DAVID HUME大衛休謨

Philosoher, Economist, WriterConcluding Remarks: Hume’s Political

Philosophy and Influence on Contemporary Thought

結論 : 休謨的政治哲學及其對當代思想的影響By

Dr. Anjan K. NathDepartment of Foreign Languages and Literature

Tunghai University, Taichung: TaiwanJanuary 5, 2008

東海大學哲學系教授俞懿嫻中譯

David Hume

Birth: April 26, 1711 (Edinburgh, Scotland)生於蘇格蘭愛丁堡Death: August 25, 1776 (Edinburgh, Scotland)學派 School/tradition: Naturalism, Scepticism, Empiricism, Scottish Enlightenment主要興趣 Main interests: Epistemology, Metaphysics, Philosophy of Mind, Ethics, Political Philosophy, Aesthetics, Philosophy of Religion 認識論、形上學、心靈哲學、倫理學、美學、宗教哲學著名觀念 Notable ideas: Problem of causation, Induction, Is-ought problem 因果論、歸納法、實然與應然問題受到影響 Influences: Locke, Berkeley, Hutcheson, Newton, Cicero, Malebranche影響所及 Influenced: Adam Smith, Adam Ferguson, Kant, Arthur Schopenhauer, Bentham, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, William James, Darwin, Russell, Karl Popper, Thomas Huxley, John Stuart Mill, William James, Einstein, Ayer, Simon Blackburn, Iain King, J. L. Mackie, Auguste Comte

David Hume 1: David Hume (April 26, 1711 – August 25, 1776)[1] was a

Scottish philosopher, economist, and historian. 休謨生於 1711年到 1776年，是蘇格蘭的哲學家、經濟學家和史學家

2: He is considered one of the most important figures in the history of Western philosophy and the Scottish Enlightenment.

他被視為是西方哲學史和蘇格蘭啟蒙運動最重要的人物 Although in recent years interest in Hume's work has centred on

his philosophical writing, it was as a historian that he first gained recognition and respect.

雖然近來對於休謨著作的興趣集中在他的哲學著作，但他原是以史學家著名的。

His The History of England was the standard work on English history for sixty or seventy years.

六七十年內，他的《英格蘭史》是英國史的標準著作

Overview 概說

Hume was the first great philosopher of the modern era to carve out a thoroughly naturalistic philosophy.

休謨是第一個發展完整自然主義的現代偉大的哲學家 This philosophy partly consisted in the rejection of the

historically prevalent conception of human minds as being miniature versions of the Divine mind; a notion Edward Craig has entitled the ‘Image of God’ doctrine.

他的哲學部分在於反對歷史上以人心為神聖心靈的縮小版 ---Edward Craig 稱之為「神之影像」的學說 ---的盛行概念

Overview 概說 This doctrine was associated with a trust in

the powers of human reason and insight into reality, which powers possessed God’s certification.

這學說連結相信人類理性的力量且能洞察真際，是得到上帝的認證。

Overview 概說

Hume’s scepticism came in his rejection of this ‘insight ideal’, and the (usually rationalistic) confidence derived from it that the world is as we represent it. Instead, the best we can do is to apply the best explanatory and empirical principles available to the investigation of human mental phenomena, issuing in a quasi-Newtonian project, Hume's ‘Science of Man.’

休謨的懷疑論駁斥這「洞查理想」的說法，該說認為世界是我們的理性所呈現的。他認為我們能做的，作好不過是應用探討人類心靈現象可得的最好的解釋的、經驗的原理，發展一種類似牛頓的研究計畫 ---「休謨的人的科學」。

Early Years 早年 The Treatise explores several philosophical topics such as

space, time, causality, external objects, the passions, free will, and morality, offering original and often skeptical appraisals of these notions.

《人性論》一書探討幾個哲學課題，如時間、空間、因果、外在物體、激情、自由意志、和德性，對這些理念提初原創性的和懷疑的議案。

Although religious belief is not the subject of any specific section of the Treatise, it is a recurring theme.

雖然宗教信仰不是《人性論》的特別專章，但卻是不斷出現的主題。

Early Years 早年

Book I of the Treatise was unfavorably reviewed in the History of the Works of the Learned with a succession of sarcastic comments.

Although scholars today recognize it as a philosophical masterpiece, Hume was disappointed with the minimal interest his book spawned.

Early Years 早年 In 1741 and 1742 Hume published his two-volume Essays,

Moral and Political. The essays were written in a popular style and met with better success than the Treatise.

在 1741年和 42年，休謨出版兩冊的《道德和政治的論文》。論文以流行風格撰寫，得到比《人性論》更大的成功。

In 1751 Hume published his Enquiry concerning the Principles of Morals, which recasts in a very different form parts of Book III of his Treatise.

1751年休謨出版《道德原理探究》，是《人性論》第三書的改版。

Early Years 早年

Although this work does not attack religion directly, it does so indirectly by establishing a system of morality on utility and human sentiments alone, and without appeal to divine moral commands. Critics such as James Balfour criticized Hume's theory for being Godless.

雖然這書並沒有直接攻擊宗教，卻以建立以功利和人類情感為基礎的道德體系、不訴諸神聖道德命令的方式間接為之。 James Balfour 便批評休謨的理論是無神的。

However, by the end of the century Hume was recognized as the founder of the moral theory of utility. Utilitarian political theorist Jeremy Bentham acknowledges Hume's direct influence upon him.

不過該世紀末，休謨被認為是功利道德理論的建立者，功利的政治理論家邊沁承認休謨對他有直接的影響。

Early Years 早年

The same year Hume also published his Political Discourses, which drew immediate praise and influenced economic thinkers such as Adam Smith, Godwin, and Thomas Malthus.

同年，休謨也出版他的《政治思想》，並立即得到經濟學家如亞當斯密、哥德溫和馬爾薩斯的讚美，影響到他們。

Early Years 早年

An offer to serve as Librarian to the Edinburgh Faculty of Advocates gave Hume the opportunity to work steadily on another project, a History of England, which was published in six volumes in 1754, 1756, 1759, and 1762.

作為愛丁堡教授團的圖書館員，給休謨研究另一課題英國史的機會，之後在 1754 、 56 、59 、和 62 年分別出版了六冊。

Early Years 早年

His History became a best-seller, finally giving him the financial independence he had long sought. (Both the British Library and the Cambridge University Library still list him as "David Hume, the historian.")

他的《歷史》一書成為暢銷書，最後使他經濟獨立無虞 (英國圖書館和劍橋大學圖書館迄今將休謨列名於史學家 ) 。

MaturityMaturity 成熟期成熟期In the years following In the years following Four DissertationsFour Dissertations, Hume , Hume completed his last major literary work, completed his last major literary work, The History The History of England of England (1754 – 1756) (1754 – 1756) 在完成在完成《《四篇論文四篇論文》》之後，之後，休謨完成他最後的文學作品，休謨完成他最後的文學作品，《《英格蘭史英格蘭史》》。。Most of Hume’s political observations and Most of Hume’s political observations and subsequent theories emerge from his interpretation subsequent theories emerge from his interpretation of the history of England, particularly dealing with:of the history of England, particularly dealing with:大多數休謨的政治觀察和之後的理論是來自他對於英格蘭歷大多數休謨的政治觀察和之後的理論是來自他對於英格蘭歷史的詮釋史的詮釋1: The reign of James I and Charles I1: The reign of James I and Charles I2: Oliver Cromwell2: Oliver Cromwell3:3: The Glorious Revolution (1688) The Glorious Revolution (1688)1. 1. 詹姆士一世和查理一世的統治詹姆士一世和查理一世的統治2. 2. 克倫威爾克倫威爾3. 3. 光榮革命光榮革命

MaturityMaturity 成熟期成熟期In 1763, Hume accepted an invitation In 1763, Hume accepted an invitation from Lord Hertford, the Ambassador from Lord Hertford, the Ambassador to France, to serve as his Private to France, to serve as his Private Secretary.Secretary.17631763 年，休謨接受年，休謨接受 HertfordHertford 爵士的邀爵士的邀請，到法國擔任大使，是他的私人秘書。請，到法國擔任大使，是他的私人秘書。 During his three years in Paris, Hume During his three years in Paris, Hume became Secretary to the Embassy became Secretary to the Embassy and eventually its Chargè d'Affaires. and eventually its Chargè d'Affaires. 在巴黎三年，休謨是大使館秘書，最後是在巴黎三年，休謨是大使館秘書，最後是主官。主官。

MaturityMaturity 成熟期成熟期Hume returned to England in 1766, Hume returned to England in 1766, accompanied by Jean-Jacques accompanied by Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who was then fleeing Rousseau, who was then fleeing persecution in Switzerland.persecution in Switzerland.

休謨於休謨於 17661766 年回到英格蘭，由盧梭培同，年回到英格蘭，由盧梭培同，之後盧梭又爲了逃避迫害到了瑞士。之後盧梭又爲了逃避迫害到了瑞士。

Political Observations Political Observations 政治觀政治觀察察

The first volume was unfavorably received, The first volume was unfavorably received, partially for its defense of partially for its defense of Charles ICharles I, and partially , and partially for two sections which attack for two sections which attack ChristianityChristianity. .

第一卷不受歡迎第一卷不受歡迎，部分原因是它衛護查理一世，，部分原因是它衛護查理一世，部分因為它在第二章攻擊基督教。部分因為它在第二章攻擊基督教。

In one passage Hume notes that the first In one passage Hume notes that the first Protestant reformers were fanatical or "inflamed Protestant reformers were fanatical or "inflamed with the highest with the highest enthusiasmenthusiasm" in their opposition " in their opposition to Roman Catholic domination. to Roman Catholic domination.

有一段休謨說最初的新教徒改革者在對抗羅馬天有一段休謨說最初的新教徒改革者在對抗羅馬天主教的統治時主教的統治時，，是狂熱的是狂熱的，，

Political Observations Political Observations 政治觀察政治觀察 In the second passage he labels Roman In the second passage he labels Roman

Catholicism a superstition which "like all other Catholicism a superstition which "like all other species of superstition... rouses the vain fears of species of superstition... rouses the vain fears of unhappy mortals." unhappy mortals."

在第二段他將羅馬天主教視為一種迷信，就向所有在第二段他將羅馬天主教視為一種迷信，就向所有其他種類的迷信，引發不幸的俗人平白無故的恐懼。其他種類的迷信，引發不幸的俗人平白無故的恐懼。

As far as Hume was concerned, As far as Hume was concerned, religion was religion was synonymous with politics as this was the major synonymous with politics as this was the major contention that divided the people from authority.contention that divided the people from authority.

休謨認為宗教和政治是同義字休謨認為宗教和政治是同義字，因為二者均以權威，因為二者均以權威使人類分化。使人類分化。

Politics Politics 政治政治

Since the separation from the Pope by Henry VIII and Since the separation from the Pope by Henry VIII and establishment of the Anglican Church, it was never establishment of the Anglican Church, it was never comfortable in England with one church trying to comfortable in England with one church trying to dominate the other.dominate the other.

由於亨利八世脫離羅馬教廷，自立英國國教，英國人便由於亨利八世脫離羅馬教廷，自立英國國教，英國人便不再接受一個獨斷的教會。不再接受一個獨斷的教會。

This problem increased under Queen Mary (known as This problem increased under Queen Mary (known as Bloody Mary) who was troubled with bad luck and Bloody Mary) who was troubled with bad luck and wrong decisions.wrong decisions.

這問題到了瑪莉皇后這問題到了瑪莉皇后 ((血腥瑪莉血腥瑪莉 )) 的時代變得嚴重了，的時代變得嚴重了，她運氣不好，做的決定都是錯誤的。她運氣不好，做的決定都是錯誤的。

Politics Politics 政治政治 Her half sister, Elizabeth (1558) faced the Her half sister, Elizabeth (1558) faced the

difficult task of finding a peaceful answer to the difficult task of finding a peaceful answer to the problems. She eventually made the Church a problems. She eventually made the Church a part of the state machine. By 1585 most part of the state machine. By 1585 most English people believed that to be a Catholic English people believed that to be a Catholic was to be an enemy of England. was to be an enemy of England. This hatred This hatred of everything Catholic became an important of everything Catholic became an important political force.political force.

她的同父異母妹妹她的同父異母妹妹，伊麗莎白一世面對找出和平，伊麗莎白一世面對找出和平解答問題的困難工作。她乃將教會變成國家機器解答問題的困難工作。她乃將教會變成國家機器的一部分。的一部分。 15851585 年，大多數的英國人都以為成年，大多數的英國人都以為成為天主徒是英格蘭的敵人。對於任何與天主教有為天主徒是英格蘭的敵人。對於任何與天主教有關事物的仇視成為重要的政治力量。關事物的仇視成為重要的政治力量。

Politics Politics 政治政治

They got rid of the monarchy, the House They got rid of the monarchy, the House of Lords and the Anglican Church. In fact of Lords and the Anglican Church. In fact they created a government far more they created a government far more severe than previously.severe than previously.

他們剷除君王，上議院和國教教會。事實他們剷除君王，上議院和國教教會。事實上他們創造了一個比之前更為嚴酷的政府。上他們創造了一個比之前更為嚴酷的政府。

Politics Politics 政治政治 1688: The Glorious Revolution – the 1688: The Glorious Revolution – the

Restoration of Charles II and reign of James II.Restoration of Charles II and reign of James II. 16881688 年，光榮革命，恢復查理士二世和詹姆士二年，光榮革命，恢復查理士二世和詹姆士二

世的統治。世的統治。 This was the period of primary interest to Hume.This was the period of primary interest to Hume. 這是休謨最感興趣的時代。這是休謨最感興趣的時代。 The English constitution took its characteristic The English constitution took its characteristic

form during this turbulent century of political and form during this turbulent century of political and religious conflict.religious conflict.

英國的憲政在這政治和宗教衝突的動亂世紀英國的憲政在這政治和宗教衝突的動亂世紀，終，終於成形。於成形。

Politics Politics 政治政治 Hume commented on the attempts of the Hume commented on the attempts of the

Puritans to reason speculatively about religion Puritans to reason speculatively about religion and politics:and politics:

休謨說清教徒想要思辨地推論宗教和政治。休謨說清教徒想要思辨地推論宗教和政治。

The Puritans were here so unreasonable as to The Puritans were here so unreasonable as to complain of a partial and unfair management of complain of a partial and unfair management of the dispute, as if the search after truth were in the dispute, as if the search after truth were in any degree the object of such conferences….any degree the object of such conferences….

清教徒如此不合理清教徒如此不合理，，想要偏頗不公地處理這爭議，想要偏頗不公地處理這爭議，好似如果追求真理是這類集會的目標好似如果追求真理是這類集會的目標……

Politics Politics 政治政治 In the light of Hume’s sceptical In the light of Hume’s sceptical

observations, it is not surprising as to why observations, it is not surprising as to why the political and moral essays were the political and moral essays were important to him.important to him.

從休謨懷疑的觀察而言，為何政治和道德的從休謨懷疑的觀察而言，為何政治和道德的論文對他們而言是重要的，不足為怪。論文對他們而言是重要的，不足為怪。

Hume’s political essays present not only Hume’s political essays present not only themes but argumentsthemes but arguments

休謨的政治論文不只提出主題，且提出論證。休謨的政治論文不只提出主題，且提出論證。

Politics Politics 政治政治

His discussions of politics cannot be separated His discussions of politics cannot be separated from the larger context of his thinking, viz., the from the larger context of his thinking, viz., the new new “science of man”“science of man”

他的政治學不能和他更大的思想架構他的政治學不能和他更大的思想架構「人的科「人的科學」分開。學」分開。

Politics may be reduced to a SciencePolitics may be reduced to a Science 政治學也許可以化約為一種科學政治學也許可以化約為一種科學 What constitutes a science?What constitutes a science? 什麼是科學的構成什麼是科學的構成 ??

Politics Politics 政治政治 Hume laid it down as a “universal axiom in Hume laid it down as a “universal axiom in

politics politics that a hereditary prince, a nobility that a hereditary prince, a nobility without vassals, and a people voting by their without vassals, and a people voting by their representatives form the best monarchy, representatives form the best monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy.”aristocracy, and democracy.”

休謨提出「政治學的普遍公設是一個世襲的君主，休謨提出「政治學的普遍公設是一個世襲的君主，一個沒有臣屬的貴族，一個代議投票的人民，形一個沒有臣屬的貴族，一個代議投票的人民，形成最佳的君主制、貴族制和民主制」。成最佳的君主制、貴族制和民主制」。

Cf: Cf: treatment of Ireland and colonies of North treatment of Ireland and colonies of North America America 主要是愛爾蘭和北美殖民地主要是愛爾蘭和北美殖民地。。

Politics Politics 政治政治 The essay “Of Civil Liberty” notes the The essay “Of Civil Liberty” notes the

advances made in modern times over the advances made in modern times over the ancient in that “the civilized monarchies… ancient in that “the civilized monarchies… are a government of laws, not of man.”are a government of laws, not of man.”

〈〈論政治自由論政治自由〉〉一文說現代比古代更進步，因一文說現代比古代更進步，因為「文明的君主制是法治，不是人治。」為「文明的君主制是法治，不是人治。」

NB: The rise and progress of arts and NB: The rise and progress of arts and sciences and such civil liberty under a sciences and such civil liberty under a constitution. constitution. 藝術和知識的興起繁榮，和在這藝術和知識的興起繁榮，和在這憲政體制下的政治自由，因此而有。憲政體制下的政治自由，因此而有。

Politics Politics 政治政治 1: Balance of Power – the mutual benefits of 1: Balance of Power – the mutual benefits of

active unimpeded tradeactive unimpeded trade 1. 1. 權利制衡：顧及主動無犯的行業彼此的利權利制衡：顧及主動無犯的行業彼此的利益益

2: Civil Liberty – the economic system of 2: Civil Liberty – the economic system of modern societymodern society

2. 2. 政治自由：現代社會的經濟體系政治自由：現代社會的經濟體系 3: Trade and Commerce – freedom in trade 3: Trade and Commerce – freedom in trade

and industryand industry 3.3.貿易和商業：工商自由貿易和商業：工商自由

Politics Politics 政治政治 4: Of Money – study of price and value; good 4: Of Money – study of price and value; good

policy in government with respect to keeping policy in government with respect to keeping “alive a spirit of industry in the nation” and “alive a spirit of industry in the nation” and thereby increasing the “stock of labor in which thereby increasing the “stock of labor in which consist all real power and riches.”consist all real power and riches.”

4. 4. 貨幣：價格的研究，政府對於維持「活絡國家貨幣：價格的研究，政府對於維持「活絡國家工業精神」的好的政策，且因此增進「擁有所有真工業精神」的好的政策，且因此增進「擁有所有真實力量和財富的勞力市場」。實力量和財富的勞力市場」。

Karl Marx studied and was influenced by Hume.Karl Marx studied and was influenced by Hume. 馬克思研究並受到休謨的影響。馬克思研究並受到休謨的影響。

Politics Politics 政治政治 ““Everything in the world is purchased by labor, and Everything in the world is purchased by labor, and

our passions are the only causes of labor…. The our passions are the only causes of labor…. The more labor, therefore, that is employed beyond more labor, therefore, that is employed beyond mere necessaries, the more powerful is any mere necessaries, the more powerful is any state…. Thus the greatness of the sovereign and state…. Thus the greatness of the sovereign and the happiness of the state are in a great measure the happiness of the state are in a great measure united with regard to trade and manufactures.”united with regard to trade and manufactures.”

在這世界上的每個東西都可以由勞動購買，我們的在這世界上的每個東西都可以由勞動購買，我們的激情是勞動的唯一原因。激情是勞動的唯一原因。……越勞動就越是超過我們越勞動就越是超過我們所需的受雇用，任何國家就越強大所需的受雇用，任何國家就越強大……因此君主的偉因此君主的偉大和國家的幸福，很大一部分就在和貿易與製造業大和國家的幸福，很大一部分就在和貿易與製造業結合。結合。

Politics Politics 政治政治 We find this statement to ring true in many We find this statement to ring true in many

instances of our present day economy.instances of our present day economy. 這說法在我們現前的經濟制度裡，可找到許這說法在我們現前的經濟制度裡，可找到許

多相應的例證。多相應的例證。 5: Balance of Trade – states or 5: Balance of Trade – states or

governments have a power and governments have a power and responsibility. responsibility.

貿易平衡：國家或者政府有權力和責任。貿易平衡：國家或者政府有權力和責任。 Examples of Trade Pacts and WTO etc.Examples of Trade Pacts and WTO etc.

Politics Politics 政治政治 6: Jealousy of Trade – mutual benefits of 6: Jealousy of Trade – mutual benefits of

trade.trade. 貿易忌妒：貿易的互利。貿易忌妒：貿易的互利。 7: Taxes – taxation can be stimulating, but 7: Taxes – taxation can be stimulating, but

some taxes (trade sanctions) can be some taxes (trade sanctions) can be detrimental.detrimental.

賦稅：稅賦可以有刺激性，但有些稅賦可能賦稅：稅賦可以有刺激性，但有些稅賦可能有損害性有損害性 (( 如貿易制裁如貿易制裁 ))

Politics Politics 政治政治

Liberty:Liberty: Britain is perhaps the Britain is perhaps the most liberal of all nations and most liberal of all nations and “freedom” exists in all forms and “freedom” exists in all forms and at all levels.at all levels.

自由自由：英國也許是最自由的國家，自由：英國也許是最自由的國家，自由以各種形式和層次普遍存在。以各種形式和層次普遍存在。

Politics Politics 政治政治 Hume observes: “In all governments there is Hume observes: “In all governments there is

a perpetual struggle … between Authority and a perpetual struggle … between Authority and Liberty, and neither of them can absolutely Liberty, and neither of them can absolutely prevail…. In this sense … liberty is the prevail…. In this sense … liberty is the perfection of civil society, but still authority perfection of civil society, but still authority must be acknowledged essential to its very must be acknowledged essential to its very existence….”existence….”

休謨觀察說休謨觀察說：所有政府在權威和自由之間，都有持：所有政府在權威和自由之間，都有持續的爭鬥續的爭鬥……，兩者都不可能絕對勝利。，兩者都不可能絕對勝利。……以這意義以這意義而言，自由是公民社會的完成，但權威仍必須被承而言，自由是公民社會的完成，但權威仍必須被承認，那是公民社會存在所必要的。認，那是公民社會存在所必要的。

Politics Politics 政治政治 Neither Neither authority authority nor nor libertyliberty must be must be

allowed in the extremeallowed in the extreme 權威和自由都不能各走極端權威和自由都不能各走極端 ““The bulk of mankind are governed by The bulk of mankind are governed by

authority not reasonauthority not reason.”.” 人類受到權威而非理性的統治人類受到權威而非理性的統治

Influences 影響 Voltaire: admired the land that produced

Newton and Locke 福爾泰：羨慕產生牛頓和洛克的國家 Montesquieu: visited England to study its

laws and constitution 孟德斯鳩 拜訪英國以習其法律與制度 Rousseau: agreed with Hume that

sovereignty of the people is inalienable and cannot be contracted away to any person or a government.

盧梭 : 同意休謨人民主權不可分離，不能以任何人或者政府的契約，使人民放棄主權。

Influences 影響 Benjamin Franklin: Met Hume in 1757,

1760, 1762, 1771, and 1772. 富蘭克林在 1757, 1760, 1762, 1771, 1772遇見休謨。

The story of authority and liberty were lessons the Americans learnt when they were framing their constitution.

Influences 影響 The Americans of that time were making their

“first experiments” with a republic. They sought balance of power in the government and “peace and order,” always in the interest of free men and the general welfare…. The tradition of a “government of laws, not of men.”

那時美國人「首先實驗」成立了民主國。她們想要做到政府權力制衡，和平與秩序，總是顧到自由人的利益和普遍福祉… 這是「一個法治，而不是人治的傳統」。

Statue & Tomb of David Hume

Thank You!Thank You!

Thank you all for your undivided Thank you all for your undivided attention to my talk on David Hume. As attention to my talk on David Hume. As you might have learnt today, Hume has you might have learnt today, Hume has deeply influenced a number of people deeply influenced a number of people and hence their governments by his and hence their governments by his philosophy as well as his unwavering philosophy as well as his unwavering stand on what he believed in life.stand on what he believed in life.

Should you have any questions on what Should you have any questions on what I have given you to understand today, I I have given you to understand today, I would be most happy to answer.would be most happy to answer.