includedmany examples of aggressively seeking to combat problemsassociatedwithold ageanddeathonall fronts: from its outwardmanifestations inbodilyweaknessanddegradation to internalstatesofdisease and energy imbalance. Indicating that theadept isprogressingtowardimmortality,thisstateofperfectedhealthmustbesuccessfulforfurthercultivationandrefinementtooccur.


Extraordinary AttainmentsTheWufuxupresentstheadeptsnextstageofdevelopmentasanaturalextension of the continuum of medicallyoriented theories about thebody:ifthephysicalbodycanachieveahealthystateandretardtheaging process, then with sustained religious ascetic selfcultivation practices, it should be able to completely transcend normal capabilities.Theseadvancedattainmentsareexpectedtoincludeextremehealth,protective characteristics, and extraordinary abilities.22Based on the extentto which Chinese medical and correlative theories can be applied, extraordinaryabilitiesarepresentedasthe likely, reasonable,andnaturalproducts of religious selfcultivation regimens as presented in theWufuxu. Forexample,thetextclaims:Thosewithacleannature(xing)receiveperfected qi. For thosewhoare clean, longevity is theirnatural(ziran )destiny(2.23b45).

Byextremehealth,Irefertotheextensionofearliermedicallybasedhealth attainments to levels beyond the scope of traditional medicalideas.ItisherethatIargueidealreligiousexpectationsreplacemorelimitedmedicalpossibilities. For example, five recipes claim tobe able toradicallyimprovesightandhearing somuchsothatadeptswillbeableto see things a thousandmiles away, tosee in thedark, tohearvoicesthat are ten thousandmiles away, and tohave clairvoyance (yuanzhisifang ;lit.farreachingknowledgeofthefourdirections; 2.3b6;recipe2;seealsorecipes12,16,17,27a).Thisseemstorepresentametaphoricalclaimtoanabilitytoseetheearthlyspiritsandcosmicgodsintheirabodesandtoheartheircommunication.

Additionally, the text contends that strengthening ones qi shouldcontinue until it is so concentrated that thebody obtains onehundredtimesnormal strength, thestorehouseorgansneverbecomeexhausted,andvariousbodilyparts(suchastheeyes,hands,andgallbladder)begin to radiate qias light. Furthermore, continued selfcultivation is expectedtoleadtothebodysprotectionfromallmannerofpossibleproblemssuchasdrowningwhileunderwaterandbeingphysicallyorspiri

22Iusetheterm extraordinary rather than supernaturalbecausetheancientChinesethoughtthatthegods,spirits,souls,andghostswereanaturalpartofthecosmos,notseparatefromorbeyondtherealworld.


tually injured,poisoned,andattacked.ThebasicwardingoffoftheSixPerniciousInfluencesisextendedsothattheadeptbecomesimpervioustoanyextremeexternalconditionsuchasfire,extremecold,heteropathicenergies, andmalevolent spiritbeings.Other extraordinaryabilities includetravelingbyunconventionalmeanssuchasflyingorrunningfasterthanahorse,consciouslyroamingaboutwithyourspiritwhiledreaming,becoming invisible,communicatingwith thegodsof thebodyandcosmos,controlling spiritbeings,andbeingabletocontrolonesdestiny.

A Recipe for Lengthening Your Years and Extending Your LifeExpectancy offers a useful example of the texts range ofextraordinary benefits, which are expected to occur after the adeptachievesahealthystate.Thischrysanthemumbasedrecipestates:

Ifyouingestitforanentireyear,thehundredillnesseswillallleave, your earswill becomemore astute, your eyeswill seeclearly, your body will become lighter, and your qi will increase.Also,youwilladdtwoyearstoyourlife. Ifyouingestitfor two years, your face and complexion will be joyous andsmooth, your qi andstrengthwill increase onehundredfold.Anywhite hairswill return to black, and any lost teethwillgrowagain.Also,youwilladdthreeyearstoyourlife.

If you ingest it for three years, when you walk in themountainsyouwillnotneedtoavoidsnakes,dragons,ghostsand spirits. You will never encounter warriors or weapons.Unlesstheyareflyingbirds,noonewilldaretoovertakeyou.Also, youwill add thirteen years to your life.If you ingest itfor four years, your namewill be reported to the gods (shenming)aswellastheFivePhases.Also,youwilladdfortyyearstoyourlife.

Ifyouingestitforfiveyears,yourbodywillbringfortharadiant light(guangming),youreyeswill illuminatebothdayandnight,andtherewillberadianceinyourinnerparts,bridges, intersections, and joints. Your body will be so lightthateventhoughyoudonothavefeathersorwings,bymereintention youwill be able to travel by flying. Ingest it for sixyears in order to increase your longevity by three hundredyears.

Ifyou ingest itforsevenyears, theDao inyour shenwilldesireperfectionandyourlongevitywillincreasebyonethousandyears. Ifyou ingest it for eight years, your eyeswillbe


abletoseeforonethousandmiles(li ),yourearswillbeabletohearfortenthousandli,andyourlongevitywillincreasebytwothousandyears.

Ifyouingest itfornineyears,yourshenwillbeperfectedandwillbecomelikegoldenstone.Atdeathyouwillbeabletocomebackto life.Your longevitywill increasebythreethousand years. On your left will be the green dragon, on yourrightwillbethewhitetiger,andgoldwillbecomeyourchariot.(2.8abrecipe12)

These abilities are presented as the culmination of extensive selfcultivationworkonthepartoftheadept,andarebasedontheearlymedieval worldview that humans could transcend normal limitationsthrough selfcultivation andmagicoreligious practices, and that valorizedpersonswhoattemptedthiswork.23However,thesepowersarenotmeant to be a goal for the adept; they aremerely indications that theadepts inner spiritual cultivation is progressing and that the bodysphysical,mental, andspiritualcomponents arebeing thoroughly transformed.However,theextraordinaryabilitiesandgreatlyincreasedqi areintegral to the adepts journey toward immortality because it is thesecharacteristicsthatseemtobenoticedbythecosmicdeities,whoeventuallywillcontacttheadeptandleadtheadeptintothenextstageofcultivation:spiritualizationorselfdivination.

Spiritualizing the BodyThe Wufuxus penultimate stage of selfcultivation signifies that theadepthasbeencleansedandpurified,hasadoptedalifeofquietude,andhas developed a tangible connection to the spirit realm that propelshim/hertowardevenmoreadvancedtransformationofthephysicalandspiritualbodies.Shen,spiritenergy,ispartofthebodysinherentenergetic cosmicconnection frombirth, and six recipes claim to increaseand nourish the shen.24 It seems that adepts strive to store and purifytheirqi inordertoallowtheirshen tobecomemoreprominentandactive.

23SeeRaz2005,117;theargumentthroughouttheBaopuzi; see Ware1966. 24Recipes1,17,25,27a,37,46.


Shen,a moresubtle manifestationofqi,isthenamplifiedandfurtherrefinedto takeonnuminouscharacteristics indicating thatadeptsareattempting to spiritualize or divinize the physical body.25 One lotusbasedrecipe,forexample,integratescosmologicalcorrelationsandplantpartstoprepareamedicinalcompoundmeanttoenhancethe shen.

Everythingisfromthesameplant.Onthe7th dayofthe7th lunarmonth collect sevenparts lotus flowers (ouhua).Onthe8th dayofthe8th lunarmonthcollecteightpartslotusroot(ougen).Onthe9th dayofthe9th lunarmonthgathernineparts lotusseeds(oushi).Mixtheplantstuffstogethertoprepare them.When complete, ingest an inchsquare spatulafull.(2.16b79)

Ingest for onehundreddays then stop.Your inner lord(zhu ) will arrive and your inner being will be enhanced.Yourqiwillgetstrongandwillnourishyourshen.Youwillnothungerandwill expeltheonehundred illnesses.Afteralongtimeofingesting,yourbodywillbecomelight.Youwillextendyouryears,notgrowold,andthenturnintoaspiritimmortal(shenxian ). (2.17a89;recipe25)

The result of the completion of this final stage of preparation, then, isconsideredaperfectedbody,whichisphysicallysimilartoearlierstagesbutisrepletewithasignificantlymoresubtlequalityofessentialenergy.

Atthispoint,Daoistsadeptsexpecttohaveanintimateconnectionwith cosmic energies and direct knowledge ofhow towholly embodyandsynchronizeearthlyandcosmicprinciples;thustheybegintomanifestcharacteristicsofspiritbeings.Thisadvancedlevelofspiritualization,in turn, is expected to attract the attentionof spiritsguardians. For example,fiverecipesclaimthatingestingmedicinesofsesame,Solomonsseal,orasparagusroottincturewillattractSpiritMaidens(shenn),

25There is nodiscussion of transmuting qi into jing and then into shen aswith later internal alchemy; however, the organization of the texts myriadclaimsindicatesthatpurifying,harmonizing,andstrengtheningonesqiandjingisnecessarybeforetheadeptisabletomoreactivelycultivatetheir shen andalignitwiththatofthegods.


JadeMaidens(yun),andthesixArmoredSpirits(jiashen )whowillserveandprotectthepurifiedadeptfromharm.26

Withthisdefensivespiritretinueinplace,itisanticipatedthatvariouscosmicdeitiessuchasTaiyi (;GreatUnity)willvisitandcommunicatewiththeadept.27Buildingontheimportanceofcommunicatingwith various gods discussed throughout the full text, and its focus ondetailed and lengthy selfcultivation, theWufuxu implies that the pathbeyondhealth and longer life eventually requires some form ofdivineinterventiononbehalfofadepts.

Thefirststepinthisprocessistoattracttheattentionofthecosmicdeities, who are expected to recognize when an adept has sufficientlypurified him/herself. After contact has been established to verify theadeptspreparationiscomplete,threerecipescontendthataspectsofthecosmicdeitieswill descend from their celestial abodes to take up residence in the adepts internal palaces the energy centers in the bodywhichincludethevariousorgansaswellasthelowerdantian (; lit.cinnabar/elixir field) just below the navel, the middle dantian at theheartlevel,andthenineroomNiwanPalace()intheupperdantianinthehead.28Eventually,itishoped,thatthesegodswillinvitetheadeptto live in theheavenly realmas an immortal.For example a SolomonsSealrecipeclaims:

Ingestandeatthisherboverthefourseasons,anddonotstop.Itcanbringaboutanextensionofyouryearsifyouareabletocast aside society and its customs and live a hermit life on afamousmountain.Ifyouingestandeatthisherb,youcanliveaslongasHeavenandEarth.Themultitudeofgodswillconvene together, and Taiyiwill be expecting andwillwelcomeyou.Youwillascendandbepromotedto[therankof]OfficerofHeaven. (2.19a35;recipe27a)

26Thejiashenareassociatedwiththesixcalendricaljiadates,whicharethefirstofthe tenHeavenlyStems(tiangan), thatoccurduringeachsixtydaycycle(seeArthur2009,forthcoming). Recipes2,8,27a,30,49.

27Recipes10,15,17,27,27a,28,49. 28 Recipes 2, 25, 27a. According to the Wufuxus first chapter, the three

dantian are the corporeal offices of the Three Ones Heaven, Earth, and theCrimsonChildwithinthebody(1.22b2b7;seeRaz2005,3523).


Daoiststhoughtthatthecorporealdeitiesoriginallywerepresentinpeoples bodies but normal lifes stressors and extreme emotions hadsulliedthebodytosuchadegreethatthegodsweredrivenaway.Thus,it takes a great deal of cultivation andpurification to coax thevariousbodygods toreturntotheir rightfulplaceswithin thecomplex internallandscape of the adepts body. For example, tasting the strong flavors,smellingputridodors,hearingloudsounds,andseeingsexordefecationallcannegatively impact the adepts sensitiveconstitutionand its rarifiedsubtleenergies,andcanthusupsetthebodygods,causingthemtoflee from the adept. The Wufuxu says: As you practice consistently,avoid foods like fresh fish,pork,scallions,andstrongvegetables [asallhave strong smells and tastes].Also avoid gazing uponmourners andcorpses,aswellasdogsandpigsintheprocessofgivingbirthor defecating.Beverycareful!(2.2b103a1;recipe2).

Thevariousmanifestations of the cosmicdeities that take up residence in the adepts body signify the adepts complete transformationfrombasehumantothefullembodimentofthesacredmacrocosmicreality.29Oncethecorporealdeitieshavetakenupresidence,theadeptsmicrocosmicbodyhasbecomeadirectcorrelatetothemacrocosmos.Withthisattainment,anotherabstractmysticalexperienceisthoughttooccur:the capacity to leave the obscure and enter the profound (chuyaoruming ;2.1a5;recipe1) toachieveunionwiththeDao.

ImmortalityAt this point in the adepts development, the final major goal of theWufuxusdietaryregimesismet:theadeptattainsextendedlifeandimmortality.Justbehindcuringillness,extremelongevityisthemostcommonbenefitpromotedby the text.Nearly half of the texts recipes declarethatpractitionerscanattainvaryingdegreesoflongevityandeventually become an immortal being (xian ). Although numerous, theclaimsaboutextremelongevity lackspecificity; thereareno fewerthanthirtysixdifferentphrasesemployed in the texttodenote lifeextendedbeyondnormalexpectationsforexample,toobtainlonglife(),

29ThisideaisnotuniquetotheearlymedievalDaoism;itoriginatedinthepreQineraandbecomeprominentduringtheHandynasty(Raz2005,34041).


to livemanythousandsofyears (), tohalt theprogressionofyears(),andtolengthenexistence()(2.1a22a10;recipe1).

For claritys sake, I have divided the texts ideas about this phenomenon into three categories: minor longevity, major longevity, andimmortality. Seven recipespurport to lead tominor longevity i.e., toextend the adepts life by a few years, but less than an additional fulllifespan,ortoretardoldage().30Forexample,AnotherRecipeforRepellingOldAgedoesnotexplainwhatismeantbyitstitlewhenitsays:Beginningonthefirstsi dayofthetenthlunarmonth,ingestlocustseedsoncedaily.Increasethedosebyone[eachday]untilyoureachtendays.Again,returnandrepeatfromthebeginning.Todocorrectlyyoumustbegineatingthemonthefirstsi day(2.16b316b5;recipe24).

Iclassifyexplicitclaimsofincreasinglifetoatleastdoubleanormalpersonslifeexpectancyasmajorlongevity.Here,thebodysnaturallifeand death processes allegedly are transcended. For example, a recipethat combines mica, curly cypress (juanbo ; Selaginella tamariscina),waterplantain(zexie;Alismaorientalis),EdibleGreensFruit(xianshi; Aramanthus),andpinetreesapclaimsthatingestingthiscompoundforsevenyears:Yourbodywilllivefortythreethousandyearsandwillnot die (2.14b515a2; recipe 19). Similarly, avoiding death (),endlesslongevity(),andlivingaslongasHeavenandEarth()areusedas synonymsfortheideaofimmortality.

It seemsthat the textsmanyclaimsofextreme longevityare ideologically similar to those of immortality where the adept continues toresideonearthorintheheavensforanextensiveperiodoftimeinapurified formof their originalphysical body.Whetherornot these statements signify anabsolutepermanentexistence (seeRaz2005, 110n176),theycertainly indicatea life that is far longer thanthenorm,and thereare thirteen recipes that couple the term immortality with claims ofdramatically increasingthe lengthofthepractitioners lifehence Iarguethattheyshouldbeconsidereda formof immortality.31 Inadditiontoachievinganelongatedlifespan,thetextalsomentionsfourexamples

30Recipes1,12,14,16,24,25,27a. 31Recipes1,2,5,12,13,17,19,25,26,27,27a,28,32,44,46,47,48.


ofadeptstranscending(dushi)thephysicalworldandascendingtoreside intheHeavenofGreatClarity (Taiqing)where theymaybereceivedby thegodTaiyiandbegiventherankof ImmortalPersonorOfficerofHeaven(tianfu ).32

TheWufuxudoesnotprovideaconciseexplanationofwhat itsredactorsmeantbythetermimmortality,andanalystsarelimitedtoinferring ideas frompassageswhich contain the term, from the texts shorthagiographical accounts of immortals,33 and from the presentation ofimmortalityas theculminationofattainingsufficientpurityandrefinement through extensive selfcultivation and longterm maintenance ofasceticdietaryregimens.Thetextdoesnotincludeahierarchyofimmortal achievements as found in Ge Hongs Baopuzi, which differentiatesbetween celestial immortals, earthly immortals, and corpseliberatedimmortals(2:9a;Ware1966,478).Yet,otherexamplesintheBaopuzidonot discuss this hierarchy because all immortals supposedly have attained the crucial benefit of longevity.34 These instances support theWufuxus implication that there is little significant difference betweenforms ofmajor longevity and immortality other than the adepts finalplaceofresidence.

32Recipes1,2,17,27a.TheideasoftheHeavenofGreatClarityandthegodTaiyi first featured in the Shangqing school of the 4th century (Hu 1995, 1457;Robinet2000,215).FordiscussionontheascenttoTaiyi,seeBokenkamp1990.

33Recipes2,6,7,13,16,17,19,25,26,27,27a,28,30,32,36,49.Theseshortaccounts, of figures such asMaster RedPine in recipe 17, are similar to thosefound in other narratives andmajor hagiographic collections: the Liexianzhuan(;BiographiesofImmortals;Kaltenmark1953);theShenxianzhuan (;Biographies ofSpirit Immortals;Campany 2002); andchapter 82 of theHouhanshu(;HistoryoftheLaterHan;Fangshuliezhuan;TraditionsoftheEsotericArts;Ngo1976andDeWoskin1983);also Raz2005,43n14).

34SeeBaopuzi3.52;Ware1966,65;Campany2002,77,181,29294;Raz2005,11012.


ConclusionAlthoughmissingmanynecessarydetailsforanallinclusive,contextualunderstanding, the Wufuxu does provide a great deal of informationaboutthepathofearlymedievalDaoistselfcultivationandthemechanicsofitsdietaryprocedures.Amalgamatingthetextsvariousclaimsandanalyzing their implicit and explicit suppositions, I have developed arelativelycomprehensivetypologyregarding theWufuxusexpectationsforahealthybody,forlongevity,andforachievingitsspecificreligiousgoals. This analysis leads to questions of how the idea of perfection especially of ones health and ones energies functions within theworldviewandritualpracticesofearlyDaoists.

The structureandorganizationof themajorityof the texts entriesillustrateatimeconsumingstepbysteptransformationofallaspectsofthe adepts body. This process first requires balancing, purifying, andrefining the mundane aspects of the body. Demonstrating the holisticnature of Daoist claims of perfection throughout the text, the bodysphysical, energetic, and spiritual components are interconnected andrelated to prevalent medical and cosmological correlative theories. Inotherwords,adeptsbeginbybalancingandtransformingthebodysmicrocosmbasedonperceivedpatterns,correlations,andideasabout qi.

Eventually, the text indicates that integratingcharacteristics of themacrocosm,especiallyintheformoftheFivePhasesenergieswhichareinternalizedduringqiingestingpractices,willcosmicizeandspiritualizethebodytosuchadegreethatlongevityandimmortalityaretheresult.In fact, the texts extraordinary abilities andachievements,which indicateabeliefthatnormalhumanlimitationscanbetranscendedthroughasceticdietary and religiouspractices, arepredicated onperfecting thehealth,and inmanycasestheyalsocanbedirectlycorrelated to fundamentalconceptsofhealthaspresentedinthetext.

Interestingly,allofthetransformativeprocessesmentionedintheserecipesareorientedtowardadeptsstrengtheningandharmonizingtheirown internalphysical,mental, andenergeticprocesses andcharacteristics.Thetextonlydiscussesonecrucialexternalagentialinfluencethecosmicgods,whoareattractedtotheadeptbecauseofhis/hercontinuedinternalselfcultivation.


Onamorepracticallevel,theimprovementofhealthisparamountintheWufuxussecondchapterbecause itallowstheDaoistswhopractice itsdietaryregimenstomore fullyembodycentralreligious idealssuchascommunicationwith thegodsas they takepart in the formaltalismantransmissionritualinthetextsthirdchapter.Furthermore,thelonglistsofbenefitsfoundinthetextsrecipesseemtobeintendedtobeamapofkeyindicatorsthatadeptscouldfollowastheyprogressedfromanormallifetowardtheiridealstate.

Although the Wufuxu was compiled as a synthesis of longevityideas andpractices fromdisparate groups (seeYamada 1989, 114; Raz2004, 912), the coherence of themes and patterns within the text is astrongindicationthatitsredactorsdiligentlyworkedtodevelopa coherentandunifiedsetofpracticesofwhichingestingherbalconcoctionsforfacilitatinghealth,perfecting thebodyand its essential energies,developing a connection with the divine realm, and achieving immortalitywasanintegralpart.

Appendix The Wufuxus Recipes1.TheNuminousTreasureIngestionoftheEssenceoftheFiveWonderPlants.

2.1a22a102.TheRecipeoftheThreeHeavensoftheNuminousTreasure.

2.2b14a73.VariousLingbaoRecipesInvolvingSesame.

2.4a84b24.DivineMethodsofExtendingtheLifeExpectancyandIncreasingLongevity.

2.4b35a15.RecipeforSesameCakes.

2.5a25a106.SesamePaste.

2.5b15b57.APerfectedOnesAbstentionfromGrainRecipe.

2.5b66a28.APerfectedOnes MethodforGrainAbstentionandEatingSesame.

2.6a36b19.APerfectedOnesRecipeforLighteningOnesFoodIntakeandAvoiding

GrainsWithoutHunger. 2.6b26b5

10. ARecipeofIngestingFoodtoProvideExtraordinaryBenefittotheBody. 2.6b67a2


11.ARecipe toDifferentiatethe Ju (Chrysanthemum)andYi (100,000PetalledFlower). 2.7a37a8

12.ARecipeforLengtheningYearsandImprovingLifeExpectancy. 2.7a99a1

13.ARecipeforApricotSeedCakes. 2.9a29b1

14.TheRecipeofaPerfectedPersonasReceivedbyYuoftheXia. 2.9b210b3

14a.NoTitle. 2.10b410b915. TheRecipeforExpellingtheThreeWorms,etc.

2.10b1011a7

16. TheRecipeforCausingPeopletoNotGrowOld,HaveaLongLife, etc. 2.11a811b9

17.APerfectedPersonsRecipeforLengtheningOnesLife,ExpellingtheThreeCorpses,ProlongingOnesYears,andTurningBackWhiteness. 2.11b1014a7

18.ARecipeofMasterRedPine. 2.14a814a9

18a. A RecipeforEnteringtheMountainsandNeverEatingAgainUntiltheEndofOnesLife. 2.14a1014b4

19.TheFourSubstancesforImmortalityRecipeAsReceivedBytheYellowEmperorfromHuangQing. 2.14b515a2

20.APerfectedPersonsFourIngredientMedicinalPowdertoEliminateGrains. 2.15a315a8

20a.NoTitle 2.15a915b721.AnotherRecipetoIngestFoodandtoHealIllness.

2.15b816a422. AnotherMethodtoExpeltheThreeWorms.

2.16a516a823.ARecipeforExtendingtheYearsandIncreasingLongevity.

2.16a916b224.AnotherRecipeforRepellingOldAge.

2.16b316b5

25. APerfectedOnesAdditionalLotusPowderstoRetardAging. 2.16b617b2


26.ARecipetoArrestAging. 2.17b317b8

27.TheRecipeforIngestingandEatingMuskDeerAntler toGreatlyExtendtheYears;andIfYouTakeMore,toMaketheEarsandEyesAstuteandClearandtheHairBlack. 2.17b918a4

27a.NoTitle. 2.18a520b3(Thisportionseemstobethefirsthalfofthefollowingrecipe.)

28.ALingbaoRecipeforSolomonsSeal. 2.20b423b5

29.AnImmortalsMethodforExpellingtheThreeWormsandConcealedCorpses. 2.23b624b8

30.LezichangsMethodforRefiningSesamePaste. 2.24b925a3

31.LezichangsMethodforIngestingSesame. 2.25a425a7

32. TheTalismanfor HidingtheLivingin theGreatMysteryoftheNuminousTreasure. 2.25a825b8

33.MedicineforCorpseLiberation. 2.25b926a7

34.ARecipeforExpellingtheConcealedCorpsesandThreeWorms. 2.26a826a10

35.ASpiritImmortalsRecipefor CultivationandNourishing[Oneself]. 2.26b126b6

36.ASpiritImmortalsMethodofFermentingAlcohol. 2.26b727a4

37.ARecipeforShu (Atractylodesmacrocephala)Alcohol. 2.27a527a9

38.ARecipeforSpiritAlcohol. 2.27a1027b3

39.ARecipeforSesameAlcohol. 2.27b427b7

40.ARecipefortheSpiritAlcoholofRehmannia. 2.27b828a4

41.ARecipeforPineSapAlcohol. 2.28a528a9

42.AnotherRecipe. 2.28a1028b2

43. ARecipeforPokeAlcohol.


2.28b328b1044.ARecipefor WolfberryAlcohol.

2.29a129b245.ARecipeforFiveEggplant(Acanthopanax)Alcohol.

2.29b329b946.ARecipeforAsparagusRootLiquor.

2.29b1030a847.ARecipeforFriedAsparagusRoot.

2.30a930b748.ARecipeforIngestingandEatingtheNuminous.

2.30b831a549.APerfectedOnesRecipeforFermentingAsparagusRootAlcohol.

2.31a631b550.ARecipeforImmortalityAlcoholtoStrengthentheBody.

2.31b632a251.ARecipeforCuringtheHundredDiseaseswithSpiritAlcohol.

2.32a332a852.ALingbaoRecipeforIngestingandEatingRehmanniaandWolfberry.

2.32a932b1053.ARecipeforAsparagusRoot.

2.33a133a754.ARecipefor Wolfberry Alcohol.

2.33a833b255.AFermentingMethod.

2.33b333b856.ARecipeforProducingSpiritAlcohol.

2.33b934a457.ARecipeforSpiritAlcohol.

2.34a534a858.ASpiritImmortalsMethodforDryingAlcohol.

2.34a934b359.ASpiritImmortalsRecipeforIngestingandEatingGreenMillet.

2.34b434b1060.AnotherRecipe.

2.35a135a561.YetAnotherRecipe.

2.35a635a862.AMethodforDryingAlcohol.

2.35a935b363.ACommonRecipeforIngestingandEatingNonGlutinousRice.


2.35b435b664.ARecipeforIngestingandEatingRicefromthePaddy.

2.35b735b1065.ARecipeforCeasingGrains.

2.36a136a566.LezichangsRecipeforHoldingaJujubeNutinOnesMouth.

2.36a636b3

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