KARYA TULIS AKHIR
PENGARUH FRAKSI KLOROFORM HERBA CIPLUKAN (Physalis
Angulata L.) TERHADAP PENCEGAHAN KERUSAKAN
FOTORESEPTOR TIKUS PUTIH (Rattus Norvegicus Strain Wistar) YANG
DIINDUKSI STREPTOZOTOCIN
Oleh:
ALIFAH HASNA
201410330311030
UNIVERSITAS MUHAMMADIYAH MALANG
FAKULTAS KEDOKTERAN
MALANG
2018
ii
PENGARUH FRAKSI KLOROFORM HERBA CIPLUKAN (Physalis
Angulata L.) TERHADAP PENCEGAHAN KERUSAKAN
FOTORESEPTOR TIKUS PUTIH (Rattus Norvegicus Strain Wistar) YANG
DIINDUKSI STREPTOZOTOCIN
KARYA TULIS AKHIR
Diajukan kepada
Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang
untuk Memenuhi Salah Satu Persyaratan
dalam Menyelesaikan Program Sarjana
Fakultas Kedokteran
Oleh:
Alifah Hasna
201410330311030
UNIVERSITAS MUHAMMADIYAH MALANG
FAKULTAS KEDOKTERAN
MALANG
2018
iii
LEMBAR PENGESAHAN
USULAN PROPOSAL PENELITIAN
Telah disetujui sebagai usulan proposal penelitian
Untuk memenuhi persyaratan
Pendidikan Sarjana Fakultas Kedokteran
Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang
Tanggal: 22 Maret 2018
Pembimbing I
dr. Alfa Sylvestris, SpM
NIP. 11310010474
Pembimbing II
dr. Moch. Bahrudin, SpS
NIP.11307040461
Mengetahui,
Fakultas Kedokteran
Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang
Dekan,
Dr. dr. Meddy Setiawan, Sp.PD
NIP. 196805212005011002
iv
HALAMAN PENGESAHAN ORISINALITAS
Bismillahirrahmanirrahim
Dengan menyebut nama Allah SWT / Tuhan Yang Maha Esa
Yang bertandatangan dibawah ini saya:
Nama : Alifah Hasna
NIM : 201410330311030
Judul : Pengaruh Fraksi Kloroform Herba Ciplukan (Physalis Angulata L.)
Terhadap Pencegahan Kerusakan Fotoreseptor Tikus Putih (Rattus
Norvegicus Strain Wistar) Yang Diinduksi Streptozotocin.
Menyatakan dengan sesungguhnya usulan proposal berupa ide, judul
maupun isi dari proposal yang dibuat merupakan hasil pemikiran diri sendiri (non
plagiatisme) dan hasil dari tugas (pekerjaan) yang saya lakukan sendiri. Jika
usulan proposal saya terbukti plagiatisme saya bersedia menerima sangsi yang
harus saya terima.
Demikian surat pernyataan saya,
Malang, 1 April 2018
Penulis
Alifah Hasna
v
LEMBAR PENGUJIAN
Karya Tulis Akhir oleh Alifah Hasna
telah diuji dan dipertahankan di depan Tim Penguji
pada tanggal 22 Maret 2018
Tim Penguji
dr. Alfa Sylvestris, SpM ,Ketua
dr. Moch. Bahrudin, SpS ,Anggota
dr. Feny Tunjungsari, M.Kes ,Anggota
vi
KATA PENGANTAR
Assalamua’alaikum wr. wb
Alhamdulillahirabbil’alamin, puji syukur kehadirat Allah SWT atas
segala rahmat dan karunia-Nya sehingga penulis dapat menyelesaikan proposal
yang berjudul “Pengaruh Fraksi Kloroform Herba Ciplukan (Physalis Angulata
L.) Terhadap Pencegahan Kerusakan Fotoreseptor Tikus Putih (Rattus
Norvegicus Strain Wistar) Yang Diinduksi Streptozotocin”. dapat terselesaikan
dengan baik. Begitu pula Dialah yang menyelaraskan gerakan tangan dan
pikiran dalam merangkai huruf menjadi kata dan selanjutnya menjadi kalimat
dalam penulisan tugas akhir ini. Segala sesuatu yang benar dalam tugas akhir
ini datang dari Allah SWT, dan segala kekeliruan dalam penulisan ini
datangnya dari diri penulis sendiri.
Dalam penyelesaian tugas akhir ini penulis banyak mengalami
kesulitan, tetapi berkat dukungan, bimbingan, dan bantuan dari dosen
pembimbing dalam rangka penyusunan dan dorongan dari berbagai pihak
akhirnya penulis dapat menyelesaikan tugas akhir ini tepat pada waktunya.
Penulis menyadari bahwa proposal penelitian ini masih belum
sempurna, sehingga masih membutuhkan saran dari berbagai pihak. Penulis
berharap skripsi ini dapat menjadi wujud ibadah penulis kepada Zat Yang Maha
Mengetahui lagi Bijaksana, dan dapat memberikan manfaat bagi para pembaca.
Wassalamu’alaikum Wr. Wb
Malang, 22 Maret 2018
Penulis
vii
UCAPAN TERIMAKASIH
Alhamdulillah, puji syukur penulis panjatkan kehadirat Allah SWT
karena atas limpahan rahmat dan karunia-Nya sehingga proposal ini dapat
terselesaikan. Terwujudnya proposal ini tidak lepas dari partisipasi dan bantuan dari
berbagai pihak yaitu:
1. Kedua orang tua saya, Bapak Sumiyanto dan Ibu Munti Kunmiati yang telah
memberikan kasih sayang, dukungan moral dan materi, semangat, perhatian
serta limpahan doanya selama ini.
2. Dr. dr. Meddy Setiawan, Sp.PD, selaku Dekan Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas
Muhammadiyah Malang.
3. dr. Moch Ma’roef, Sp.OG selaku Pembantu Dekan I Fakultas Kedokteran
Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang.
4. dr. Sri Adilla Nurainiwati, Sp.KK, selaku Pembantu Dekan II Fakultas
Kedokteran Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang.
5. dr. Indra Setiawan, Sp.THT-KL, selaku Pembantu Dekan III Fakultas
Kedokteran Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang.
6. dr. Alfa Sylvestris, SpM, selaku pembimbing 1 Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas
Muhammadiyah Malang.
7. dr. Moch Bahrudin, SpS, selaku pembimbing 2 Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas
Muhammadiyah Malang.
8. dr. Feny Tunjungsari, M.Kes selaku penguji Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas
Muhammadiyah Malang.
9. dr. Gita Sekar P, MpdKed dan dr. Anung Putri Ilaihika, MKes sebagai
pembimbing Mears
10.Adik-adikku tersayang Zuhal Alfian Akbar, Nur Khalida Zia dan Rahma Nia
Azizah yang telah memberikan dukungan, semangat dan doanya untuk
kelancaran tugas akhir ini.
11.Staff Mears mbak deva yang telah membantu untuk belajar statitik dan
penggunaan SPSS 23.
viii
12.Staff TU, Bu Endah, Mbak Nuke, Mbak citra, Pak yon, Pak heri, Mas Joko, Mas
Didit, yang telah membantu administrasi penulis dalam menyelesaikan TA.
13.Staff Biomedik, Bu Fat, Pak Joko, Mas Nyono, Mas Mif, Pak Kus yang telah
membantu administrasi penulis dalam menyelesaikan TA.
14.Seluruh teman-teman “Medula Spinalis” angkatan 2014 FK UMM yang tidak
bisa disebutkan satu persatu. Terimakasih atas segala bantuan, motivasi, doa
selama perkuliahan. Semoga kita semua menjadi dokter yang bermaanfaat bagi
agama, bangsa, dan negara. Amin.
15.Para dosen pengajar FK UMM yang telah memberikan bekal ilmu dan
pengetahuan.
16.Semua pihak yang turut membantu dalam menyelesaikan karya tulis ini dan juga
mendoakan demi suksesnya karya tulis ini yang tidak bisa penulis sebutkan satu-
persatu.
Penulis menyadari sepenuhnya bahwa proposal ini masih jauh dari
kesempurnaan. Oleh karena itu, penulis memohon maaf bila ada kesalahan dalam
penulisan proposal ini. Kritik dan saran kami hargai demi penyempurnaan
penulisan serupa dimasa yang akan datang. Besar harapan penulis, semoga
proposal ini dapat bermanfaat dan dapat bernilai positif bagi semua pihak yang
membutuhkan.
Malang, 1 April 2018
Penulis
ix
ABSTRAK
Hasna, Alifah. 2018. Pengaruh Fraksi Kloroform Herba Ciplukan (Physalis
Angulata L.) Terhadap Pencegahan Kerusakan Fotoreseptor Tikus Putih
(Rattus Norvegicus Strain Wistar) Yang Diinduksi Streptozotocin. Tugas
Akhir. Fakultas Kedokteran. Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang.
Pembimbing(1)dr. Alfa Sylvestris, SpM*,(2)dr. Moch Bahrudin, SpS **.
Latar Belakang : Diabetes mellitus (DM) menurut World Health Organization
(WHO) di Indonesia akan menempati peringkat 5 dunia, penyulit penyakit DM
yaitu Diabetik Retinopati (DR) yang menjadi kebutaan. Sehingga perlu
pemanfaatan fraksi kloroform herba ciplukan (Physalis Angulata L.) yang
mengandung asam lemak tidak jenuh, alkaloid nordextromethorphan dan
golongan steroid yaitu aplysterylacetate berefek antidiabetes yang menstimulasi
insulin, diharapkan dapat mencegah kerusakan fotoreseptor pada diabetes
mellitus dengan komplikasi diabetik retinopati.
Tujuan : Untuk mengetahui pengaruh fraksi kloroform herba Ciplukan (Physalis
Angulata L.) terhadap pencegahan kerusakan fotoreseptor pada tikus putih
(Rattus Norvegicus Strain Wistar) yang diinduksi Streptozotocin.
Metode : True experimental dengan post test only control group design. Sampel
tikus dibagi 5 kelompok yaitu 1 kontrol positif, 1 kontrol negatif dan 3
perlakuan diberikan fraksi kloroform herba ciplukan dosis 0,91
mg/200gramBB/hari, 1,82 mg/200gramBB/hari dan 3,64mg/200 gramBB/hari.
Hasil dan Diskusi : Uji one way anova ada perbedaan (p=0,015), uji post hoc
bonferoni tidak didapatkan perbedaan bermakna (p>0,05) kecuali K+ dengan
P2 (p<0,05). Perlakuan 2 dengan 1,82 mg/200gramBB/hari menunjukkan dosis
efektif dengan hasil yang lebih tebal dibandingkan dengan kontrol negatif dan
kontrol positif.
Kesimpulan : Ada pengaruh fraksi kloroform herba ciplukan (Physalis
Angulata L.) terhadap kerusakan fotoreseptor pada tikus yang diinduksi
Streptozotocin
Kata Kunci : Fotoreseptor, fraksi kloroform herba ciplukan.
*Staf Pengajar Oftalmologi Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Muhammadiyah
Malang.
**Staf Pengajar Neurologi Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Muhammadiyah
Malang.
x
ABSTRACT
Hasna, Alifah. 2018. The Effect of Chloroform Fraction of Ciplukan Herbs
(Physalis Angulata L.) to Prevention Damage Photoreseptor White Rat
(Rattus Norvegicus Strain Wistar) was Induced Streptozotocin. Final
Assignment. Faculty of Medicine. University of Muhammadiyah Malang.
Advisors(1)dr. Alfa Sylvestris, SpM*(2)dr. Moch. Bahrudin, SpS**.
Background: Diabetes mellitus (DM) according to the World Health
Organization (WHO) in Indonesia will be ranked 5 in the world, complications of
diabetes, namely Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) which becomes blindness. So, it was
necessary the utilization of the fraction of chloroform herbs ciplukan (Physalis
Angulata L.), which contain unsaturated fatty acids, alkaloid
nordextromethorphan and class of steroids that is aplysterylacetate effect of the
antidiabetic stimulates insulin, is expected to prevent damage to the
photoreceptors in diabetes mellitus with complications of diabetic retinopathy.
Objective: To know the effect of chloroform fractions ciplukan herbs (Physalis
Angulata L.) to prevention damage photoreseptor white rat (Rattus Norvegicus
Strain Wistar) was induced Streptozotocin.
Method: True experimental with post test only control group design. The sample
rats were divided into 5 groups: 1 control positive, 1 control negative and 3
treatment were given chloroform fractions of ciplukan herbs dose
0,91mg/200gramBW/day,1,82mg/200gramBW/day and
3,64mg/200gramBW/day.
Result and Discussion: One way anova test showed difference (p=0,015), post
hoc bonferoni test wasn't found significant differences (p>0,05) except for K+
with P2 (p<0,05). P2 with to 1.82 mg/200gramBB/day show a dose-effective
with the result that thicker compared with the control negative and control
positive.
Conclusion: There's an effect of chloroform fractions of ciplukan herbs
(Physalis Angulata L.) to prevention damage photoreseptor white rat (Rattus
Norvegicus Strain Wistar) was induced streptozotocin.
Keywords: Photoreseptor, chloroform fraction of ciplukan herbs.
*Lecturer of Ophthalmology , Faculty of Medicine, University of
Muhammadiyah Malang.
**Lecturer of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Muhammadiyah
Malang.
xi
DAFTAR ISI
HALAMAN SAMPUL ................................................................................... ii
LEMBAR PENGESAHAN USULAN PROPOSAL PENELITIAN .............. iii
HALAMAN PENGESAHAN ORISINALITAS ............................................. iv
LEMBAR PENGUJIAN .................................................................................. v
KATA PENGANTAR ..................................................................................... vi
UCAPAN TERIMAKASIH ............................................................................. vii
ABSTRAK ....................................................................................................... ix
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................... x
DAFTAR ISI .................................................................................................... xi
DAFTAR TABEL ............................................................................................ xv
DAFTAR GAMBAR ....................................................................................... xvi
DAFTAR LAMPIRAN .................................................................................... xvii
DAFTAR SINGKATAN ................................................................................. xviii
BAB I PENDAHULUAN .............................................................................. 1
1.1 Latar Belakang ........................................................................................... 1
1.2 Rumusan Masalah ...................................................................................... 3
1.3 Tujuan Penelitian ....................................................................................... 4
1.3.1 Tujuan Umum ....................................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Tujuan Khusus ...................................................................................... 4
1.4 Manfaat Penelitian ..................................................................................... 4
1.4.1 Manfaat Akademik ............................................................................... 4
1.4.2 Manfaat Klinis ...................................................................................... 4
1.4.3 Manfaat Masyarakat ............................................................................. 5
xii
BAB II TINJAUAN PUSTAKA .................................................................... 6
2.1 Ciplukan (Physalis Angulata L.) ................................................................ 6
2.1.1 Klasifikasi Ciplukan (Physalis Angulata L.) ........................................ 6
2.1.2 Morfologi Ciplukan (Physalis Angulata L.) ........................................ 6
2.1.3 Manfaat Ciplukan (Physalis Angulata L.) ......................................... 7
2.1.4 Kandungan Ciplukan (Physalis Angulata L.) .................................... 8
2.1.4.1 Kandungan Buah ............................................................................ 9
2.1.4.2 Kandungan Akar .............................................................................. 10
2.1.4.3 Kandungan Daun ............................................................................. 11
2.4.1.4 Kandungan Herba Physalis Angulata L. ......................................... 11
2.1.5 Fungsi Kandungan Aktif Physalis Angulata L. .................................... 12
2.1.5.1 Antioksidan ................................................................................... 12
2.1.6 Pembuatan Fraksi Kloroform Herba Ciplukan (Physalis Angulata L.) 14
2.2 Diabetik Retinopati .................................................................................... 18
2.2.1 Epidemiologi .................................................................................... 20
2.2.2 Etiologi ..................................................................................... 20
2.2.3 Klasifikasi ............................................................................................ 20
2.2.4 Patofisiologi ......................................................................................... 21
2.2.5 Destruksi Fotoreseptor Pada Hewan Coba ........................................... 23
2.2.6 Prosedur Membuat Preparat Pada Retina ............................................. 27
2.3 Streptozotocin (STZ) .................................................................................. 28
2.4 Rattus Norvergicus ..................................................................................... 31
2.5 Anastesi dan Euthanasia ............................................................................. 31
xiii
BAB III KERANGKA KONSEP DAN HIPOTESIS .................................. 32
3.1 Kerangka Konsep ...................................................................................... 32
3.2 Uraian Kerangka Konsep ........................................................................... 33
3.3 Hipotesis .................................................................................................... 36
BAB IV METODE PENELITIAN ............................................................... 37
4.1 Jenis Penelitian .......................................................................................... 37
4.2 Lokasi dan Waktu Penelitian ..................................................................... 37
4.3 Populasi dan Sampel .................................................................................. 37
4.3.1 Populasi ................................................................................................ 37
4.3.2 Sampel .................................................................................................. 37
4.3.3 Besar Sampel ........................................................................................ 38
4.3.4 Teknik Pengambilan Sampel ................................................................ 39
4.3.5 Karakteristik Sampel Penelitian ........................................................... 39
4.3.6 Variabel Penelitian ................................................................................ 40
4.3.6.1 Variabel Bebas ................................................................................ 40
4.3.6.2 Variabel Tergantung ........................................................................ 40
4.3.7 Definisi Operational Variabel Penelitian ........................................... 40
4.4 Alat dan Bahan Penelitian .......................................................................... 41
4.4.1 Alat ....................................................................................................... 41
4.4.2 Bahan .................................................................................................... 42
4.5 Prosedur Penelitian..................................................................................... 42
4.5.1 Persiapan dan Pengelompokan Hewan Coba ....................................... 42
4.5.2 Induksi STZ .......................................................................................... 43
4.5.3 Pembuatan Fraksi Herba Ciplukan (Physalis Angulata L.) .................. 44
xiv
4.5.4 Dasar Penentuan Dosis ........................................................................ 45
4.5.5 Proses Anastesi Hewan Coba ............................................................... 46
4.5.6 Pembuatan Preparat Fotoreseptor Retina .............................................. 46
4.5.7 Penanganan Hewan Coba Setelah Pembedahan ................................... 51
4.5.8 Pengamatan Preparat Fotoreseptor Retina ............................................ 51
4.6 Teknik Analisis Data ................................................................................. 51
4.7 Alur Penelitian ........................................................................................... 54
4.8 Jadwal Penelitian ........................................................................................ 55
BAB V HASIL PENELITIAN DAN ANALISIS DATA ............................ 56
5.1 Hasil Penelitian .......................................................................................... 56
5.2 Analisis Data .............................................................................................. 58
5.2.1 Uji One way Anova ............................................................................. 58
BAB VI PEMBAHASAN ............................................................................... 61
BAB VII KESIMPULAN DAN SARAN ...................................................... 70
7.1 Kesimpulan ................................................................................................ 70
7.2 Saran ........................................................................................................... 70
DAFTAR PUSTAKA ..................................................................................... 71
LAMPIRAN .................................................................................................... 81
xv
DAFTAR TABEL
Tabel 2.1 Kandungan 100g Buah Ciplukan (Physalis Angulata L) ..................... 10
Tabel 2.2 Analisis Fitokimia Pendahuluan dari Ekstrak Buah Ciplukan (Physalis
Angulata L.) .......................................................................................................... 10
Tabel 2.3 Kandungan 100 g Akar Ciplukan (Physalis Angulata L.) .................... 11
Tabel 2.4 Kandungan 100 g Daun Ciplukan (Physalis Angulata L.) .................... 11
Tabel 2.5 Taksonomi Rattus Norvegicus .............................................................. 31
Tabel 4.1 Hasil Fraksinasi Dan Ekstrasi Herba (Physalis Angulata L.) ............... 45
Tabel 4.2 Jadwal Penelitian................................................................................... 55
Tabel 5.1 Rata-Rata Tebal Fotoreseptor Retina Tikus Model Diabetik ............... 57
Tabel 5.2 Hasil Uji Post-Hoc Bonferronni ............................................................ 59
Tabel 5.3 Hasil Uji Regresi Linear ....................................................................... 60
xvi
DAFTAR GAMBAR
Gambar 2.1 Ciplukan (Physalis Angulata L.) ....................................................... 6
Gambar 2.2 Kerangka Flavonoid .......................................................................... 14
Gambar 2.3 Hasil Identifikasi Fraksi Kloroform Menggunakan Kromatografi Gas-
Spektroskpi Massa ................................................................................................ 17
Gambar 2.4 Tabel Konversi Perhitungan Dosis .................................................... 18
Gambar 2.5 Tanda-tanda DR pada Fundus Manusia ............................................ 19
Gambar 2.6 Hasil Histologi Retina Tikus ............................................................. 24
Gambar 2.7 Photomicrograf dengan Hx&E Perbesaran 400 x ............................. 25
Gambar 2.8 Tikus Diabetes Yang Tidak Diobati Menunjukkan Leukokoria Karena
Kekeruhan Lensa ................................................................................................... 30
Gambar 4.1 Tabel Konversi Perhitungan Dosis. ................................................... 46
Gambar 4.2 Pengambilan Fotoreseptor pada Tikus .............................................. 47
Gambar 4.3 Bagan Alur Penelitian ....................................................................... 54
Gambar 5.1 Gambaran Tebal Fotoreseptor (Pengecatan Hx & E, perbesaran 400x)
............................................................................................................................... 56
Gambar 5.2 Gambaran Tebal Fotoreseptor (Pengecatan Hx & E, Perbesaran
400x). .................................................................................................................... 57
Gambar 5.3 Tomografik Hasil Penelitian Fotoreseptor ........................................ 58
xvii
DAFTAR LAMPIRAN
Lampiran 1: Perhitungan Dosis Fraksi Kloroform Herba Ciplukan (Physalis
Angulata L.) .......................................................................................................... 82
Lampiran 2 : Perhitungan Dosis Induksi Streptozotocin ...................................... 84
Lampiran 3 : Hasil pengkuran Ketebalan Fotoreseptor ........................................ 85
Lampiran 4 : Hasil Analisis Kerusakan Fotoreseptor Pada Histopatologi Retina 86
Lampiran 5 : Tebal Ukuran Fotoreseptor .............................................................. 91
Lampiran 6: Surat Determinasi ............................................................................. 92
Lampiran 7: Ethical Clearance .............................................................................. 93
Lampiran 8: Surat Keterangan Selesai Penelitian ................................................. 94
Lampiran 9 : Surat Keterangan Pembacaan Patologi Anatomi ............................. 95
Lampiran 10 : Surat Keterangan Lolos Kaji Ilmiah Proposal Penelitian .............. 96
Lampiran 11: Dokumentasi ................................................................................... 97
Lampiran 12: Kartu Konsultasi Tugas Akhir……………………………..........100
xviii
DAFTAR SINGKATAN
AEPa = Aqueous Extract from roots of Physalis angulata
AGE = Advanced Glycation End
AGEs = Advance Glycation End Products
Cat = Catalase
CMC = Carboxymethyl Cellulose
DM = Diabetes Mellitus
DNA = Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
DR = Diabetic Retiinophaty
EC50 = Efficient Concentration 50
ELISA = Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
GC-MS = Gas Cromatografy Mass Spectrometry
GDA = Glukosa Darah Acak
GDP = Gula Darah Puasa
GLUT – 2 = Glukose Transporter – 2
Gpx = Glutathione Peroksidase
HbA1c = Hemoglobin A1c
Hx & E = Hematoksilin dan Eosin Noda
IC50 = Inhibition Concentration
ICAM-1 = Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 1
ICD-10 = International Classification of Diseases - 10
INL = Inner Nuclear Layer
IPL = Inner Plexiform Layer
IRMA = Intraretinal Microvasculer Abnormal
xix
i.p. = Intra Peritoneal
MCP-1 = Monocytes Chemoattractant Protein
MnSOD = Manganese Superoxide Dismutase
MPO = Myeloperoxidase
mRNA = Messenger Ribonucleic Acid
NO = Nitric Oxide
NPDR = Non Proliferatif Diabetic Retinopathy
PGE2 = Pro-Inflamasi Prostaglandin
ONL = Outer Nuclear Layer
OPL = Outer Plexiform Layer
PDR = Proliferatif Diabetic Retinopathy
PRL = Photoreseptor Layer
Riskesdas = Riset Kesehatan Dasar
ROS = Reactive Oxygen Species
RPE65 = Retinal Pigment Epithelium 65
SOD = Superoksidase Dismutase
STZ = Streptozotocin
Th1 / Th2 = Type 1,2 T helper
TNF-α = Tumour Necrosis Factor alpha
VEGF = Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor
WHO = World Health Organization
71
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Aizu, Y. et al. (2002) “Degeneration of retinal neuronal processes and pigment
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