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TitleCritical thinking and knowledge in liberal studies: ways ofseeing
Author(s) Leung, Hai-ka, Elaine.;h• ñV
.
Citation
Issued Date 2010
URL http://hdl.handle.net/10722/177230
RightsThe author retains all proprietary rights, (such as patent rights)and the right to use in future works.
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Critical Thinking and Knowledge in
Liberal Studies:
Ways of Seeing
Elaine Leung Hai Ka
(2008875425)
Dissertation presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree
of Master of Education, the University of Hong Kong
August 2010
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II
Declaration
I hereby declare that this dissertation represents my own work and that is has
not been previously submitted to this University or any other institution in
application for admission to a degree, diploma or other qualifications.
August 2010
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III
Acknowledgements
I express my deepest gratitude and warmest appreciation to my supervisors, Prof
Cheng Kai Ming and Dr Ki Wing Wah for their valuable time and intellectual
contributions to this dissertation, as well as their continuous support and
encouragement.
I thank Prof. Cheng for his inspiring advice and being a role model as a profound
scholar. It is has been a privilege to learn from Prof. Cheng, who has provided
insight into academic research as well as life more generally.
I thank Dr. Ki for his open-mindedness, help, support and patience. Dr. Ki is a
superb teacher and motivator who helped me be more proactive and creative.
Their expertise helped me complete the dissertation, as well as become a more
rounded person and critical thinker.
Special thanks also to the participants in this research. Thank you all for
valuable time and for sharing information and insights.
Lastly, I heartily thank my wonderful parents, beloved one, and friends for their
encouragement and support during the work. This dissertation would not have
been possible without the help of so many people, in so many ways.
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IV
Content
Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction P.1
1.2 Research focuses P.2
1.3 Guiding questions P.3
Chapter 2 Literature review
2. 1 Definitions of critical thinking P.4
2. 2 Dispositions of critical thinking P.10
2.3 Habits of mind P.13
2.4 Importance attitude for thinking P.16
2.5 The importance of critical thinking in Liberal
Studies
P. 17
2.6 Critical thinking and daily life P.19
2.7 Subjects and critical thinking P.20
2.8 High level thinking P.21
2.9 Expert and novice in high order thinking P.22
2.10 Pedagogy of high level thinking P. 23
2.11 Assessing critical thinking P.25
2.12 Critical thinking as educational capital P.30
2.13 Ideal critical thinker P.30
2.14 Critical thinking and democratic society P.31
2.15 Subject knowledge in Liberal Studies P.33
2.16 Knowledge, truth and power P.34
2.17 Schooling and the ownership P.37
2.18 Pedagogy of the oppressed in Liberal Studies P.41
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Chapter 3 Methodology
3.1 Interviews P.44
3.2 Interview Settings P.45
3.3 Stages of interviews P.45
3.4 Let informants lead P.51
3.5 Participants P.52
3.6 Profile of each participant P.53
Chapter 4 Findings
4.1 Case Study of Participant A P. 59
4.2 Observations and analysis of Participant A P. 66
4.3 Case Study of Participant B P. 69
4.4 Observations and analysis of Participant B P. 91
4.5 Case study of Participant C P. 95
4.6 Observations and analysis of Participant C P. 109
4.7 Case Study of Participant D P. 112
4.8 Observation and analysis of Participant D P. 128
4.9 Case Study of Participant E P. 132
4.10 Observations and analysis of Participant E P. 158
4.11 Case study of Participant F P. 162
4.12 Observations and analysis of Participant F P. 146
4.13 Case study of Participant G P. 175
4.14 Observation and analysis of Participant G P. 200
Chapter 5 Summary of the Findings
5.1 Table 5 Focus and nature of Liberal Studies P. 204
5.2 Table 6. Interpretation of critical thinking P. 207
5.3 Table 7. Interpretation of knowledge in Liberal
Studies
P. 210
5.4 Table 8. Correlation of critical thinking and
knowledge
P. 213
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VI
5.5 Table 9. Own ways/approach of teaching Critical
thinking
P. 215
5.6 Table 10. Issues of teaching critical thinking P. 218
5.7 Table 11. Constrains and difficulties of teachingcritical thinking in Liberal Studies
P. 219
5.8 Table 12. P. 220
5.9 Table 13. Can Liberal Studies liberate? P. 221
Chapter 6
6.1 Nature of Liberal Studies P. 223
6.1.1 Interpretation of knowledge in Liberal Studies P. 2246.1.2 Critical thinking P. 228
6.1.3 Correlation of critical thinking and knowledge P. 232
6.2.1 Pedagogy of critical thinking P. 233
6.2.2 Critical thinking and Liberal Studies assessment P. 236
6.3 Difficulties and constraints of teaching critical thinking
in Liberal Studies
P. 238
6.4 Liberal studies: prospects and suggestions P. 240
6.4.1 Teacher’s attitude P. 2406.4.2 Discussion in class P. 241
6.4.3 Non-written tasks for critical thinking P. 241
6.4.4 Asking questions and arguing P. 242
6.4.5 Critical thinking: data and materials P. 243
6.4.6 Critical thinking in the young P. 243
6.4.7 Critical thinking in Liberal Studies assessment P. 245
6.4.8 Marking the exam P. 245
6.4.9 Rubrics and complexity of critical thinking P. 246
6.5 Can Liberal Studies liberate? P. 247
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VII
Chapter 7 Conclusion P. 249
Chapter 8 Limitations and further study P. 254
References P. 256
Appendices
Appendix 1 The Holistic critical thinking scoring rubric P. 271
Appendix 2 Sample Transcripts 1 P. 272
Appendix 3 Sample Transcripts 2 P. 297
Appendix 4 Sample Transcripts 3 P. 310
Appendix 5-7 News article about critical thinking inLiberal Studies
P. 325- 340
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VIII
List of Illustrations
Figures
Figure 1
Liberal Studies and the Three-year Senior Secondary Curriculum
Figure 2
Picture of the illustration of Liberal Studies drew by participant D
Tables
Table 1Dimensions of Habits of Mind
Table 2
Critical thinking Habits of Mind
Table 3
The Dimensions, Types, and Categories of Higher-Level Thinking
Table 4
Summary of the background of participants
Table 5
Focus and nature of Liberal Studies
Table 6
Interpretation of critical thinking
Table 7
Interpretation of knowledge in Liberal Studies
Table 8
Correlation of critical thinking and knowledge
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IX
Table 9
Own ways/approach of teaching critical thinking
Table 10
Issues of teaching critical thinking
Table 11
Constrains and difficulties of teaching critical thinking in Liberal
Studies
Table 12
Subject is best at developing critical thinking
Table 13
Can Liberal Studies liberate?
Table 14
Comparison of the elements of critical thinking
Table 15
Ultimate desirable goals of critical thinking
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X
Abstract
The study explores perceptions of critical thinking and knowledge by New Senior
Secondary Liberal Studies teachers in Hong Kong. The insights in this study have
implications for the curriculum development and pedagogy, particularly regarding
how we can improve the teachers training of critical thinking.
Seven Liberal Studies teachers (with various levels of teaching experience and
differing backgrounds) were invited to in-depth interviews about their experience
teaching Liberal Studies, and particularly regarding critical thinking and
knowledge, as well as their pedagogies and views of this subject.
Factors such as work experience, personality, school training, and cultural identity
affect ways of seeing ‘critical thinking’ and ‘knowledge’. Also, these interviews
provide insights into a better pedagogy in high order thinking. We can gain
understanding of the difficulties and constraints of teaching critical thinking in
Liberal Studies. The research is also a critical thinking process, which is explored
in conversations with participants. The study asked them to reflect on what they
thought and had experienced. The participants gave useful insights and
suggestions.
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Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
In this post-modern age of unprecedented change and expansion, new information
multiplies as old information becomes obsolete. Constant and accelerating shifts
in information require all members of society to be equipped with the skills
necessary to assess and evaluate knowledge(Geertsen, 2003).We need to have a
critical mind to face this sea of information.
Liberal Studies is a compulsory subject in NSS which emphasizes thinking skills.
It is a hot issue because of its nature and focus and also because of the design of
the curriculum and assessment. ‘Critical thinking’ is mentioned 19 times in the
Liberal Studies Curriculum and Assessment Guide. However, it does not discuss
what ‘critical thinking’ actually is. Liberal Studies is flexible, as mentioned in the
guide. Scholars and experts might have different definitions of critical thinking or
even liberal studies. Teachers are actually the ones who deliver the curriculum and
their interpretation is important.
Most research into critical thinking focuses on definition, deposition, and the
relationship between epistemological beliefs from the educational psychology
approach rather than the ethnographic approach. It is worth understanding how
teachers interpret critical thinking and knowledge and how other factors play a
role, such as personality, school training, life experience, and cultural identity.
With this approach, we can understand more about the pedagogy, and the
constraints and difficulties involved in teaching critical thinking, so as to gain
more insights into improving curriculum planning and teacher training.
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1.2 Research focuses
This research focuses on ‘critical thinking’ and ‘knowledge’ in Liberal Studies
from the perspective of teachers, and their interpretation of the correlation
between the two.
Through interviews, influential factors that affect ways of seeing ‘critical thinking’
and ‘knowledge’ can be explored, such as work experience, personality, and
school training,
Also, by exploring critical thinking, this study examines better pedagogy in high
order thinking. In discussing Liberal Studies, we can understand more about the
difficulties and constraints involved in teaching critical thinking in Liberal Studies.
My work as the researcher involved interpreting participants views of critical
thinking and knowledge in Liberal Studies, and included a critical thinking
process through conversations with the participants. They were asked to reflect on
what they thought and what they had achieved. Finally, by sharing these
experiences, we can explore how Liberal Studies can liberate students and
teachers.
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1.3 Guiding questions
1. How can teachers interpret ‘critical thinking’, ‘knowledge’ and the
relationship between them in Liberal Studies?
2. How do personal working experiences, cultural identity, and school training
affect interpretations of ‘critical thinking’ and ‘knowledge’?
3. How can pedagogy be improved so as to teach critical thinking in Liberal
Studies?
4.
Are there any difficulties or constraints in teaching critical thinking in
Liberal Studies?
5. Are there any suggestions as to how to improve Liberal Studies particularly
regarding critical thinking and the teaching of high order thinking?
6.
Can Liberal Studies liberate students and teachers?
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Chapter 2
Literature review
In the last quarter of the Twentieth Century, there are intensified efforts to define
and measure Critical thinking. (Kurfiss, 1988; Norris & Ennis, 1989; Jones, 1993)
2. 1 Definitions of critical thinking
There are different definitions of ‘Critical thinking’ abound from different
disciplines. (Facione, 2007) In fact, critical thinking was characterized as merely
an assortment of techniques before rather than as complex, thoughtful, purposeful
process of forming judgments using reason and evidence. (Paul, 1990)
The ambiguous meaning of critical thinking is because there is lack of conceptual
clarity clearly towards this topic. A number of teachers and experts confused about
what critical thinking means. (Geertsen, 2003)
That is why Beyer (1987) advocates a more specialized meaning for critical
thinking:
John Dewey (1910) as one of the most influential educator was the first one who
applied the concept of reflective thinking to delineate critical thinking as ‘ active,
persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge
in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it
tends’ (Dewey, 1910:6)
Cognitive scientists traditionally defined thinking as problem solving. (Geertsen,
2003)There were numerous definitions of critical thinking were quite divergent
and depended on individual understandings of research needs. To define critical
thinking broadly, thinking was seen as the cognitive processes and strategies
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involved in decision making, problem solving, or inquiry. A narrow down
definition of critical thinking would be an essential element of general cognitive
processes, such as problem solving or decision making, but was not synonymous
with them. (Alazzi, 2008)
Edward M. Glaser (1942) was one of those experts tried to define critical thinking.
He defined that there are three components of critical thinking, which are still
used as general standards today.
Those are as followings:
1.
An attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems
and subjects that come within the range of one’s experience
2. Knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning
3. Some skills in applying those methods.
He mentions critical thinking calls for a persistent effort to examine any belief or
supposed form of knowledge in the light of the evidence that supports it and the
further conclusions to which it tends.
On the other hand, Beyer(1984) says that critical thinking is rendering a judgment
about something. It begins with some claim, conclusion or proposed solution and
persistently and objectively evaluates its truth or worth. He explains
‘ The term critical thinking is one of the most abused terms in our
thinking skills vocabulary. Generally it means whatever its users
stipulate it to mean. In some circles the term critical thinking is used
to mean all thinking operations, from decision making to analysis of
part-whole relationships to interpreting. In other circles it means the
skills drawn from Bloom’s taxonomy. Yet critical thinking is not to
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be considered as encompassing all, or identical to any, of these
operations. Critical thinking, for example, is obviously not the same
as recall, neither is critical thinking synonymous with decision
making or problem solving.’
Beyer (1987:32-33)
With reference to this, Geertsen(2003) believes we should call this type of
thinking as ‘critical judging’ and place it in a larger category as ‘critical thinking’.
He further explains that would be two types of assessment thinking which is
critical judging and dimentionalized judging as the followings:
Two types of assessment thinking (Making judgments of worth)
Critical judging- narrowing (internal consistency)
1. Relevance/irrelevance of information supporting claim or assertion
2.
Factual evidence (distinguishes facts from preferences/value judgments,
reasonable inferences, credible sources)
3. Strength of argument (consistent reasoning, unambiguous assertions, no
logical fallacies)
4. Underlying assumptions and/or biases
Dimentionalize Judging- broadening (other dimensions)
1.
Relevance/ irrelevance of information supporting alternative claims or
assertions
2. Comparative factual evidence (Factual discrepancies, factual triangulation,
reasonable inferences, credible sources)
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3.
Scope and strength of alternative arguments (limiting conditions, possible
contradictions, possible contradictions, consistent reasoning, unambiguous
assertions, no logical fallacies)
4. Contrasting underlying sets of assumptions and/or biases
Geertsen(2003:9)
Latter, Richard Paul (1993) mentions critical thinking is about your thinking while
you’re thinking in order to make your thinking better.
There are two things critical:
1. Critical thinking is not just thinking, but thinking which entails self-
improvement
2. This improvement comes from skill in using stands by which one
appropriately assesses thinking. It is self-improvement (in thinking) through
standards(that assess thinking).
He further explains to think well is to impose disciple and restraint on our
thinking- by means of intellectual standards- in order to raise our thinking to a
level of ‘perfection’ or quality that ins not natural or likely in undisciplined,
spontaneous thought. He emphasizes control through discipline and restraint.
Latter, Norris and Ennis(1989) defines critical thinking is reasonable and
reflective thinking that is focused upon deciding what to believe or do.
Ennis(1996) further explains critical thinking is reasonable reflective thinking
what is focused on deciding what to believe or do.
‘ Reflective thinking requires the continual evaluation of beliefs,
assumptions, and hypotheses against existing data and against other
plausible interpretations of the data. The resulting judgments are
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offered as reasonable integrations or syntheses of opposing points of
view. Because they involve ongoing verification and evaluation,
judgments based on reflective thinking are more likely to be valid and
insightful than are beliefs derived from authority, emotional
commitment, or narrow reasoning ’
(King and Kitchener, 1994:7)
Esterle (1993) mentions ‘a critical thinker is not only capable of reflecting,
exploring, and analyzing but choose to think in these advanced, sophisticated
ways’
Further, Geertsen(2003) points out that critical thinking and reflective thinking are
distinctly different yet complementary forms of high level thinking.
Critical thinking should involve both responsible assessment of reasons and
arguments. It also mentioned critical thinking is typically understood by educators
has at least three features: it is done for the purpose of making up one’s mind
about what to believe or do; the person engaging in the thinking is trying to fulfill
standards of adequacy and accuracy appropriate to the thinking; and the thinking
fulfills the relevant stands to some threshold level.(Bailin, Case, R., Coombs, &
Daniels, 1999)
Paul and Elder (2003) define critical thinking as self-directed learning spiral in
which intellectual standards are applied to the thinking process with the goal of
improving the quality of thought. The intellectual standards of their definition of
critical thinking include clarity, logic, accuracy, precision, breath, depth,
relevance, significance, completeness, and fairness.
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They defined a set of intellectual traits of virtues that are characteristic of critical
thinking as followings:
Intellectual humility – or the recognition that we might discover new
information and admit we were wrong
Confidence in reason – an agreement to rely on logic as a standard for
determining the veracity of a claim
Autonomy – the ability to say what one thinks without coercion or
compromising conflicts of interest
Courage – to take an unpopular perspective
Perseverance – to track down important details relevant to the question
Intellectual empathy – to understand others’ points of view
Fair-mindedness – to consider arguments without bias
Integrity – to present all information with correct attribution of sources
and fair representation of others’ work
King and Kitchener (2004) argue that the notions of critical thinking as limited to
either logical thinking or problem-solving skills. They point out that those
definitions ignore the underlying epistemic assumptions. Instead of using the term
critical thinking, they present a developmental theory of reflective judgment.
On the other hand, some critical thinking theorists have assumed that critical
thinking is the analysis and assessment of statements, arguments or reasons. It
involves judging an intellectual product on the basis of appropriate standards.
Thinking critically could be considered as to assess reasons properly and the
willingness, desire, and disposition to base one’s actions and beliefs on reasons.
Also, it should involve appropriate deliberation or reflection.
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There is a widespread agreement that most of the definitions share some basic
features and probably address some component of critical thinking (Potts 1994)
The cognitive skills of analysis, interpretation, inference, explanation, evaluation,
and of monitoring and correcting one’s own reasoning are at the heart of critical
thinking (APA,1990)
The following is the expert consensus statement regarding critical thinking from
the empirical research held in 1990 under the sponsorship of the Committee on
Pre-College Philosophy of the American Philosophical Association:
“We understand critical thinking to be purposeful, self -regulatory
judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and
inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual,
methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon
which that judgment is based. CT is essential as a tool of inquiry. As
such, CT is a liberating force in education and a powerful resource in
one’s personal and civic life. While not synonymous with good thinking,
CT is a pervasive and self-rectifying human phenomenon.’
(APA, 1990)
Generation a consensus definition is less important than simply choosing
definition that meets the needs and consistently applying it. (Bissell and Leomons,
2006)
2.2 Dispositions of critical thinking
There are researchers stressed the importance of dispositions of critical thinking
that involved in analyzing individuals’ critical thinking abilities which mean a
person might possess critical thinking skills but not use them.
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John Dewey described the dispositional aspects of thinking as ‘personal attributes’
it is applied to humans to refer to characterological attributes of individuals.
(Dewey, 1933) He focused on the attitude of the thinker. He considered attitude to
be more crucial than knowledge reasoning, He believed that in the absence of a
thoughtful and perspective disposition, knowledge of how to think had limited
value. He concerned about attitude because he believed that all ‘supposed forms
of knowledge’ are tentative and time-bound.
French and Rhoder(1992) believe the disposition of the thinker is a crucial
element in high level thinking. Facione (2000) further explains people who have
the talent for skillful thinking but lack the consistent internal motivation to use
that talent. He mentions the disposition toward critical thinking is the consistent
internal motivation to engage problems and make decisions by using thinking’
Habits of mind are different critical thinking disposition. Disposition it means an
inclination, tendency or willingness to behave in a particular way. It is a tendency
to exhibit frequently, consciously, and voluntarily a pattern of behavior that is
directed to broad goal. (Katz, 1993) It is composed of three endurable
psychological elements: sensitivity, inclination and abilities (Ritchhart &
Perkins,2000)
People with critical thinking dispositions has the tendency toward critical thinking
and are able to sense when it is needed and apply it. But for the habits of mind of
critical thinking, it has four more elements: attitudes, values, commitment, and
policy. For the habits of mind, they are the intellectual tendencies or dispositions
to act in a particular way.(Ip, 2010)
An empirical research on the concept of Critical thinking was held in 1990 under
the sponsorship of the Committee on Pre-College Philosophy of the American
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Philosophical Association gave the conceptualization of critical thinking for
purposes of instruction and educational assessment. From this project, critical
thinking was characterized as a self-adjusting process of judging what to believe
or what to do in a given context. In so doing a person engaged in critical thinking
uses a core set of cognitive skills to form that judgment and to monitor and
improve the quality of the judgment (APA, 1990) from this we can see critical
thinking skills requires that one take into reasoned consideration the evidence,
methods, contexts, theories, and criteria which, in effect, define specific
disciplines, fields, and areas of human concern.
It went beyond a brief definition and offered lists of core critical thinking skills
and sub-skills and a robust expression of the positive side of dispositional aspect
of critical thinking in its description of the ideal critical thinking. (Facione, 2000)
Facione describes Truth-seeking as the desire for best knowledge in any given
situations, asking the tough questions, and being willing to follow reasons and
evidence wherever they lead even if the result is contrary to one’s own
preconceptions and interests.
Skills and dispositions are mutually reinforcing and that is why they should be
explicitly taught and modeled together. (King & Kitchener, 1995) The linkage
between motivation and learning that responds best to the insight that critical
thinking skills and the disposition to use critical thinking should come together in
practical and important ways.
Disposition toward critical thinking can be described as an intellectual virtue and
in order to teach thinking, teacher must nurture truth-seeking, open mindedness,
analyticity, systematicity, intellectual curiosity, confidence in the proper use of
reason and evidence, and maturity of judgment. That is why people must be
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disposed to use what they have learned because being skilled does not assure one
is disposed to use critical thinking and being disposed toward critical thinking
does not assure that one is skilled.(Facione, 2000)
2.3 Habits of mind
There is shift of the study in critical thinking from skills(e.g. Glaser) to
dispositions(e.g. Ennis), then to habbits of mind. (Scheffer & Rubenfeld, 2000)
Costa and Kallick(2008) defined a habit of mind as ‘ having a disposition toward
behaving intelligently when confronted with problems with dichotomies,
dilemmas, enigmas and uncertainties’ which is ‘ a composite of many skills,
attitudes, cues, past experiences, and proclivities. (Costa, 2008:17)
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Table 1. Dimensions of Habits of Mind
Dimension Description
Value Choosing to employ a pattern of intellectual behaviors
Inclination Feeling the tendency to employ a pattern of intellectual
behaviors
Sensitivity Perceiving opportunities for, and appropriateness of,
employing the pattern of behaviors
Capability Possessing the basic skills
Commitment Constantly striving to reflect on and improve
performance of the pattern of intellectual behaviors.
Policy Making it a policy to promote and incorporate the
patterns of intellectual behaviors into actions, decisions,
and resolutions of problematic situations.
Source: Costa and Kallick (2008:17)
Tishman (2000) further explained that habits of mind were the intelligence
expressed as characteristic patterns of intellectual behavior in everyday situations.
Bailin, Case, R., Coombs, & Daniels (1999) point out that thinking critically in
terms of intellectual resources should be included the following kinds: background
knowledge, operational knowledge of the standards of good thinking, knowledge
of key critical concepts, heuristics(Strategies or procedures) and habits of
mind(respect for reasons and truth, respect for high-quality products and
performances, an inquiring attitude, open mindedness and fair mindedness)
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Also, one of the influential experts in critical thinking, Facione (2011) also
emphasizes on the habits of mind especially in critical thinking. He points out that
there are positive and negative habits of mind as the following:
Table 2. Critical thinking Habits of Mind (Facione, 2011)
Positive Negative
Truth-seeking
Open-Minded
Analytical
Systematic
Confident in reasoning
Inquisitive
Intellectually dishonest
Intolerant
Heedless of consequences
Disorganized
Hostile toward reason
Indifferent
Imprudent
He further asks a question which is very inspiring for teacher. Is a good critical
thinker automatically a good person? From his view, there is a difference between
‘strong critical thinker’ and ‘good critical thinker’. A person can be adept at
developing cogent arguments and very adroit at finding the flaws in other people’s
reasoning. Then he or she use these skills unethically to mislead and exploit
another person or frustrate a project. It is possible that people with superior
thinking skills and strong habits of mind would use their talents for ruthless,
horrific and immoral purposes. Experience, knowledge, mental horsepower, and
ethical virtue are not all one and the same.
Event there is no guarantee that becoming educated and practicing good judgment
would have a life of happiness, virtue or economic success, Facione still believes
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that teach people to make good decision and equip them to improve their own
futures and become contributing members of society, rather than burdens on
society is important.
On the other hand, Geertsen (2003) believes there should be three elements of
proper attitude with critical thinking. First, a reflective thinker has a tendency
toward carefully consider and pondering a new possibilities when confused,
bewildered, or filled with doubt. These illustrated the open-minded element of
proper attitude. Further, a critical thinker has a tendency toward scrutinizing new
as well as existing knowledge and to base evaluations on compelling and/or
logically consistent evidence. Also, the third essential element of proper attitude is
a tendency to be inquisitive or ask questions.
2.4 Importance attitude for thinking
Robert K. Merton(1968) mentions that when we have the proper attitude, we make
use of the current knowledge at hand while leaving the door open to new evidence
and insight.
Thayer-Bacon(2000) emphasizes the need to transform critical thinking into
socially constructive thought. She proposes a constructionist view of higher level
thinking directed outward to others a view that values imagination, feeling and the
social construction of meaning.
Open-minded is of the essential characteristics of proper attitude towards high
level thinking. It means having respect for other viewpoints and a willingness to
consider those alternative ideas. It also includes an intellectual curiosity in
considering new questions and seeking new answers. Also, evidence-mindedness
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is another essential element of proper attitude. Withholding judgment until proper
evidence is obtained includes a systematic skepticism and objectivity. (Geertsen,
2003)
Richard Paul (2006) as the leading expert critical thinking believes the
information flux in the modern world requires considerable rethinking about how
teachers teach.
2.5 The importance of critical thinking in Liberal Studies
Critical thinking is important to liberal studies because it helps the student to
develop the ability to think critically. Having critical thinking in liberal studies
comes with a range of skills for life-long learning, including creativity,
problem-solving skills, communication skills etc. All these can help to develop the
student identify the values underlying different views and judgments on personal
and social issues, and apply critical thinking skills, creativity and different
perspectives in making decisions and judgments on issues and problems at both
personal and social levels. (CDC&HKEAA, 2007)
Liberal Studies emphasizes in critical thinking. It is just like what Siegel (1988)
mentions critical thinking is about striving for the student’s early achievement of a
significant degree of autonomy and self sufficiency and aimed to get the student to
be an active participant in the establishment and creation of his or her adult life.
He believes that Critical thinking can promulgate the development in students of
autonomy, self sufficiency, the skills of reason assessment, and the attitudes,
dispositions, habits of mind, and character traits of the critical spirit and erects
those features of persons as the fundamental guidelines for the evaluation and
transformation of society.
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Liberal studies as a compulsory and core subject for the higher form secondary
students, it is a subject which has moral and value education in order to render
student-self sufficient and capable of determining their own futures. With critical
thinking, it can foster student’s capacity for life-long learning, so that they can
face the challenges of the future with confidence. (CDC&HKEAA, 2007)
With reference to this, the development in students of the promulgation of critical
thinking is quite similar to the five curriculum concepts: Academic rationalism,
social efficiency, cognitive processes, humanism and social reconstruction.
Further, having critical thinking in liberal studies comes with a range of skills for
life-long learning, including creativity, problem-solving skills, communication
skills etc. All these can help to develop the student identify the values underlying
different views and judgments on personal and social issues, and apply critical
thinking skills, creativity and different perspectives in making decisions and
judgments on issues and problems at both personal and social
skills. (CDC&HKEAA, 2007) It states as follows:
‘Classroom interaction is primarily teacher-directed. This allows
more control over the aims, content, organization, pace and direction
of lessons. However, students can be invited to raise questions about
the content and discuss them at points that encourage critical thinking.
Teachers must allow sufficient time for discussion-based enquiry in a
Liberal Studies classroom.’
(CDC&HKEAA, 2007:107)
From this, we can see to a certain extent, student’s moral worth is respected. Also,
students and teacher should respect for persons has ramifications. With reference
to the Issue-enquiry and multiple perspectives , the approaches and strategies in
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Liberal Studies curriculum are all try to encourage students to have critical
thinking.
‘Allows for different points of view, representing different values and
interests. Teacher should guide the students to make reasoned
judgments and take action for the betterment of society, rather than
remain merely ‘critical’ in a negative way.’
(CDC&HKEAA, 2007:101)
As it mentions, in the teaching of Liberal Studies, teachers honor student’s
demand for reasons and explanations, deals with students honestly, and recognizes
the need to confront student’s independent judgment.
2.6 Critical thinking and daily life
Even when Chairman of JCS , US Navy Admiral Mullen was giving out the
leadership lesson to National Defense, he mentioned about critical thinking. ‘ You
will recall how you were inspired to think critically and to question without fear,
to seek out radically different solutions and to voice them without reprisal, to read
widely and deeply, and to examine without end and grow intellectually…. What I
ask is this: pass it on.’
Also the author of ‘Thinking critically’ (1991), John Chaffee mentions how
critical thinking changed his life.
‘Critical thinking is my life; it’s my philosophy of life. It’s how I
define myself…I’m an educator because I think these ideas have
meaning. I’m convinced that what we believe in has to be able to
stand the test of evaluation.’
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Even on the internet, there are lots of information about critical thinking and
problem solving and the ‘Six steps to effective thinking and problem-solving’ is
the quite common one.
Six Steps to Effective Thinking and Problem-Solving1
Identify the problem. — What’s the r eal question we’re facing here?
Define the context. — What are the facts and circumstances that frame this
problem?
Enumerate choices. — What are our most plausible three or four options?
Analyze options. — What is our best course of action, all things considered?
List reasons explicitly. — Let’s be clear: Why we are making this particular
choice?
Self-correct. — Okay, let’s look at it again. What did we miss?
In everyday situations and in every domain of knowledge or professional practice,
good critical thinking involves attending to the contexts, theories, methods,
evidence, and standards within which problems are framed and decisions formed.
(Facione, 2000 )
2.7 Subjects and critical thinking
There are some researches mentions that many introductory science, technology,
engineering and math courses do not encourage the development of critical
1 Original source is from: http://www.telacommunications.com/nutshell/cthinking7.htm
http://www.telacommunications.com/nutshell/cthinking7.htmhttp://www.telacommunications.com/nutshell/cthinking7.htmhttp://www.telacommunications.com/nutshell/cthinking7.htmhttp://www.telacommunications.com/nutshell/cthinking7.htm
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thinking abilities. (Fox and Hackerman 2003; Handelsman , 2004)
Further, Ahrash and Paula(2006) tried to try to understand why so many faculty
want their students to think critically but are hard-pressed to provide evidence that
they understand critical thinking or their students have learned how to do it. They
identified two major impediments. First, there is a problem of defining ‘critical
thinking’. Second, it is difficult to develop critical thinking in the classroom it is
not easy to measure critical thinking ability
2.8 High level thinking
Geertsen(2003) mentions assessment thinking is one of several dimensions of
higher-level thinking. Critical thinking judging is critical assessment thinking and
dimensionalized judging is reflective assessment thinking.
Table 3. The Dimentions, Types, and Categories of Higher-Level Thinking
Six Dimensions Twelve types of Higher-Level Thinking
Strategy thinking Decision Marking Problem solving
Referential thinking Conceptualizing Contexuatlizing
Assessment thinking Critical judging Dimensionalized
Judging
Scientific thinking Researching Theory Building
Reflective thinking Foundational Constructional
Comparative thinking Typological Analogical
Two broad categories Critical Thinking Reflective thinking
(Geertsen, 2003:9)
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2.9 Expert and novice in high order thinking
In order to see the difference between expert and novice in high order thinking,
Samuel Wineburg(1991) had done a program of expert and novice as the combine
of empirical research with historiographic writings. In this program found out the
differences between the two groups were striking, and not only in the depth of
knowledge exhibited by the working historians.
The most distinguished two groups were the working heuristics employed by the
historians in approaching the evaluation of historical sources. The historians
(experts) approached every historical account with the assumption that it reflected
selective use of information and interpretive reconstructions of actions and
motives.
Those ‘experts’ imposed their conceptions of history on their readings, seeking
motives, causes, and explanations rather than merely reciting chronologies or
genealogies. In this program, even the most academically accomplished high
school students rarely exhibited the historian’s frame of mind in reading historical
texts. For those ‘experts’, reading for understanding was a matter of recollection,
recitation, and relating one set of facts to another. Another contrast is how
historians and students examined source materials. Even when reading original
sources, as yet uninterrupted by an intervening historian, the experienced
historians employed critical heuristics unique to history, such as the ‘sourcing
heuristic’
Written essays are frequently cited as the most appropriate means for assessing
thinking. However, given the current lack of conceptual clarity with respect to
critical thinking, a student’s writing style can fool not only teachers but also some
of the so-called experts who develop the tests. (Geertsen, 2003)
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2.10 Pedagogy of high level thinking
Context has important implications for teaching high-level thinking. That is why
there are many educators and policy makers’ call for an infusion approach to the
teaching of thinking. (Geertsen, 2003)
Jones and Idol(1990:5) describe the logic of infusion as follows:
‘ According to this approach, thinking occurs within the context of
specific tasks; therefore, instruction for thinking should be situated in
specific problems and functional context that are embedded in the
disciplines, rather than in adjunct programs taught as ends in
themselves. This approach has also yielded powerful instructional
strategies calling for a change in the role of the teacher away from
giving information to teacher as model, decision maker, mediator,
strategist, and collaborator… infusion instruction for thinking
requires restructuring curriculum, instruction, and assessment in each
content area as well as teacher education and models of instructional
leadership generally.’
Some researchers advocate using rubrics as a way of achieving more authentic
assessments of high level thinking. (Leming, 1998;Montgomery, 2002)
Brookfield(1997) suggests out that a scenario analysis technique using pre-post
test assessments and Yeh(2001) thinks the standardized tests can measure and
encourage critical thinking defined and taught as argumentation.
On the hand, timed testing restricts critical and reflective thought. It rewards quick
judgments and hasty conclusions rather than the carefully reasoned, thoughtful
judgments typical of good critical thinking. (Paris, Lawton and turner 1992)
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Teachers should promote the proper attitude towards high level thinking. They can
facilitate the development and continued use of higher-level thinking by modeling
proper attitude and repeatedly demonstrating its utility in the classroom. (Geertsen,
2003)
Teachers themselves should be the models because the deficiency in academic
training has far-reaching consequences. Students learn to think, write and speak in
critical ways by watching respected leaders model these behaviors. (Brookfield &
D, 1997) Stehphen Brookfield believes it is crucial and important for the
educators model critical thinking in their own actiosn. (Esterle, 1993) It might be
hard for teachers to expect our students to be truth seeking and open-minded if
they are not.
Some researchers have hypothesized that critical thinking is positively correlated
with the consistent internal motivation to think. There is a possible relationship of
critical thinking skill and the consistent internal motivation, or disposition, to use
that skill. That is why effective teaching must include strategies for building
intellectual character rather than relying exclusively on strengthening cognitive
skills. (Facione ,2000)
Facione emphasizes that we must nurture the dispositions even as we teach the
skills. The following is the pedagogy of critical thinking:
Problem-Framing and Problem Solving
Model CT skills and dispositions
Reward good CT
Challenge poor CT
Create a climate of reasoned inquiry
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Diversify judgment contexts
Engage students in critical thinking
Reflect on the use of critical thinking
He believes through practice, and with guidance from a good instructor, we can
develop our thinking skills. He believes critical thinking is judgment, reflective
and purposive.
2.11 Assessing critical thinking
In order to evaluate critical thinking and argumentation, there were various
analytical tools and rubrics developed by researchers.
Bloom 1956 placed knowledge or memorization at the concrete end of the
continuum, followed by comprehension, application, analysis and synthesis. But
latter Beyer(1987) revised Bloom’s continuum into recall, translation,
interpretation, extrapolation, application, analysis(compare, contrast, classify),
synthesis and evaluation.
Bloom’s taxonomy (1956)
Bloom’s taxonomy subdivides the academic skills that students might need into
six different categories as the followings:
Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives:
1. Knowledge: memorizing of appropriate, previously learned information,
facts, figures or process
2. Comprehension: understanding and illustrating the informational
materials.
3. Application: generalizing the facts to other contexts and use of previously
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learned information in new situations
4. Analysis: Understanding the organizational structure of information and
breaking problems down.
5. Synthesis: making connections between different elements on one’s own
6. Evaluation : judging or value base on one’s knowledge to ascertain the
quality of the information
The first two categories, knowledge and secondary comprehension, do not require
critical thinking skill, but the last four-application, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation-all require the high order thinking that characterize critical thinking
that characterize critical thought. (Bissell and Leomons, 2006)
Even though, there are still some faculty believe that critical thinking cannot be
assessed or there is no method to do so. (Beyer 1984 and Aviles 1999) But there
are large body of literature already exists show that critical thinking can be
assessed. (Cromwell 1992, Fisher and Scriven 1997)
SOLO taxonomy (Biggs and Collis, 1982) has are different levels to assess the
quality of student’s thinking in the Structure of the Observed Learning Outcomes.
SOLO taxonomy describes the level of increasing complexity of a student's
performance by understanding of a subject, through five stages.
1.
Prestructural: inability to grasp at the material (or problem)
2. Unistructural: able to understanding or comment on only one aspect of the
material
3. Multistructural: able to identify or view all the aspects of the material
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4.
Relational: able to relate all the different aspects of the material
5. Extended abstract: able to move away from the superficial features of the
material to develop new ‘knowledge’ or abstract principles
Since the early 1980s, attention to critical instruction has increased significantly.
Ennis (1993) mentions the concept of Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational
objectives (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) is a good beginning, but it has
problems. The levels are not really hierarchical, as suggested by the theory, but
rather are interdependent. Although synthesis and evaluation generally do require
analysis, analysis generally requires synthesis and evaluation. (Ennis 1981) He
thinks the five concepts are too vague to guide in developing and judging critical
thinking assessment.
Ennis defines critical thinking is ‘reasonable reflective thinking focused on
deciding what to believe or do.’
He mentions a person characteristically needs to do most of the following things
(and do them interpedently) in order to decide what to believe or do reasonably
and reflectively.
1. Judge the credibility of sources
2. Identify conclusions, reasons, and assumptions.
3.
Judge the quality of an argument, including the acceptability of its reasons,
assumptions, and evidence.
4.
Develop and defend a position on an issue.
5. Ask appropriate clarifying questions.
6. Plan experiments and judge experimental designs.
7. Define terms in a way appropriate for the context.
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8.
Be open-minded.
9. Try to be well informed.
10. Draw conclusions when warranted, but with caution.
Ennis criticizes most existing critical thinking tests is their lack of
comprehensiveness such as they typically fail to test for important things as being
open-minded, and many even fail to test for judging the credibility of sources. He
thinks we should have clear idea of the purpose for the critical thinking test. He
mentions some major possible purposes as following:
1.
Diagnosing the levels of students critical thinking
2. Giving students feedback about their critical thinking prowess.
3. Motivating students to be better at critical thinking.
4. Informing teachers about the success of their efforts to teach students to think
critically.
5. Doing research about critical thinking instructional questions and issues.
6.
Providing help in deciding whether a student should enter on educational
program.
7. Providing information for holding schools accountable for the critical thinking
prowess of their students.
Ennis suggests the assessment could be subject-specific which assess critical
thinking within one standard subject matter area. Also, for comprehensive
assessment, unless appropriate multiple-choice tests are developed, open-ended
assessment techniques are probably needed. He points out that critical thinking
testing is possible for a variety of purposes.
Subject-independent assessments probably can allow the measurements of critical
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thinking ability regardless of the context, so it could be possible to compare
different groups of people. (Facione, 2000)
But generalized assessment of critical thinking ability is almost never used in a
typical classroom setting (Browne and Keeley 1998).
There are several problems with these types of tests (Bissell & Lemons, 2006)
Faculty doubt that the measurements indicate anything useful about
disciple-specific knowledge.
Administering these test takes time away from the content of the course and
can be costly; thus, they are viewed as ‘wasted’ time.
Most faculty lack the time to learn the underlying structure and theory behind
the tests, and so it is unclear to them why such a test would be worthwhile.
Not only in humanities class, we require to have to critical thinking but also for
engineers because it entails not only the conventional practices: considering and
articulating assumptions in problem solving, selecting appropriate
hypotheses/methods for experiments, considering multiple perspectives in an
ethics case study, assessing social impacts of technology, and structuring
open-ended design problems. It also entails thinking critically about engineering.
(Claris & Riley, 2007) If that is the case, ma be we apply the similar flow to
Liberal Studies.
There are many ways to assess Critical thinking, including using performance
appraisals, rating forms, rubrics 2 , and portfolios (Facione & Facione 1996;
Facione and Facione, 1996b)
2 Refer to appendix 1
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2.12 Critical thinking as educational capital
The term ‘educational capital’ refers to that set of skills, abilities, and forms of
knowledge (e.g. knowledge of grammar, math skills, ability to think critically that
is valued by schools and school officials)(Lisa Tsui, 2003) The development of
critical thinking is likely to be linked to class origins. She further explains critical
thinking is but only one element, albeit a seemingly highly prized one, of a vast
array of skills, abilities, and forms of knowledge that comprise educational capital.
That is why the amount of educational capital that students begin school with is
important to their advancement through an educational system that allocates
differential resources to students through sorting.
Ideally, multiple measures of critical thinking ought to be used to triangulate
results (McMillan, 1987; Tsui, 1998) in order to have greater equality in
educational opportunity with regard to critical thinking development; there should
be a number of strategies pursued.
Also, as one of the components of educational capital, critical thinking should be
taught earlier in formal schooling. It should be accorded the status of a ‘basic
skills’ with reading, writing and arithmetic. Also, it should be expected to be
mastered by all students. (Tsui, 2003)
We might need more interdisciplinary courses which emphasis on cooperative
exploration of knowledge and divergent thinking rather than information
transmittal and convergent thinking.(Tsui, 1998,2000, 2002)
2.13 Ideal critical thinker
The following is the expert consensus statement about ideal critical thinker from
the empirical research held in 1990 under the sponsorship of the Committee on
Pre-College Philosophy of the American Philosophical Association:
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‘The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed,
trustful of reason, open minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation,
honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments,
willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters,
diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of
criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which are
as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry permit.
Thus, educating good critical thinkers means working toward this
ideal. It combines developing CT skills with nurturing those
dispositions which consistently yield useful insights and which are the
basis of a rational and democratic society.’(APA, 1990)
Also, a critical thinker must be autonomous- free to act and judge independently
of external constraint, on the basis of her own reasoned appraisal of the matter at
hand. (Siegel, 1990) With reference to this, thinking critically should be
considered as able to consult her or his independent judgment concerning matters
of concern to her or him.
A good critical thinker should be able to use scientific methods, including
emphasis on evidence and the nature of a hypothesis; possess the tendency to be
inquisitive, critical and analytical which respect to issues, personal behavior, and
son on; and employ correct principles of logic. (Alazzi, 2008)
2.14 Critical thinking and democratic society
Different theorists would have different definition of education. Teaching students
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to be a democratic citizen could be one of the important objectives through the
learning of critical thinking. A democratic citizen needs to judge intelligently the
proposed changes or policy and she or he need to be a critical thinker. (Siegel,
1988) It is related to the social transformation.
Siegel thinks teaching critical thinking is largely a matter of teaching students to
make appropriate use of the concepts, standards, stratagems and procedures our
culture has developed for disciplining thinking and increasing its fruitfulness.
These concepts are embedded in complex practices of critical deliberation and
discussion. To a certain extent, we can see those concepts in the emphasis in the
interaction of teaching and group discussion among students in Liberal Studies.
With reference to this, Students in Liberal Studies as critical thinkers must
acquire good judgment in particular context.
They should have a variety of intellectual resources. Liberal Studies teacher as the
educators should not simply teaching student’s standards and concepts, but also
getting them to appreciate the value of changing some of their previously
established commitments and practices. Thinking reasons and truth are important
respecting others in discussion, being open-minded and being willing to look at
issues from other’s points of view. In the Liberal Studies class, students are
expected to ask for examples before accepting them as fact. Although there are
certain peer and self assessment in Liberal Studies, in order to engage students in
dealing with tasks that call for reasoned judgment or assessment, teachers still
need to lead to student to think beyond the classroom. Instead of being exam
oriented, teachers should develop intellectual resources and providing an
environment which critical thinking is valued.
On the other hand, in such a postmodern society, people are exposed to excessive
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information especially from different types of media. When people keep talking
about the fear of terrorist from the news, should we think about what can we do in
education? Education should include a good measure of critical thinking skills and
dispositions like truth-seeking and open mindedness in order to help the people
get away from the complete control of extremists. (Facione, 2007) The world
should not be just separated into ‘black and white’ or ‘us and them’. That is why
the society should place a very high value on critical thinking.
critical thinking should not only be considered as thinking skills in academic. As
Facione (2007) mentions critical thinking plays an essential role in Liberal
education which is about learning to learn, to think for yourself, on your own and
in collaboration with others. Further, critical thinking helps with the mind wakens
and matures, and the proper nurturing and educational nourishment is provided.
Also, it is an essential tool for performing successfully in a complex and rapidly
changing world(Alazzi, 2008)
2.15 Subject knowledge in Liberal Studies
With reference to the knowledge in Liberal Studies, the design of the curriculum
and assessment framework for this subject is in line with contemporary views of
knowledge and of how people learn. It has taken into account overseas
experiences in cross-disciplinary studies, pertaining in particular to critical
thinking, life education, values education and civic education, with due
consideration given to their relevance in the Hong Kong context. The academic
rigor of the subject has also been benchmarked against a number of comparable
subjects in overseas secondary education curricula. (CDC&HKEAA, 2007:2)
In Liberal Studies, as it states in the C&A guide, there is no specific subject
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knowledge but the knowledge and perspectives from other subjects to study
contemporary issues as mentions in the following graph.
Figure 1. Liberal Studies and the Three-year Senior Secondary Curriculum
(CDC&HKEAA, 2007:3)
2.16 Knowledge, truth and power
With reference to the Oxford English dictionary, knowledge is defined as expertise,
and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical or
practical understanding of a subject; what is known in particular field or in total;
facts and information; or awareness or familiarity gained by experience of a fact
or situation.
One of the influential Greek philosophers, Plato defined the formulation of
knowledge is ‘justified true belief.’ Scholars, psychologists and researchers might
have different definition to knowledge and until know, there is no definite answer
towards knowledge.
Schools have been considered as the place to transmit the knowledge to the
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students through learning. But there is a number of developments in recent years
have brought an increasing focus on the relationship between knowledge, power
and learning. The issues about the importance or relevance of different forms or
types of knowledge have led to the interest in how these are legitimated. (Paechter,
Preedy, Scott, & Soler, 2001)
Foucault (1980) believes truth is to be understood as a system of ordered
procedures for the production, regulation, distribution, circulation, and operation
of statements
Truth is a thing of this world: it is produced only by virtue of multiple
forms of constraint. And it induces regular effects of power. Each
society has its own regime of truth, its ‘general politics’ of truth: that
is, they type of discourse which it accepts and makes function as true
and false statements, the means by which each is sanctioned; the
techniques and procedures accorded value in the acquisition of truth;
the status of those who are charged with saying what counts as true.
(Foucault, 1980:131)
Foucault identifies certain knowledge- human sciences and certain attendant
practices as central to the normalization of social principles and institutions of
modern society. By normalization Foucault means the establishment of
measurements, hierarchy, and regulations.
He explains
‘ Every educational system is a political means of maintaining or
modifying the appropriateness of discourses with the knowledge and
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power they bring with them.’
(Foucault 1971:46)
He further explains that there is a two-way relationship between power and
knowledge, such that the production of Truth can be said to be a political process.
Resistance emerges as a productive critical thinking practice inside these very
forms of power that Foucault criticizes.
In fact, everyday knowledge is not concerned with transcendent truths, but it is the
latter that are regarded as power-bearing are then more highly valued. (Paechter,
2001)
Foucault also concerns about the knowledge that remain important to learners but
which are not legitimated. He explains
‘ Perhaps, too, we should abandon a whole tradition that allows us to
imagine that knowledge can exist only where the power relations are
suspended and that knowledge can develop only outside its injunctions,
its demands and its interests. Perhaps we should abandon the belief
that power makes mad and that, by the same token the renunciation of
power is one of the conditions of knowledge. We should admit rather
that power produces knowledge (and not simply by encouraging it
because it serves power or by applying it because it is useful); that
power and knowledge directly imply one another; that there is no
power relation with out the correlative constitution of a field of
knowledge, nor any knowledge that does not presuppose and
constitute at the same time power relations.’ (Foucault, 1977:27)
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There is a constant and accelerating shifts in information mean that all members
of society need grater skill in assessing and evaluation knowledge (Geertsen,
2003)
Marshall (1990) has pointed out that there is a further aspect of teacher-student
power/knowledge relations, the imbalance in the knowledge each has of the other.
He mentions as the following:
‘ Knowledge has been developed about people, and their behavior,
attitudes, and self-knowledge have been developed, refined, and used to
shape individuals. These discourses and practices have not ony been
used to change us in various ways but are also used to legitimate such
changes, as knowledge gained is deemed to be ‘true’. Foucault
identifies this knowledge, developed by the exercise of power and used
in turn to legitimate further exercises of power, as power-knowledge.’
(Marshall, 1990:15)
The interaction between power and knowledge in school is not only concerned
with the imbalances between teachers and taught in the amount and importance of
the knowledge that they have. It is also about the power invested in the teacher by
virtue of his or her knowledge of the student which is further stressed as an
important pedagogic disciplinary tool (Walkerdine, 1984) With reference to
Foucault, knowledge and our understanding of the world and us, is an outcome
and part of the exercise of power in societies.
2.17 Schooling and the ownership
It seems to be accepted by the general public and educationalists that school
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knowledge is in some way different from that found and used in the world outside.
There are more concerns towards the issues of power-knowledge in the classroom
relationship in last 30 years. The imbalance between teacher and learner in terms
of whose knowledge is given legitimating and importance is an important aspect
of power-knowledge relations in schools. (Paechter, 2001)
Almost one century ago, Dewey(1902) had pointed that school knowledge is
different from the world outside already.
‘These apparent deviations and differences between child and
curriculum might be almost indefinitely widened. But we have here
sufficiently fundamental divergences: first, the narrow but personal
world of the child against the impersonal but infinitely extended world
of space and time; second, the unity, the single wholeheartedness of
the child’s life, and the specializations and divisions of the curriculum;
third, an abstract principle of logical classification and arrangement,
and the practical and emotional bonds of child life.
(Dewey, 1902:7)
Further, Young (1971)regards academic curricula as :
‘Social definitions of educational value, thus become problematic in
the sense that if they persist it is not because knowledge is in any
meaningful way best made available according to the criteria they
represent, but because they are conscious or unconscious cultural
choices which accord with the values and beliefs of dominant groups
at a particular time.
(Young, 1971:38)
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Also, Keddie(1971) notes that the school
‘…may be seen as maintaining the social order through the taken for
granted categories of its superordinates who process pupils and
knowledge in mutually confirming ways. The ability to maintain these
categories as consensual, when there are among the clients in school
conflicting definitions of the situation, resides in the unequal
distribution of power. There is a need to show how this enters into and
shapes the interactional situation in the classroom.’
(Keddie, 1971:156)
Freire (1972) points out under the ‘banking’ model of education; knowledge is
being possessed by the teacher and transmitted more or less intact to the learner.
He explains
‘ Education therefore becomes an act of depositing, in which the
students are the depositories and the teacher is the depositor. Instead
of communicating, the teacher issues communiqués and makes
deposits which the students patiently receive, memorize, and repeat.’
(Freire, 1972:46-47)
In order to change the balance of the power in classrooms, items often focus on
the idea of student ownership of knowledge. (Resnick, 1987;Taylor, 1989)
Bernstein(1971) suggests to weaken the boundaries between school and
non-school knowledge:
‘ Involves a change in what counts as having knowledge, in what
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counts as valid transmission of knowledge, in what counts as valid
realization of knowledge… and so changes in the structure and
distribution of power and in principles of control .’
(Bernstein, 1971:63)
On the other hand, educational institutions control the access of individuals to
various kinds of discourse. According to Foucault,
‘Discourses are composed of signs, but what they do is more than use
these signs to designate things. It is this move that renders them
irreducible to the langue and to speech. It is this move that we must
reveal and describe.’
(Foucault 1974:49)
Paechter(2001) believes that there might be one way to undercut the
power-knowledge imbalance in the classroom which is through the inclusion and
validation, within school, of more student-owned knowledge.
Students would be able to retain ownership of their non-school knowledge only if
they continue to have asses to the owner that it contains. Owned knowledge is not
simply something that is learned well and it positions its possessor as an acting
subject, able to use her or his knowledge in a dynamic way. (Peachter, 2001)
Power and knowledge are two sides of single process. Knowledge does not reflect
power relations but it is immanent in them. (Ball, 1990)The complex relationship
between knowledge and power is now changing by the increase of individual
access to information. This might lead to greater democracy as citizens become
more informed. But also it might allow governments and corporations to access
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more information about us as individuals as threatening our freedom of action.
(Paechter, 2001)
2.18 Pedagogy of the oppressed in Liberal Studies
If we start to ask ‘What is education?’, that might become an interesting
discussion with controversial answers. Paulo Freire(1972) in his book of
‘Pedagogy of the oppressed’ gives a very straight answer to this. He thinks
education is a political act.
Paulo believes to educate people is not only teaching them knowledge through
reading and writing but raise up the ability and increase the opportunity of
political participation of oppressed group. Those oppressed group are struggling
of dehumanization3 and alienation4.
He believes education as the exercise of domination stimulates the credulity of
students, with the ideological intent (often not perceived by educators) of
indoctrinating them to adapt to the world of oppression. This accusation is not
made in the naive hope that the dominant elites will thereby simply abandon the
practice. Its objective is to call the attention of true humanists to the fact that they
3 With reference to Paulo Freire, dehumanization mark not only those humanity has been stolen,
but also those who have stolen it, is a distortion of the vocation of becoming more fully human.
‘ Because of it is a distortion of being more fully human, sooner or later being less human leads the
oppressed to struggle to have meaning, the oppressed must not, in seeking to regain their
humanity(which is a way to create it). Become in turn oppressors of the oppressors, but rather
restorers of the humanity of both.’ (Freire 1972:49)
4 Paulo Freire believes in the alienated cultural processes characteristic of dependent or object
societies, there is no authentic thought because reality does not correspond to the reality being
lived objectively but rather to the reality in which the alienated man imagines himself to be.
(Asoke Bhattacharya, 2008)
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cannot use banking educational methods in the pursuit of liberation, for they
would only negate that very pursuit. Nor may a revolutionary society inherit these
methods from an oppressor society. He disagrees with the banking education
because he thinks the revolutionary society which practices banking education is
either misguided or mistrusting of people.
‘Authentic liberation-the process of humanization is not another
deposit to be made in men. Liberation is a praxis: the action and
reflection of men and women upon their world in order to transform
it.’ (Paulo Freire, 1970:60)
He thinks those truly committed to liberation must reject the banking concept in
its entirety, adopting instead a concept of women and men as conscious beings,
and consciousness as consciousness intent upon the world. They must abandon the
educational goal of deposit-making and replace it with the posing of the problems
of human beings in their relations with the world. ‘Problem - posing’ education,
responding to the essence of consciousness - intentionality - rejects communiqués
and embodies communication.
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In the book of ‘ Pedagogy for liberation: dialogues on transforming education’,
Freire(1987) mentions that we can discern two moments in learning. One is the
production of new knowledge, and the other is to know existing knowledge. He
also explains that the official curriculum asks students to submit to authority. He
believes teachers should appeal to the students to assume a critical posture as
readers, as ones who re-write the text rather than to simply swallow it.’
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Chapter 3
Methodology
To investigate teacher’s ways of seeing critical thinking and knowledge,
interviewing and observation were used. Face to face interviews conducted in
Cantonese and English were carried out at. With the permission of the participants,
interviews were recorded. While the interviews were being conducted, the
participant’s gestures and facial expressions were observed.
3.1 Interviews
Participants’ insights into critical thinking and knowledge in Liberal Studies, were
explored using interviews. An interview is a recording of an individual’s words in
response to the questions of the researcher. The interview, in whatever form it is
recorded, constitutes an official record and must be treated (and preserved) as such.
Participants were interviewed once to twice, and both instances were recorded
Critical thinking and knowledge, within Liberal Studies, is defined in academic
journals or books. But teachers deliver the curriculum and concepts. Teachers’
interpretations and notions of critical thinking, knowledge, and Liberal Studies
more generally are therefore important, with reference to individual experience.
Interpretations of critical thinking and knowledge involve cultural identity, life
experiences, and interaction, and therefore interviewing is used as a principal
method of research. This does not necessarily involve oral history, but
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semi-structured interviewing does preserve interviewee perspectives and views,
which are spoken and spontaneous, and involve judgments and recollections
(Lofgren, 2006).
3.2 Interview Settings
The interviews were mainly held from May to July. The venue was chosen by
participants for convenience, relaxation, and so that they could express themselves.
Interviews mainly took place after 4:30pm (after work for most of the
participants). Timing was at the behest of the participants, to fit in with their
schedules.
Interview situation vary based on the degree of control exercised by the
interviewer (Dohrenwend and Richardson, 1965; Gorden, 1975). Interviewees in
this study enjoyed unstructured or semi-structured interviews which allowed them
space to expand on their notions of Liberal Studies (Bernard, 1994). The
informant was told the purpose of the interview, with brief explanation of the
questions to be asked. The questioning allowed time and space for free discussion
(Cannell and Kahn, 1968). These arrangements were outlined by email and
telephone before commencement.
3.3 Stages of interviews
With reference to the Bernard’s four -stage continuum of interviews (1994), four
stages were developed for interviews in this study: 1) informal interviewing; 2)
unstructured interviewing; 3) semi-structured interviewing; and 4) structured
interviewing.
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At this stage, prepared questions were not used. Most participants by this stage
had moved on to discuss critical thinking and knowledge, except participant D. He
talked about his radio interview and how he got the chance to become a LS
teacher.
(3) Semi-structured interviews
For the semi-structured stage, guiding questions were drafted such as: ‘According
to your own interpretation, what is the main focus of liberal studies?’, and ‘how
would you interpret critical thinking?’ However, even at this stage, there was no
strong control exerted over the interviewee.
(4) Structured interviewing
Structured interviews involved stronger direction and questioning. The key
questions, expressed in chronological order, were as follows:
Part A
The nature of Liberal Studies:
1. According to your interpretation, what is the main focus of Liberal
Studies?
2.
Are there any required skills or knowledge in this subject?
Part B
Knowledge/content in Liberal Studies
3. What do you think about the content /knowledge in Liberal Studies?
4. How would you interpret that?
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5.
Do you think students have to learn a large amount of knowledge in
Liberal Studies?
Part C
Critical thinking
6. Do you think critical thinking is important in Liberal Studies?
7. How do you define critical thinking? What is critical thinking to you?
8.
Do you think you can teach critical thinking? In what way?
9.
Do you think liberal studies can teach students how to think particularly
as regards critical thinking or high order thinking?
10. Can you give me some examples, related to Liberal Studies, of
teaching critical thinking?
Part D
Correlation between critical thinking and knowledge
11. Is there any connection between critical thinking and knowledge?
12. Do you think students have an in-depth knowledge so as to have
critical thinking? Is there a priority?
Part E
The Questions about pedagogy of critical thinking and high order thinking
13.
Do you have your own ways to teach Liberal Studies particularly
regarding critical thinking or high order thinking? Can you give
examples?
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14.
Can the Liberal Studies examination help students’ critical thinking
and high order thinking? In what ways?
15. If no, how is it possible to improve examinations?
16. Can you suggest any other way to examine critical thinking in Liberal
Studies instead of this exam?
Part F
Teacher training and professional development
17.
Do you think any teacher can teach liberal studies? Why?
18. What are the qualities necessary to be a Liberal Studies teacher,
particularly as regards teaching critical thinking?
19. Does teaching professional training help you learn how to teach critical
thinking and high order thinking?
20. How do we need to improve teacher training, particularly the pedagogy
of critical thinking?
21. Do you think you are capable of teaching critical thinking in Liberal
Studies? In what ways?
Part G
Constraints in teaching critical thinking in Liberal Studies:
22. Are there any difficulties when you are teach Liberal Studies,
particularly in critical thinking?
23. Are there any solutions you can suggest?
24. How do you foresee this subject in the future?
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Studies would provide the best support the teaching of critical thinking). The
research questions were then modified (in all interviews) to take account of this
insight.
During interviews, important data was gleaned and interviewing techniques were
honed. Most participants were willing to talk about their views and experiences,
but a probing style2 was used, particularly for parts G and I of the questions.
As far observed, there were not many response effects3 among the participants.
Even the senior curriculum officer from the educational department did not use a
bureaucratic tone when answering questions.
This research focuses on how liberal studies teachers view critical thinking and
knowledge. The study explores how teachers interpret this subject and what
factors and personal experiences contribute to the teaching of critical thinking.
Observation of the classroom was not used in this research, as it does not fall into
the remit of the study.
3.5 Participants
Six Liberal Studies teachers and one Liberal Studies senior curriculum officer
(who was also a former Liberal Studies teacher) were invited to participate in this
research. The participants were chosen according to their background,
teaching/work experience and cultural identity. There were six males and one
female, and this gender balance was not intention