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The Lotus Philosophy Implied in the Image-Making at the Peak of the Tang Dynasty—
with Focus on No. 45 of the Mo-gao Caves in Dun-huang
Guo Yo-meng
Researcher
The Office of Image Data, Yuanguang Institute of Buddhist Studies
Summary
The Lotus School philosophy has had profound influence on Chinese
Buddhism, as manifested in the existing images made from the North and
South Dynasties to the Sui and Tang Dynasties. In the ideological
development of the Buddhist community in Dun-huang, the various schools
such as Lotus, Nirvana, Hua-yen, Fa-xiang, Zen, and Pure-land vied with one
another for primacy, but also learned from one another. The emergence of
the Tien-tai philosophy especially helped to raise the doctrinal level of the
Avalokitesvara faith. All these traces of philosophical development are
solidly reflected in the local rock-cave images.
The sponsor of No. 45 of the Mo-gao Caves is unknown, but judging
from the superb craftsmanship which was typical of the artistic achievements
at the peak of the Tang Dynasty, it is not unreasonable to assume that it was
chiseled by someone hired by a prominent family or high official in
Tun-huang. The images of No. 45 cave has three structural features: (1) the
assembly at the Vulture Peak and the assembly in the sky in the Lotus Sutra,
(2) the internal link between the Avalokitesvara sutra and the Lotus samadhi,
and (3) the relationship between the Amitabha Pure Land and the Lotus Sutra.
These three items are the focus of discussion in this paper.
The discourse in the Vulture Peak assembly emphasizes the integration
of the Three Vehicles into the One Vehicle and the explanation of the
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expedient means to reveal the ultimate truth. The assembly in the sky
emerges to reveal a remote story through the present event. The two scenes
reinforce each other in the revelation of the ultimate truth of all things. The
contents of the discourses in the two assemblies sufficiently cover all the
doctrinal matters of the Lotus Sutra and constitute the core meanings of the
images at No. 45 cave. Since the time when Ju Dao-shen, from both
self-benefiting and altruistic points of view, regarded the “samadhi of
universally manifested body” of Wonder Sound and Avalokitesvara
Bodhisattvas as a realization of the great universal wisdom stated in the
Lotus Sutra, the teachings about Avalokitesvara have been deepening. He
can be an attendant to Amitabha Buddha helping sentient beings go to the
Western Paradise. He can be a representative of those who have really
entered the Lotus Samadhi, thus showing the profundity of his religious
cultivation. He can be a symbol of the compassion of all Buddhas. He is
also considered an embodiment of the kindness and compassion of all gods
of the world. The grouping of the sculptural subjects in the main shrine and
on the southern wall displays the ideas of substance and function expressed
in the Lotus Sutra. Ji-zang thinks that the Lotus Sutra was taught with “an
intention to reveal bodhisattvas’ samadhi of remembering the Buddha,” so
that one may reach the ultimate state of worshiping and remembering the
Buddha by totally dissolving the subject and the object. This is the idea
shown in the image structure of No. 45 cave, in which the main wall is
dominated by the Vulture Peak assembly and the sky assembly while the left
wall presents a series of images about the Western Pure Land. The close
connection between the doctrine of rebirth in the Western Paradise and the
Lotus philosophy was a unique development in the Tang Dynasty Buddhism.
This paper also makes a comparison of the images in Nos. 23, 45, 46,
and 217 caves to find out the time sequence in the development of the Lotus
images in the Dun-huang Caves during the prosperous Tang Dynasty. No.
217 was the first to emerge. No. 45 came second with refined qualities and
clarified relationships among the elements. No. 23 followed in a new
direction of having the Lotus theme as the main structure containing various
images of the sutra. Nos. 45 and 46 form one set of contemporary caves
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with the Lotus ideas as the major subject of manifestation, in coordination
with the doctrines of Nirvana, Avalokitesvara, and Amitabha Pure Land.
They aim to witness the past seven Buddhas by means of presenting
Sakyamuni Buddha’s teachings and to be in unison with substance of the
Buddhas of all places and all times.
Key words: Mo-gao Caves in Dun-huang, Lotus Sutra, image-making, at
the peak of the Tang Dynasty