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PJM 3106
ANATOMI DAN FISIOLOGI
TAJUK 2 & 3
SISTEM RANGKA
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INTRODUCTION
The human body contains 206 bones
organized into a structural framework calledskeleton. The bones of the skeletal system
are controlled by hundreds of muscles,
which in turn are controlled by impulsesfrom central nervous system
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Anatomically, the skeleton is divided into
two major sections.
1. Axial Skeletal
which is composed of bones of the bodys
central axis (skull, vertebral column, the rib
cage)2. Apppendicular Skeleton
which is composed of bones of the upper and
lower appendages and bones attaching them to
axial skeletal
Articulation (Joints)
The junctions where two or more bones come
together
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FUNCTIONS OF BONES
1. Support
Bones provide a hard framework that support
the body and cradles its soft organs. For
example, bones of lower limbs act as pillars tosupport the body trunk when we stand, and
the rib cage support the thoracic wall
2. ProtectionThe fused bones of the skull provide a snug
enclosure for the brain. The vertebrae
surround the spinal cord, and rib cage helps
protect the vital organs of the thorax
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3. Movement
Skeletal muscles, which are attached to bones
by tendons, use the bones as levers to move
the body and its parts. As a result, we can
walk, and breathe. The arrangement of bones
and the design of joint determine the type of
movement possible
4. Mineral Storage
Bones serves as a reservoir for minerals, the
most important of which are calcium andphosphate. The stored minerals can be
realeased into the bloodstream as ions to
distribution to all parts of the body as needed.
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Indeed, deposits and withdrawal of
minerals to and from the bones go on almost
continuously
5. Blood cell formationThe bulk of blood cell formation, or
hematopoiesis, occur within the marrow
cavities of certain bones .
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CLASSIFICATIONS OF BONES
The bones of the body come in a variety of sizes and
shapes. The four principal types of bones are long,
short, flat and irregular
Long Bones
Bones that are longer than they are wide are called
long bones. They consist of a long shaft with two
bulky ends or extremities. They are primarily
compact bone but may have a large amount of
spongy bone at the ends or extremities. Long bones
include bones of the thigh, leg, arm, and forearm.
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Short Bones
Short bones are roughly cube shaped with
vertical and horizontal dimensions
approximately equal. They consist primarily
of spongy bone, which is covered by a thin
layer of compact bone. Short bones includethe bones of the wrist and ankle.
Flat BonesFlat bones are thin, flattened, and usually
curved. Most of the bones of the cranium are
flat bones.
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Irregular Bones
Bones that are not in any of the above three
categories are classified as irregular bones. Theyare primarily spongy bone that is covered with a
thin layer of compact bone. The vertebrae and
some of the bones in the skull are irregular bones.
All bones have surface markings and characteristics
that make a specific bone unique. There are holes,
depressions, smooth facets, lines, projections and
other markings. These usually representpassageways for vessels and nerves, points of
articulation with other bones or points of
attachment for tendons and ligaments.
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STRUCTURE OF BONES TISSUE
There are two types of bone tissue: compact and
spongy. The names imply that the two types of
differ in density, or how tightly the tissue is
packed together. There are three types of cells
that contribute to bone homeostasis. Osteoblasts
are bone-forming cell, osteoclasts resorb or break
down bone, and osteocytes are mature bone cells.
An equilibrium between osteoblasts and
osteoclasts maintains bone tissue.
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Compact Bones
Compact bone consists of closely packed osteons or haversiansystems. The osteon consists of a central canal called the
osteonic (haversian) canal, which is surrounded by concentric
rings (lamellae) of matrix. Between the rings of matrix, the
bone cells (osteocytes) are located in spaces called lacunae.
Small channels (canaliculi) radiate from the lacunae to theosteonic (haversian) canal to provide passageways through the
hard matrix. In compact bone, the haversian systems are
packed tightly together to form what appears to be a solid
mass. The osteonic canals contain blood vessels that are
parallel to the long axis of the bone. These blood vessels
interconnect, by way of perforating canals, with vessels on
the surface of the bone.
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Spongy Bones
Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less densethan compact bone. Spongy bone consists of plates(trabeculae) and bars of bone adjacent to small,irregular cavities that contain red bone marrow.
The canaliculi connect to the adjacent cavities,instead of a central haversian canal, to receivetheir blood supply. It may appear that thetrabeculae are arranged in a haphazard manner,but they are organized to provide maximumstrength similar to braces that are used to supporta building. The trabeculae of spongy bone followthe lines of stress and can realign if the directionof stress changes.
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Structure of Compact and Sponge Bones
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BONE DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH
The terms osteogenesis and ossification
are often used synonymously to indicatethe process of bone formation. Parts ofthe skeleton form during the first fewweeks after conception. By the end of
the eighth week after conception, theskeletal pattern is formed in cartilageand connective tissue membranes andossification begins.
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Bone development continues throughout
adulthood. Even after adult stature is
attained, bone development continues for
repair of fractures and for remodeling to
meet changing lifestyles. Osteoblasts,
osteocytes and osteoclasts are the threecell types involved in the development,
growth and remodeling of bones.
Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells,osteocytes are mature bone cells and
osteoclasts break down and reabsorb
bone.
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Type of Ossification
Intramembranous ossification involves the
replacement of sheet-like connective tissue
membranes with bony tissue. Bones formed
in this manner are called intramembranousbones. They include certain flat bones of the
skull and some of the irregular bones. The
future bones are first formed as connective
tissue membranes. Osteoblasts migrate tothe membranes and deposit bony matrix
around themselves. When the osteoblasts
are surrounded by matrix they are called
osteocytes.
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Endochondral ossification involves the replacement ofhyaline cartilage with bony tissue. Most of the bones of
the skeleton are formed in this manner. These bones arecalled endochondral bones. In this process, the futurebones are first formed as hyaline cartilage models. Duringthe third month after conception, the perichondrium thatsurrounds the hyaline cartilage "models" becomes
infiltrated with blood vessels and osteoblasts and changesinto a periosteum. The osteoblasts form a collar ofcompact bone around the diaphysis. At the same time, thecartilage in the center of the diaphysis begins todisintegrate. Osteoblasts penetrate the disintegrating
cartilage and replace it with spongy bone. This forms aprimary ossification center. Ossification continues fromthis center toward the ends of the bones. After spongybone is formed in the diaphysis, osteoclasts break downthe newly formed bone to open up the medullary cavity.
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The cartilage in the epiphyses continues to grow
so the developing bone increases in length. Later,
usually after birth, secondary ossification centersform in the epiphyses. Ossification in the
epiphyses is similar to that in the diaphysis except
that the spongy bone is retained instead of being
broken down to form a medullary cavity. Whensecondary ossification is complete, the hyaline
cartilage is totally replaced by bone except in two
areas. A region of hyaline cartilage remains over
the surface of the epiphysis as the articularcartilage and another area of cartilage remains
between the epiphysis and diaphysis. This is the
epiphyseal plate or growth region.
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Bones Growth
Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal plate by aprocess that is similar to endochondral ossification.The cartilage in the region of the epiphyseal platenext to the epiphysis continues to grow by mitosis.The chondrocytes, in the region next to thediaphysis, age and degenerate. Osteoblasts move in
and ossify the matrix to form bone. This processcontinues throughout childhood and the adolescentyears until the cartilage growth slows and finallystops. When cartilage growth ceases, usually in theearly twenties, the epiphyseal plate completely
ossifies so that only a thin epiphyseal line remainsand the bones can no longer grow in length. Bonegrowth is under the influence of growth hormonefrom the anterior pituitary gland and sex hormonesfrom the ovaries and testes.
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Even though bones stop growing in length in early
adulthood, they can continue to increase in
thickness or diameter throughout life in responseto stress from increased muscle activity or to
weight. The increase in diameter is called
appositional growth. Osteoblasts in the
periosteum form compact bone around theexternal bone surface. At the same time,
osteoclasts in the endosteum break down bone on
the internal bone surface, around the medullary
cavity. These two processes together increase thediameter of the bone and, at the same time,
keep the bone from becoming excessively heavy
and bulky.
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DIVISION OF THE SKELETON
The adult human skeleton usually consists of 206named bones. These bones can be grouped in twodivisions: axial skeleton and appendicularskeleton. The 80 bones of the axial skeleton form
the vertical axis of the body. They include thebones of the head, vertebral column, ribs andbreastbone or sternum. The appendicularskeleton consists of 126 bones and includes the
free appendages and their attachments to theaxial skeleton. The free appendages are theupper and lower extremities, or limbs, and theirattachments which are called girdles.
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Axial Skeleton (80 bones)
Skull (28)
Cranial Bones
Parietal (2)
Temporal (2)
Frontal (1)
Occipital (1)
Ethmoid (1)
Sphenoid (1)
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Facial Bones
- Maxilla (2)
- Inferior nasal concha (2)
- Mandible (1)
- Nasal (2)
- Platine (2)
- Zygomatic (2)
- Lacrimal (2)
- Vomer (1)
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Auditory Ossicles
- Malleus (2)
- Incus (2)
- Stapes (2)
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Vertebral Column
- Cervical vertebrae (7)
- Thoracic vertebrae (12)
- Lumbar vertebrae (5)
- Sacrum (1)
- Coccyx (1)
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Thoracic Cage
- Sternum (1)
- Ribs (24)
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Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones)
Pectoral girdles
- Clavicle (2)
- Scapula (2)
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Upper Extremity
- Humerus (2) - Radius (2)
- Ulna (2) - Carpals (16)- Metacarpals (10) - Phalanges (28)
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Pelvic Girdle
- Coxal, innominate, or hip bones (2)
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Lower Extremity
- Femur (2) - Tibia (2)
- Fibula (2) - Patella (2)- Tarsals (14) - Metatarsals (10)
- Phalanges (28)
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ARTICULATION
An articulation, or joint, is where two
bones come together. In terms of theamount of movement they allow, there
are three types of joints: immovable,
slightly movable and freely movable.
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Our joints have two fundamental functions:
1. Give our skeleton mobility
2. Hold the skeleton together, sometimes playing
the protective role in the process. For example
the rigid joint of the skull, make it secureenclosure for our vital structure
Joint are the weakest parts of the skeleton, buttheir structure resists various forces, such as
crushing or tearing, that threaten to force them
out of alignment
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CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
SynarthrosesSynarthroses are immovable joints. The singular form issynarthrosis. In these joints, the bones come in very closecontact and are separated only by a thin layer of fibrousconnective tissue. The sutures in the skull are examples of
immovable joints
AmphiarthrosesSlightly movable joints are called amphiarthroses. Thesingular form is amphiarthrosis. In this type of joint, the
bones are connected by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage.The ribs connected to the sternum by costal cartilages areslightly movable joints connected by hyaline cartilage. Thesymphysis pubis is a slightly movable joint in which there isa fibrocartilage pad between the two bones. The jointsbetween the vertebrae and the intervertebral disks are also
of this type.
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Diarthroses
Most joints in the adult body are diarthroses, orfreely movable joints. The singular form isdiarthrosis. In this type of joint, the ends of theopposing bones are covered with hyaline cartilage,the articular cartilage, and they are separated by
a space called the joint cavity. The components ofthe joints are enclosed in a dense fibrous jointcapsule. The outer layer of the capsule consists ofthe ligaments that hold the bones together. Theinner layer is the synovial membrane that secretes
synovial fluid into the joint cavity for lubrication.Because all of these joints have a synovialmembrane, they are sometimes called synovialjoints.
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Types of Synovial Joints
Hinge JointIn Hinge joint, movement occur in one place only.Examples of hinge joint are at the elbow (humerus andulna) and knee (femur and tibia) and fingers (between
phalanges)
Pivot JointA pivot joint is organized to permit rotation. An example
of a pivot joint occurs in the neck where the first twobones of the vertebral column (atlas and axis) cometogether
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Ball and Socket Joint
This joint forms where a ball-like head firs into a cup like
cavity. It allow the most freedom of movement. Occur
where the head of humerus articulates with the glenoid
cavity of the scapula and at the hip where the head of
the femur articulates with acetabulum
Condyloid Joint
Rotation is not possible at this joint, but most other
movement occur here. Condyloid joint exists where theradius meets the carpals at the wrist.
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Saddle Joint
Rotation is also restricted. The union of the carpals
bones with one another and with the metacarpal bonesof the thumb occurs at a saddle joint
Gliding Joint
Permits a gliding movement in a number of different
directions between relatively flat, aricular surfaces. The
places where the articular processes of the vertebrae
come together are examples of gliding joints.
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Movement Allowed by Synovial Joints
1. Flexion 11. Pronation
2. Extension 12. Eversion
3. Hyperextension 13. Inversion
4. Dorsiflexion 14. Protraction5. Plantar flexion 15. Retraction
6. Adduction 16. Elevation
7. Abduction 17. Depression8. Circumduction 18. Gliding
9. Rotation
10. Supination
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