dept. of civil engineering, nctu

國立交通大學土木工程學系 Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU

Civil Engineering- Historical Context -

Hsin-yu Shan


Engineering is one of the oldest professions in the world. Around 2550 BC, Imhotep, the first documented engineer, built a famous stepped pyramid of King Zoser located at Saqqarah.


Civil EngineeringCivil engineering is the oldest of the main disciplines of engineering.The first engineering school, the National School of Bridges and Highways in France, was opened in 1747.John Smeaton was the first person to actually call himself a ʺCivil Engineerʺ. In 1828 the worldʹs first engineering society

came into being, the Institution of Civil Engineers in England.


John Smeaton is also noted as the founder of a Society of Engineers in Great Britain in 1771. John Smeaton was a British engineer particularly noted for his design of an all-masonry lighthouse on Eddystone reefIn order to build the new lighthouse, Smeaton needed a cement which would harden when immersed in water. This is known as a ʺhydraulic cementʺ.His technique of using dovetailed blocks of stone in the building of lighthouses became the standard because of its ability to stand up to the constant pounding of the waves.


World History Timeline


The Evolution of Hominids 5,000,000 to 25,000 BC

5,000,000 -1,000,000 BC: Australopithecus 2,200,000 - 1,600,000 BC: Homo habilis1,600,000 - 500,000 BC: Homo erectus Stone artifacts and weapons 500,000 - 80,000 BC: Homo sapiens 100,000 - 33,000 BC: Homo neanderthalensisIce Ages Stone tools 125,000: Homo sapiens sapiens


Homo erectus


Homo sapiens neandertalensis

graves


Homo Sapiens Sapiens


Foraging SocietiesFrom 30,000 BC

c. 30,000 to 25,000 BC: Woman of Willendorf

c. 27,000 to 23,000 BC: Dolni Vestonice

25,000 - 12,000 BC: Venus Figures

18,000 BC: Chauvet cave, France 15,000 BC: Lascaux cave paintings

The statue was carved from oolitic limestone and was colored with red orche. It measures 110 mm in height

The Aphrodite of Laussel, one of the earliest reliefs, measures 44 cm in height and can be seen now at the museum of Bordeaux in France.


c. 14,000 to 10,000 BC: Altamira Cave Paintings12,000 to 8,000 BC: The Ice Age


The Beginning of Settled Agriculture8,000 to 6,500 BC

c. 10,000 BC: Beginnings of Settled Agriculture10,000 BC: First agricultural villages 10,000 BC: Invention of the bow and arrow 10,000 BC: Dogs and reindeer are domesticated 10,000 BC: Beginnings of settled agriculture 10,000 BC: Earliest pottery (Japan) c. 8,000 to 6,500 BC: Settled Agriculture in Mesopotamia

c. 7,000: Beginning of Settled Agricultural Revolution c. 6,500-5,650 BC: Catal Hulyuk

c. 6,000 BC - c. 2,000 BC: Settled Agriculture in Africa6,000 BC: Beginning of Settled Agriculture in the Nile River Valley 2,000 BC: Beginning of Settled Agriculture in the Niger River Valley 200 BC: Height of Nok culture


c. 6,000 to 3,000: Settled Agriculture in Indiac. 5,000 to 3,000 BC: Settled Agriculture in China

10,000 to 4,000 BC: Painted Pottery Bowl (China) 5,0000 to 2,700 BC: Yangshao culture 3,5000 to 2,000 BC: Longsham culture 6, 000 BC: Village of Ban Po in China

c. 4,000 to 1,000 BC: Settled Agriculture in Europeca. 4000 BC: The Culture of Vraca. 2000 BC: Stonehenge

c. 3,000 BC to AD 700: Settled Agriculture in the Americas

c. 500 BC to AD 400: Adena and Hopewell Cultures


Classical Empires3200 to 550 BC

Early River Valley Empires: 3200 to 1500 BCc. 3200 BC: Sumerian Civilization c. 2900 BC: Egyptc. 2500 BC: Harappan Culture c. 1700 BC: Shang China c. 1500 BC: Olmec Civilization

Expansion and Contraction of River Valley Empiresc. 1400 BC: Expansion and Contraction of Mesopotamian Empires c. 1300: Aryan migration into the Indus Valley 2205 BC: Early Chinese Civilization 2000 BC: Meso-American Civilization500 BC: Nok Culture AD 600: Andean Civilization


Cosmopolitan Empires 550 BC- AD1400550 BC-AD 1453: Cosmopolitan Empires in the Eastern Mediterranean 332 540 BC: Cosmopolitan Empires in India 221 BC-AD 220: Early Imperial China AD 400-1500: African Kingdoms and Empires

ʺThe Axial Age:ʺ 600 to 400 BC630-553 BC: Zarathustrab. 604 BC: Lao Tsec. 585 BC: Thales of Miletus611-546 BC: Anaximander of Miletus550-480 BC: Siddhartha Gautama called the Buddha c. 550 BC: Mahavirad. 585 BC: Jeremiah 511-479 BC: Kung Fu-tse


Primary Urban Society3,500 BC to AD 700

c. 3,500 BC: Primary Urban Societies in Western Asia3,500 BC: Beginning of Sumerian city-statesc. 3,200 - 2,000 BC: Primary Urban Society in Africa

3,100 - 2,700 BC: Old Kingdom Egypt 200 BC: Height of Nok culture AD 400: Jenne-Jeno in Nigeria

c. 3,000 - 1900 BC: Primary Urban Society in India2,600 - 2,500 BC: Harappan Civilization at its height

c. 1,500 - 1,000 BC: Primary Urban Society in China1523 - 1027 BC: Xia dynasty

900 BC to 400 AD: Primary Urban Society in Central America900 BC: Chavins unite Peru 800 BC: Olmecs unite Mesoamerica


Unification and Interaction in the Eurasian Ecumene

130 BC to AD 1700Formation of the Eurasian Ecumene: 130 BC to AD 200

c. 130 BC: Expansion of Han China to the Parthian Empire c. 130 BC: Rome establishes its dominance in the Mediterranean 140-87 BC: Han China at its largest territorial extent under the Emperor Wu Ti. 98-117: Roman Empire at its largest territorial extent under the Emperor Trajan. 180-284: Crisis of Third Century Rome 220: End of the Han Dynasty

Barbarian Invasions and Internal Turmoil: 200-630220-265: Three Kingdoms Period in China ca. AD 200-370: Roman Empire invaded by the Goths 370: The Huns invade Eastern Europe. 558: Avars invade the Byzantine Empire. c. 450: Anglo-Saxons invade England.


The Age of Islamic Expansion: 630 to 1250630-640: Muslim Conquest of the Near East and Egypt 690-710: Muslim Conquest of North Africa and Spain717-718: Attempt to conquer Constantinople. 751: Battle of Talas River 768-814: Reign of Charlemagne 800-900: Viking raids against European mainland 907-960: Collapse of Central Government in China 1055-1250: Expansion of Islam under the Seljuks

The Crusading Era 1258: Mongols sack Baghdad. Abbasid Caliphate ends.


The Age of Mongol Dominance: 1200 to 13501206: Temujin is proclaimed ʺJenghiz Khanʺ 1258: Baghdad is sacked 1260-1368: Yuan Dynasty governs China 1275-1292: Marco Polo travels in China

The Second Age of Islamic Expansion: 1350 to 17001350: Rise of Ottoman Turks 1352: ibn Battuta travels in Africa 1453: Ottoman Turks capture Constantinople. 1492: End of the Reconquista in Spain. 1526: Battle of Mohacs1529: First Siege of Vienna 1571: Battle of Lepanto1683: Final Siege of Vienna


Integration and Unification of the Hemispheres1500-1800

1400-1650: Voyages of Discovery and European Expansion1405-1424: Chinese Treasure Fleet 1415-1510: Portuguese explorers seek a route to India and China 1492-1540: The Spanish colonization of Central and South America 1497-1600: British and French colonization of North America 1500-1650: Global Exploration

1500-1800: The Age of Chinese Dominance1368-1911: The Height of Chinese Culture under the Ming and Qing1517-1789: Political and Religious Change in Europe 1450-1757: Competing Muslim Empires

1850-1920: The New Imperialism1798: Napoleon invades Egypt 1857-1858: The ʺSepoy Mutinyʺ or ʺGreat Rebellionʺ in Northern India 1884: The Berlin Conference on Africa 1898: Showdown between Britian and France at Fashoda


The Formation of a World Culture1800-Present

1712-1914: The Development of Modern Western Civilization

1789-1914: The Development of the Nation-State 1800-1914: The Development of Scientific Culture 1712-1905: The Industrial Revolution 1789-1914: Development of Mass Society

1795-1914: The New Imperialism1798: Napoleon invades Egypt 1853: First railway line is built in India 1857-1858: The ʺSepoy Mutinyʺ or ʺGreat Rebellionʺ in Northern India 1884: The Berlin Conference on Africa 1898: Showdown between Britain and France at Fashoda


1914-1989: The World Wars1914-1918: World War I 1918-1936: The Interwar Years 1931-1945: World War II 1945-1989: The Cold War

1917-1970: Decolonizaiton1917: Balfour Declaration 1947: India and Pakistan are independent of Great Britain 1957: Ghana is the first African nation given independence 1964: The Palestine Liberation Organization is formed


Structures through time


Egyptian


GIZA : Pyramids, Gizah, Old Kingdom 4th Dynasty, 2545-2450 B.C. ; Gizah, Egypt.DEIR EL-BAHALI : Deir El-Bahari; Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut (18th Dinasty, B.C. 1490-1468) and MentuhotepII,III (11th Dinasty, B.C.2061-1998), Thebes, Egypt.KARNAK : The Temple of Amon-Ra at Karnak, 12th dynasty-Ptolemaic period, c.2000 B.C.-c.220 B.C. ; Karnak, Egypt.


LUXOR : Temple of Amenhotep III, 18th Dynasty, c.1370 B.C. and Temple of Ramesses II, 19th Dynasty, c.1250 B.C.; Luxor, Egypt. ABU SIMBEL : Abu Simbel Great roktemples of RamessesII, XIXth Dynasty, c.1250 B.C. relocated at 1963-72. ; Abu Simbel, Egypt. DENDERA : Temple of Hathor, Late Ptolemaic-Roman period. Dendera, Egypt. PHILAE : Temples in Island of Philae(relocated to Island of Agilkia in 1972-1980), 13th Dynasty to Roman period, c.380 B.C.-2nd century. ; Agilkia, Egypt.


The Pyramid of Cheops is 230.364 m square at base, 137.18 m height (originally 146 m) and the incline is 51 degree .52. The Pyramid of Chephren is 215.8 m square at base, 136.5 m height (originally 143.5 m)and the incline is 53 degree .20. The Pyramid of Mycerinusis 108.5 m square at base, 66.5 m height and the incline is 51 degree.

The Pyramid of Chephren

The Pyramid of Cheops

The differences of the length of four base sides are 111mm maximum and 7mm minimum. The maxmum difference of the level of base is only 21mm.

The pyramid of Chephren, Sphinx and the pyramid of Mycerinus

The Valley temple of King Chephren. South half of T-shaped hypostyle hall

Deir El-Bahari; Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut (18th Dinasty, B.C. 1490-1468) and Mentuhotep II,III (11th Dinasty, B.C.2061-1998), Thebes, Egypt

The Temple of Amon-Ra at Karnak, 12th dynasty-Ptolemaic period, c.2000 B.C.-c.220 B.C. ; Karnak, Egypt

Temple of Seti II (19th dynasty)

The Temple of Amon-Ra at Karnak, 12th dynasty-Ptolemaic period, c.2000 B.C.-c.220 B.C. ; Karnak, Egypt

The center columns (opened papyrus columns) are 3.5m in diameter and 21.08m high

The obelisk of Tuthmosis I, 23m high and 143 tons in weight


MESO-AMERICANOLMEC, MAYA, AZTEC


Pre-Classic(Formative); B.C.2000-100; (Olmec, etc.) Early Pre-Classic; B.C.2000-1000 Middle Pre-Classic; B.C.1000-300 Late Pre-Classic; B.C.300-100(or B.C.0)

Classic; B.C.100(or B.C.0)-900; (Maya, etc.) Proto Classic; B.C.100-A.D.300 Early Classic; A.D.300-600 Late Classic; A.D.600-900

Post-Classic; A.D.900-; (Aztec, etc) Early Post-Classic; A.D.900-1200 Late Post-Classic; A.D.1200-

Teotihuacan, Mexico; Proto Classic-Early Classic; B.C.100-600

In Early Classic Period, The city covered more than 20sq.km.(13 square miles) and attained a maximum population of 200,000.

Plaza of the Moon and Avenue of the Dead. View from the Pyramid of the Moon.

The size of the Pyramid of the Moon is 140mx150m at the base, 45.8m height. A.D.100-350.

Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl

Detail of the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl. A.D.150-450

Tikal, Guatemala, Tikal; Late Classic; B.C.300-900

Temple I (Temple of the Jaguars)

The temple has a sculpture of jaguars and the secret crypt. The height is 51 m

Temple II (Temple of the Mask)

There is a relief of the Mask on the roof-comb. The height is 42m and the lowest among the 5 pyramids

Uxumal, Yucatan, Mexico; Late Classic; A.D.8c-10c

Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Mexico; Post-Classic; A.D.10c-1224

Castillo, or Temple of Kulkulkan. Early Post-Classic


Cambodia


Kingdom of Cambodia

8 - 9th century Bakong9 - 10th century Bakheng10 - 11th century Pre Rup11 - 12th century Angkor Wat12 - 13th century Bayon

8 - 9th century Bakong

9 - 10th century Bakheng

10 - 11th century Pre Rup

11 - 12th century Angkor Wat

12 - 13th century Bayon

Ankog Wat

Bayon Temple


China


趙州橋正名安濟橋，俗稱大石橋。建於西元595年〜605年的隋代，由著名匠師李春設計建造。是世界上年代最久、跨度最大的單孔坦弧敞肩石拱橋

1991年，趙州橋被美國土木工程師學會認定為世界第十二處“國際土木工程歷史古跡”，並贈送銅牌立碑紀念。這標誌著趙州橋已與埃及金字塔、巴拿馬運河、巴黎埃菲爾鐵塔等世界著名歷史古跡並稱而齊名

趙縣位於河北省中南部，距離省會石家莊市40千米，地處太行山山前沖積平原，地勢開闊平坦，總面積675平方千米，總人口53萬


趙州橋建築結構獨特，“奇巧固護，甲于天下”(唐中書令張嘉貞語)，被譽為“天下第一橋”。拱肩加拱的敞肩拱的運用，更為世界橋樑史上之首創。

在歐洲，最早的敞肩拱橋為18世紀法國在亞哥河上修造的安頓尼特鐵路石拱橋和在盧森堡修造的大石橋，但它們比中國的趙州橋已晚了近1100年。

趙州橋全長64.4米，拱頂寬9米，拱腳寬9.6米，跨徑37.02米，拱矢7.23米。從整體看，它是一座單孔弧形石橋，由28道石拱券縱向並列砌築而成。


Greek

Temple of Apollo; Greece, Korinthos; About 540 B.C.

Parthenon; Greece, Athens; 447 B.C

Electeion; Greece, Athens; 447 B.C.

Odeon of Herodes Atticus; Greece, Athens; C. 161 A.D.

Temple of Hephaestos; Greece, Athens 450-440 B.C.

The base is 4.45m x 32.53m square and center of the base is slightly raised up as the temple of Parthenon. The proportion of the base is almost 4 by 9 which is same as the Temple of Parthenon but the temple of Hephaestos is smaller than the cella of the Partenon.

Temple of Zeus Olympios (Olympieion); Greece, Athens; 174 B.C.-132 A.D.

The biggest temple in main land of Greece. Dipteral anphiprostyle. The basement is 41.1m width and 107.75m length. The height of the Corinthian columns are about 17m.

Colinthian column. About 17m height and about 1.9m diameter.

Detail of Corinthian capital designed by Roman architect Cossutius. The design of this capital became the model of Corinthian order. Vitruvius, An old Roman architect, wrote that the cella of the temple had not the ceiling and roof.

Theatre Argos; Greece, Argos; End of 4th Cent. B.C.

•Argos, which was a polis of Dorian in BC.8-7c, once had belonged to Mycenae.•The capacity of the theater was about 20,000 people (10,000 people now).•The theater has 90 steps (83 steps now) while Delphi's has 35 steps and Epidauros's has 55 steps.•The sound control is excellent. •Greek theater normally has not a roof but this theater should have a roof. There is a hole on every 13steps which seems to the hole for pillars to support a roof.

Theatre Epidauros; Greece, Epidauros; End of 4th Cent. B.C.


Roman

Maison Carree; France, Nimes; approx. B.C.19

Meison Carree is one of those built in about B.C.20-19 by Marcus VipsaniusAgrippa, Augustus' son-in-law. Mason Carre is a pseudoperipteros temple with 6 Corinthian columns in front in Early Imperial Rome period when the Roman temples have been strongly influenced by Greek temple style.

The temple is 26.4m long and 15.55m wide with 3.3m high podium.The steps were originally both in front and sides.The Corinthian columns are 8.96m in height, 0.91m in diameter.The height from the top of the podium to cornice is 12.2m and the height of entablature is 2.21m.

The Corinthian columns are 8.96m in height, 0.91m in diameter.

Pont du Gard, France, Nimes; late B.C.1c.(about B.C.20)

•On the top of the 35 small arches, about 8.5 m high 3 m wide, support the waterway.•The big arch, the bottom arch and middle arch, have 3 times or 4 times of the small arch in span and 6 times of the small arch in height. •There was only 17 m fall from the headwaters to Nimes and that meant the incline was 34 cm per 1 km.

•The bottom arches, which spans are 15.75 m to 21.5 m, are about 155 m long, 20 m high.•On the top of the bottom arches is a 7 m wide road which has expanded for the traffic of cars in 1743.•The middle arches are same spans of the bottom arches and the length is about 265 m in total. The height of middle part is about 21 m and width is 5 m.


The aqueducts and bridges in Roman period exist in Rome, Merida, Segovia, Tarragon in Spain and Nimes in France.Pont du Gard in Nimes is one of the famous one which preserve original style of Augustus era. Now the bridge exists about 300 m long, 49 m above of the river.

The protruding stones were for supporting scaffolds at under construction.

Pantheon, Italy, Rome; 118-35 A.D.

The interior is a perfect circle which diameter and height are exactly same, 43m.The wall is 6.05m thick and on the lower level are seven niches with a pair of Corinthian columns.The lower level and the second level are divided by the cornis in the ratio of a square root of 2 to 1.

Colosseum; Italy, Rome; 72 A.D.


Early Christian, Byzantine

Sant' Apollinare in Classe, Italy, Ravenna; 530

San vitale, Italy, Ravenna; 528-547

Diameter of octagonal dome is 17m, the height to the top of the dome is 30m.


Gothic

Cathedral Paris; France, Paris; 1163-1250

Flying buttress

Cathedral Amiens; France, Amiens; about 1220-1410

Cathedral Amiens is the largest and most Classical of French cathedrals in Gothc era.The height of the ceiling is about 42.3m (about 37m at Cathedral Chartres, about 38m at Cathedral Reims) and the width of the nave is about 14.6m. The Cathedral Amien was built in 1152 with the Romanesque style and burnt in 1218 by lightnings.The reconstruction was started in about 1220 and the nave was completed in about 1245.

Duomo, Milano; Italy, Milano; 1386-1577, west front 1616-1813

The biggest and greatest late gothic architecture in Italy.The gothic style is unfamiliar in Italy and the renaissance style is essentially Italian.

Extremely linear design shows unstructuralpower against it's structure.


RENAISSANCE

St. Maria del Fiore, Italy, Firenze; Dome=1418-1436; Dome=by Filippo Brunelleschi

This had started to built, originally Gothic architecture, in 1296. The bell tower was built in 1334-87 by Giotto.The octagonal dome was designed by Brunelleschi in 1418 and was built in 1420-36.The diameter of inside of the dome is 43m, which is same as Pantheon, Roma.

Cappella dei Pazzi, S. Croce, Firenze, Italy; 1430-61 by Filippo Brunelleschi


MANNERISM

San Giorgio Maggiore, Italy, Venezia; Andrea Palladio


BAROQUE

Colonnade of S. Pietro; Italy, Roma; 1656-1667; by Lorenzo Bernini

Johann Sebastian Bach's life (1685-1750)


Roman Building Technology


Roman ConcreteRoman concrete (opus caementicium), like modern concrete, is an artificial building material composed of an aggregate, a binding agent, and water. Aggregate is essentially a filler, such as gravel, chunks of stone and rubble, broken bricks, etc.Binding agent is a substance which is mixed with the aggregate wet (water added) and solidifies when it dries, or ʺsets.ʺ Many materials, even mud, can be a binding agent, and used to make, what we generally call, mortar. Historically lime or gypsum, mixed with rubble stones, have been used as binding agents in making a strong mortar.


Roman contribution to this basic structural mixture was the addition as primary binding agent pozzolona, a special volcanic dust found in central Italy. Pozzolona created an exceptionally strong bond with the aggregate. In most parts of the Roman world, where similar volcanic powders could not be found, local materials such as lime or gypsum were used as binding agents.The binding agent used in modern concrete is called ʺcement,ʺ or Portland cement.


WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS: CISTERNS, RESERVOIRS,

AQUEDUCTS


In Pompeii, before the construction of the cityʹs aqueduct at the end of the 1st century B.C., individual water tanks (impluvium) often located in the atrium of a house, under the roof opening, provided the modest water needs of the household.


Larger houses or villas, often depended on extensive cisterns. Villa Jovis, emperor Tiberiusʹ retreat high up on the rocky eastern end of the water-starved island of Capri, was virtually designed around a courtyard supported by a vast netweork of concrete, vaulted cisterns.


One of the most impressive and immense cisterns ever created in the Roman world is near Pozzuoli, in the bay of Naples.Known locally as ʺPiscina Mirabile,ʺ this gigantic structure has over fifty square bays of tall, soaring vaults.


All things being equal, the constant fresh supply of water brought by an aqueduct was preferred over a reservoir supply. Early in their history Romans developed a highly effective systems of bringing water in conduits to their cities from sources many miles away. The conduits were either open channels, or more commonly, pipes made of clay or bronze or lead, laid underground. The system relied predominantly on gravity, the water source had to be higher than the city served by it. Impressive as these are, they constituted only a small portion of a water-line which could be 30-40 miles long.


Romeʹs first aqueduct, Aqua Appia, dates back to 312 B.C. By the beginning of the 2nd century A.D., the capital was served by nine aqueducts supplying a total of one-million cubic meters of water daily. Once water was brought into the city it was piped to different neighborhoods from special distribution tanks (castella). Imperial establishments, baths and public fountains received priority over private uses.


Pont du GardOne of the best preserved, textbook, examples of a Roman aqueduct is the Pont du Gard, built by Augustusʹ friend Agrippa, ca. 20 B.C.. This aqueduct brought water to Nimes in southern France (ancient Nemassus) from a source 30 miles away. The three-tiered arches of the structure cross the valley of River Gardon at a height of 150-feet. Water ran at a slope of 1:3000 in an open conduit on the uppermost level


The bottom arches, which spans are 15.75 m to 21.5 m, are about 155 m long, 20 m high.On the top of the bottom arches is a 7 m wide road which has expanded for the traffic of cars in 1743.The middle arches are same spans of the bottom arches and the length is about 265 m in total. The height of middle part is about 21 m and width is 5 m.On the top of the 35 small arches, about 8.5 m high 3 m wide, support the waterway.The big arch, the bottom arch and middle arch, have 3 times or 4times of the small arch in span and 6 times of the small arch inheight. There was only 17 m fall from the headwaters to Nimes and that meant the incline was 34 cm per 1 km.

The Ephesian aqueduct (Turkey)

Valencia Aqueduct

In the 3rd-century aqueduct which supplied the hill-top city Aspendos in Pamphylia (in southern Turkey), water was brought from a high mountain source under pressure in closed and sealed stone pipeline.

In order to relieve the excessive pressures built up in such a closed system (technically a siphon), three "pressure towers" were incorporated into the 850-meter stretch of the aqueduct arcade.


DAMS AND URBAN WATERWAYS


In the arid desert climate of North Africa many of the present-day oases, such as the Oasis near Gabes in Tunisia had been developed by Roman engineers.The remains of a Roman dam built of blocks of sandstone improved the natural desert source and created a large reservoir of water.


Aezane DamOne of the best preserved and most impressive operations in taming a torrential and uneven waterway is the dam built across the wide and hauntingly beautiful valley of River Rhyndacus, near Aezane in Asia Minor (A82, A81). This dam also serves as a bridge connecting the main highways across the valley (B18, B17).


Urban Waterways

Many Roman cities had pools, artificial lakes, and urban canals which were integrated into the cityʹs overall water distribution and public fountain system. In Aezane, already mentioned, colonnades and public spaces lined both sides of the river which seems to have been developed as an urban artery just like a street.

A well-preserved and stunning example of a similar urban canal occupying the middle of a long colonnaded avenue in Perge, in Pamphylia, a province in southern Asia Minor


ROADS AND HIGHWAYS


In a centralized administrative system, such as the Romans had, a comprehensive network of paved highways, was a political and military expediency. It ensured the fast and safe movement of troops, imperial decrees, personal mail, and provided reliable commercial ties between the cities and provinces.In typical Roman road construction, a mosaic of heavy paving blocks closely trimmed and fitted is laid over a bedding of gravel and sand. Often, sturdy curb stones limit the sides.

Main southern highways entered Rome through PortaMaggiore

Via Piperatica

Ephesus, one of the largest cities in Roman Asia Minor: the Arcadianeconnected the theater at the hearth of the town to the busy harbor in a straight shot

In Djemila and Hippo Regius, small but important provincial Roman cities in North Africa, streets paved with large, finely fitted paving blocks


TERRACES AND SUBSTRUCTURES


TerracesOne of the most effective and impressive ways concrete technology served the needs of Roman architects and engineers was the creation of massive terraced platforms to support large buildings or building groups, or even major cisterns.This kind of site preparation could take the form of individual foundations or underpinnings for buildings, or retaining walls against the slope of a hill, or more elaborately, or a complex of interrelated vaulted chambers creating one or more building platforms or terraces.

The ancient shrine of Lady Luck was reorganized into an impressive ensemble in early second century B.C.

North African hilltown Tiddis

The terrace, composed of a series of interconnected open barrel vault, is constructed entirely in concrete faced with opus incertum


SubstructuresIn Ephesus, Asia Minor, a double storied terrace shaped on the exterior by generously proportioned vaults (probably used as a shopping center to help the cityʹs revenues), supported a massive temple dedicated to the Flavian family (B33, B32, B31, B30). Located on flat land near the sea, the colossal Antoninebaths in Carthage (in modern Tunisia) were entirely lifted above the ground on a substructure of cross and barrel vaults carried by massive piers (B29, B28, B27). This basement city of massive structural forms was entirely functional because it contained extensive service areas necessary for a large bath.


Aqueduct in the Middle Ages


Diagram of the water system at Christ Church, Canterbury (c. 1153 – 61)Five rectangular settling tanks, which appear to be equipped with purge pipes, are spaced along the pipeline as it passes through fields, a vineyard, and an orchard.


Canterbury plan, showing Prior Wibert’s water system (c. 1153 – 61).


Details of the Canterbury plan, showing the latrine-block (Necessarium, A) and the great drain passing below it (showing as a double line B).A workman cleaned out the accumulated muck every Monday. The drain passed through the walls ot the monastery and the town (C, D), emptying its sewage into the city moat. The citizens liked to block up the exit during quarrels with the monks.

R. A. Skelton and P. D. A. Harvey, 1986, Local Maps and Plans from Medieval England, Oxford: Clarendon Press.


Engineering Timeline


300,000 BC Some evidence of counting (notches in animal bone) 250,000 BC Oldest surviving wood tool


Oldowan tools (2.4 mill. BP):Homo Habilis / Rudofensis

Acheulean tools (1.5 mill. BP):Homo Ergaster / Erectus


Mousterian tools (200,000 - 40,000 BP):Homo Neanderthalensis / early Homo Sapiens

Upper Paleolithic tools (from 90,000 in Africa, from 40,000 elsewhere - to 12,000 BP):Homo Neanderthalensis / Homo Sapiens


100,000 BC Neanderthal culture in Asia, Africa & EuropeUsing fire for cooking, protection and warmthStone toolsStorage pits for food

40,000 BC First people settle in GreeceHunters and food gatherers

35,000 BC Neanderthal culture disappearingCro-Magnon culture developingSewing needles made from boneMigration of the first Americans across the Bering Strait

20,000 BC Bow and arrow developed (by Cro-Magnon people)Ice Age - In some areas the glacial ice was 2 miles thick!

10,000 BC End of last Ice Age


8,000 BC Earliest Domestication of animals7,000 BC Agriculture begins in the Americas

Pottery in use4000 BC

Solid wheels used on cartsPeople Along the Nile starting to build canals to control flooding and provide irrigation

3500 BC Potterʹs wheel in useSumerians Develop cuniform writingEgyptians develop hieroglyphic writing

3100 BC Rice domesticated in the region of the Yangtze RiverEgyptian civilization arose in Nile Valley


3000 BC Masonry dams in useMortice and tenon wood joints in useThe population of the city of Uruk (located on the Euphrates River), reaches 50,000.

2900 BC Start of the Bronze Age in Greece2800 BC

Plywood invented in EgyptCarpentry at a mastery by most advanced civilizations

2600 BC Pyramid of Gizah built2000 BC Spoke wheels in use1800 BC Lever used (oars)


1500 BC Phoenicians develop an alphabetFarming common in Central America

1350 BC sundialUse of iron Water clocks

1200 BC Dorian invaders overtake the Mycenaean Greeks using Iron weapons. The Mycenaeans used Bronze weapons.700 BC Invention of Aqueducts


500 BC Pythagoras develops the concepts of geometry476 BC Western Roman Empire Collapsed400 BC Water wheel in use399 BC Socrates executed387 BC Plato starts Academy in Athens350 BC The Chinese develop a printing press with symbols carved on a wooden block343 BC Aristotle, a student of Plato, becomes tutor of Alexander of Macedonia (Alexander the Great)323 BC The Greek Leader, Alexander the Great, dies of a fever in Babylon at the age of 32 332 BC City of Alexandria, Egypt founded300 BC Euclid writes Elements, on Geometry


200 BC Archimedes (287-212 BC) ( the birth of fluid statics & earliest recorded writing in mechanics)

Archimedes developed: the principle of buoyancythe leverthe compound pulleycranes & the water screw (pump)

The population of Alexandria is 200,00050 AD

Vitruvius writes ten volume compendium of Roman engineering practiceBuddhism introduced in China

105 Tsai Lun invents paper400 Windmill in use in China700 Chinese invent Porcelain820 Algebra Invented


1242 Roger Bacon describes the preparation of gunpowder ( in use in China in 1000 AD)1428 Painter, Masaccio (1401-1428) intruduces perspective - a technique that brought a three-dimensional look to painting1450 The Chinese develop a printing press that uses Movable wooden blocks1454 Johannes Gutenburg invents a printing press with movable metal type1500 Birth of Engineering Science (start of Renaissance)1550 Simon Stevin (stuh-veenʹ) (military and civil engineer) develops the parallelogram law for the addition of forces1588 First Engineering Handbook (mostly sketches) written by Ramelli1596 Birth of Rene Descartes (1596-1650) French scientist and philosopher Descartes developed the Cartesian Coordinate System. His name in Latin is Renatus Cartesius.


1614 John Napier (Scottish mathematician) publishes his discovery of logarithms1622 William Oughtred invents the slide rule1637 The invention of ANALYTIC GEOMETRY by Rene Descartes (see above)1638 Galileoʹs book, ʺTwo New Sciencesʺ published

This is believed to be the first book published in the field of strength of materials! The field of ʺStrength of Materialsʺ is born!


1662 Robert Hooke - Theory of elasticity1679 Hooke reveals the solution to his anagram ʺceiiinosssttuuʺ - ʺut tensio, sic visʺ - ʺas the extension, so the force“. All solid material must yield to resists force.1687 Newtonʹs Laws written 1752 Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) showed that lighting was a form of electricity1757 Leonhard Euler derived the formula for thebuckling of a pinned-pinned column1760 Mechanization of British industry began1769 Wattʹs steam engine built


1795 Metric system adopted in France1799 Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) Builds first battery1807 Steam ship built by Robert Fulton1814 First Steam locomotive built by George Stephenson1820 Hans Oersted (1777-1851) discovered a link between magnetism and electricity.1826 Ampereʹs work in electrodynamics1827 Ohmʹs Law1830 Regular passenger train service began in England


1831 Faradayʹs electromagnetic induction device1836 First telegraph (Samuel Morse) Texas gained independence from Mexico1852 The American Society of Civil Engineersfounded1856 Bessemer process for making steel developed1866 Alfred Nobel develops dynamite1869 Suez Canal opened1874

A U.S. Patent was granted to T.B. Rhodes for several different forms of hollow concrete block.First large span (three-spans of 500 ft. ) steel bridge - St. Louis Bridge over the Mississippi River, Designed by James B. Eads


1876 Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone1879 Thomas Edison invents the light bulb1883

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers foundedCompletion of the Brooklyn Bridge, designed by John A. Roebling (Suspension - 1595 ft. span) Spans the East River to link Brooklyn and Manhattan

1884 The American Institute of Electrical Engineers founded1885 William Stanley invents an alternating current transformer1895 The discovery of X-rays (Roentgen)


1902 Air Conditioning invented1903 First powered air flight1908 The American Institute of Chemical Engineers founded1912 Titanic sank1914 Panama Canal opened1915 Albert Einstein (1879-1955) published The General Theory of Relativity1919 First nonstop flight across Atlantic1937 First jet engine built1939 Radar developed by the British1940 Penicillin developed


1950 World population 2.3 billion1953 Mount Everest climbed for first time1956 Oral polio vaccine developed1957 Launching of Sputnik I1968 Aswan High Dam in Egypt completed1969 First man on the moon1977 Apple Computer releases the Apple II computer1978 World population 4.4 billion1982

OPEC announced cut in oil productionPopulation in china reached 1 billion

1983 Robert Wolf writes the first Bridge Builder® analysis engine on a Wang Computer1989 Bridge Builder for the Apple II hits the market in A+ magazine


Industrial Revolution

1700-1900


The term INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION originally referred to the developments that transformed Great Britain, between 1750 and 1830, from a largely rural population making a living almost entirely from agriculture to a town-centered society engaged increasingly in factory manufacture.


The Industrial Revolution was the major technological, socioeconomic and cultural change in the late 18th and early 19th century resulting from the replacement of an economy based on manual labor to one dominated by industry and machine manufacture.


It began in England with the introduction of steam power (fueled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textilemanufacturing). Other European nations underwent the same process soon thereafter, followed by others during the 19th century, and still others (such as Russia and Japan) in the first half of the 20th century. In some countries this transformation is only now taking place or still lies in the future.


There was no cut-off point for it merged into the Second Industrial Revolution from about 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships, and railways, and later in the nineteenth century the growth of the internal combustion engine and the development of electrical power generation.The term industrial revolution was introduced by Friedrich Engels and Louis-Auguste Blanqui in the second half of the 19th century.

Engels


Over London by Rail Gustave Doré c 1870. Shows the densely populated and polluted environments created in the new industrial cities


Mining

The introduction of the steam engine enabled shafts to be made deeper, hence increasing output.


MetallurgyThe first Abraham Darby made great strides with using coke to fuel his blast furnaces (1709), although this was principally due to the nature of the coke he was using, and the scientific reasons for the improvement were only discovered later. His family followed in his footsteps, and iron became a major construction material.Other improvements followed, with Benjamin Huntsman developing a crucible steel technique in the 1740s, and Henry Cortʹs puddling furnace enabling large-scale production of wrought iron to take place.The use of iron and steel in the development of the railways further boosted the industrial growth of Great Britain.


Steam Power

The stationary steam engine had great influence on the progress of the Industrial Revolution, but for all of it many industries still relied on wind and water power as well as horse and man-power for driving small machines.Engines could be made in varying sizes and patterns to suit various requirements, such as for locomotives and steam boats.


Original data: Marland, G., T.A. Boden, and R. J. Andres. 2003. "Global, Regional, and National CO2 Emissions." In Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tenn., U.S.A. http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/emis/tre_glob.htm


The Industrial Revolution

“This extraordinary metal, the soul of every manufacture, and the mainspring perhaps, of civilized society.” Samuel Smiles, Invention and Industry


Britannia Tubublar Bridge over the Menai Straits - 1849

This bridge excited the attention of the world engineering community unlike any structure of its time.While criticism was levelled at its uneconomic use of material compared with various truss designs, the intellectual effort involved in its design and construction was, and remains, a source of wonder.


Chelsea Suspension Bridge - 1860

Designed by Thomas Page, the first Chelsea suspension bridge was demolished in the 1930s due to increased traffic loads.

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Pontcysyllte, completed in 1805, to carry the Ellesmeré Canal over the Dee Valley near Llangollen.Length 307 mMax. height 38.7 m19 cast-iron arches, each spanning 13.7 m

One of the nine granite-clad arches of the Waterloo Bridge. Each spanned 36.6 m between 6.1 m thick piers. London, Thames River.

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Spanning the Thames

Waterloo Bridge, London

Southwark Bridge had Britain’s largest cast-iron arches

The First Rigid Suspension Bridges

Anchorage for the chain at one extremity of Cllaude Navier’s ill-fated Pont des Invalides, a suspension bridge across the Seine in Paris that had to be demolished before it was completed, in 1826, due to the movement in one of the abutments.

The Union Bridge across the Tweed, linking Scotland and England,was built in 1820 by Captain (later Sir Samuel) Brown.

Supported by vertical rods suspended from three pairs of wrought-iron chains on each side. The chains have survived intact – although they are now assisted by modern steel cables.

Conway River Bridge

The Menai Strait Bridge, Wales, England. It was never the world’s longest unsupported span: the Taoguan (Peach Pass) bridge in Szechuan, China, built in 1776, spanned 200 m.

Total length 521 mSuspended span 176 mTotal height of towers 46.6 mElevated deck above Strait 30.5 m

The Victorian Achievement

The Britannia Railway Bridge, Menai Strait, Wales

The Clifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol, England.The bridge under construction in the early 1860s.

The Clifton Suspension Bridge as it is today, spanning 214 m across the Avon Gorge.


Questions

Who are the “civil engineers”?How do they pass along their knowledge and professional skills?

dept. of civil engineering, nctu

Documents