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Foundations of
Individual Behavior
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Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Contrast the two types of ability. Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance to OB. Identify the key biographical characteristics and describe how
they are relevant to OB. Define learning and outline the principles of the three major
theories of learning. Define shaping, and show how it can be used in OB.
Show how culture affects our understanding of intellectualabilities, biographical characteristics, and learning.
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Ability An individuals capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.Made up of two sets of factors: Intellectual Abilities
The abilities needed to perform mental activities.
General Mental Ability (GMA) is a measure of overall intelligence. Wonderlic Personnel Test: a quick measure of intelligence for
recruitment screening. No correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction.
Physical Abilities
The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength,and similar characteristics.
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Dimensions of IntellectualAbility
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Nine Basic Physical Abilities
Strength Factors Dynamic strength Trunk strength Static strength
Explosive strength Flexibility Factors
Extent flexibility Dynamic flexibility
Other Factors Body coordination Balance Stamina
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Biographical Characteristics
Objective and easily obtained personal characteristics.Age Older workers bring experience, judgment, a strong work ethic,
and commitment to quality.
Gender Few differences between men and women that affect job
performance.
Race (the biological heritage used to identify oneself) Contentious issue: differences exist, but could be more culture-
based than race-based.
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What is Personality?
The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to hisenvironment. - Gordon Allport.
The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts andinteracts with others, the measurable traits a personexhibits
Measuring Personality Helpful in hiring decisions Most common method: self-reporting surveys Observer-ratings surveys provide an independent
assessment of personality often better predictors
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What is Personality?What is Personality?Personality
The sum total of ways in which an individualreacts and interacts with others.
Personality TraitsEnduringcharacteristics thatdescribe an
individuals behavior.
Personality
Determinants Heredity
Environment
Situation
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Personality Traits
Enduring characteristics that describean individuals behavior The more consistent the characteristic and
the more frequently it occurs in diversesituations, the more important the trait.
Two dominant frameworks used todescribe personality: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI ) Big Five Model
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Personality Traits Relevant to Organizations
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The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Most widely used instrument in the world. Participants are classified on four axes to determine
one of 16 possible personality types, such as ENTJ.
Flexibleand
Spontaneous
Sociableand
Assertive
Quiet andShy
Unconscious
Processes UsesValues &Emotions
Practicaland
Orderly
UseReasonand Logic
WantOrder
&
Structure
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The Types and Their Uses
Each of the sixteen possible combinations has a name,for instance: Visionaries (INTJ) original, stubborn, and driven. Organizers (ESTJ) realistic, logical, analytical, and
businesslike. Conceptualizer (ENTP) entrepreneurial, innovative,
individualistic, and resourceful.
Research results on validity mixed. MBTI is a good tool for self-awareness and counseling. Should not be used as a selection test for job candidates.
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The Big Five Model of PersonalityDimensions
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Personality TypesType As
2. Are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly3. Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place4. Strive to think or do two or more things at once5. Cannot cope with leisure time6. Are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how
many or how much of everything they acquire
Type Bs2. Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying
impatience3. Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or
accomplishments4. Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any
cost
5. Can relax without guilt
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Other Personality TraitsRelevant to OB
Core Self-Evaluation The degree to which people like or dislike themselves Positive self-evaluation leads to higher job performance
Machiavellianism A pragmatic, emotionally distant power-player who believes that ends
justify the means. High Machs are manipulative, win more often, and persuade more than
they are persuaded. Flourish when: Have direct interaction Work with minimal rules and regulations Emotions distract others
Narcissism An arrogant, entitled, self-important person who needs excessive admiration. Less effective in their jobs.
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Self-Monitoring The ability to adjust behavior to meet external, situational
factors. High monitors conform more and are more likely to become
leaders. Risk Taking
The willingness to take chances. May be best to align propensities with job requirements.
Risk takers make faster decisions with less information.
More Relevant PersonalityTraits
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Even More RelevantPersonality Traits
Type A Personality Aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve
more in less time Impatient: always moving, walking, and eating rapidly Strive to think or do two or more things at once Cannot cope with leisure time Obsessed with achievement numbers
Prized in North America but quality of the work is low Type B people are the complete opposite
Proactive Personality Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and
perseveres to completion Creates positive change in the environment
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Attitudes
Evaluative statements or judgmentsconcerning objects, people, or events.Three components of an attitude:
TheTheemotional oremotional orfeelingfeelingsegment of segment of an attitudean attitude
The opinion The opinionor belief or belief
segment of segment of an attitudean attitude An intention toAn intention to
behave in abehave in acertain waycertain waytoward someonetoward someone
or somethingor something
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Does Behavior Always Followfrom Attitudes?
Leon Festinger No, the reverse is sometimes true! Cognitive Dissonance: Any incompatibility between
two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes Individuals seek to reduce this uncomfortable gap, or
dissonance , to reach stability and consistency
Consistency is achieved by changing the attitudes, modifying thebehaviors, or through rationalization
Desire to reduce dissonance depends on:
Importance of elements
Degree of individual influence
Rewards involved in dissonance
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Moderating Variables The most powerful moderators of the
attitude-behavior relationship are: Importance of the attitude Correspondence to behavior
Accessibility Existence of social pressures Personal and direct experience of the
attitude.
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What are the Major Job Attitudes?
Job Satisfaction A positive feeling about the job
resulting from an evaluation of itscharacteristics
Job Involvement Degree of psychological identification
with the job where perceivedperformance is important to self-worth
Psychological Empowerment Belief in the degree of influence over
the job, competence, jobmeaningfulness, and autonomy
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Another Major Job Attitude
Organizational Commitment Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, while
wishing to maintain membership in the organization. Three dimensions:
Affective emotional attachment to organization Continuance Commitment economic value of staying Normative - moral or ethical obligations
Has some relation to performance, especially for newemployees.
Less important now than in past now perhaps more of occupational commitment , loyalty to profession rather than agiven employer.
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AttitudesAttitudes
Attitudes
Evaluative
statementsor judgmentsconcerningobjects,people, orevents.
Affective Component The emotional or feelingsegment of an attitude.
Cognitive component The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.
Behavioral ComponentAn intention to behave in acertain way toward someone orsomething.
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Types of AttitudesTypes of Attitudes
Job InvolvementIdentifying with the job, actively participatingin it, and considering performance important toself-worth.
Organizational CommitmentIdentifying with a particular organization andits goals, and wishing to maintainmembership in the organization.
Job SatisfactionA collection of positive and/or negative feelingsthat an individual holds toward his or her job.
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The Theory of CognitiveThe Theory of CognitiveDissonanceDissonance
Desire to reduce dissonance Importance of elements creating dissonance
Degree of individual influence over elements Rewards involved in dissonance
Cognitive DissonanceAny incompatibility between two or moreattitudes or between behavior and attitudes.
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Are These Job Attitudes ReallyDistinct?
No: these attitudesare highly related.
Variables may beredundant(measuring the samething under adifferent name)
While there is somedistinction, there isalso a lot of overlap.
Be patient, OB researchers are working on it!
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Emotions and Moods
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Why Were Emotions Ignored inOB?
The Myth of Rationality Emotions were seen as irrational Managers worked to make emotion-free
environments
View of Emotionality Emotions were believed to be disruptive Emotions interfered with productivity Only negative emotions were observed
Now we know emotions cant beseparated from the workplace
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What are Emotions andMoods?
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Basic Moods: Positive andNegative Affect
Emotions cannot be neutral. Emotions (markers) are grouped into
general mood states.
Mood states affect perception and thereforeperceived reality.
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What Is the Function of Emotion?
Do Emotions Make Us Irrational? Expressing emotions publicly may be damaging to
social status
Emotions are critical to rational decision-making Emotions help us understand the world around us
What Functions Do Emotions Serve? Darwin argued they help in survival problem-solving Evolutionary psychology: people must experience
emotions as there is a purpose behind them Not all researchers agree with this assessment
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Sources of Emotion and Mood Personality
There is a trait component affect intensity Day and Time of the Week
There is a common pattern for all of us Happier in the midpoint of the daily awake period Happier toward the end of the week
Weather Illusory correlation no effect
Stress
Even low levels of constant stress can worsen moods Social Activities
Physical, informal, and dining activities increase positive moods
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More Sources of Emotion andMood
Sleep Poor sleep quality increases negative affect
Exercise Does somewhat improve mood, especially for depressed people
Age Older folks experience fewer negative emotions
Gender Women tend to be more emotionally expressive, feel emotions
more intensely, have longer-lasting moods, and expressemotions more frequently than do men
Due more to socialization than to biology
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What Are Emotions?
MoodsMoodsFeelings that tend to beFeelings that tend to be
less intense thanless intense thanemotions and that lack aemotions and that lack acontextual stimulus.contextual stimulus.
EmotionsEmotionsIntense feelings that areIntense feelings that are
directed at someone or directed at someone or something.something.
AffectAffectA broad range of emotionsA broad range of emotions
that people experience.that people experience.
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What Are Emotions? (contd)
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Felt versus Displayed Emotions
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Facial Expressions ConveyEmotions
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Gender and Emotions
Women Can show greater emotional expression. Experience emotions more intensely. Display emotions more frequently. Are more comfortable in expressing emotions. Are better at reading others emotions.
Men Believe that displaying emotions is
inconsistent with the male image.
Are innately less able to read and to identify
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External Constraints onEmotions
OrganizationalOrganizationalInfluencesInfluences
CulturalCulturalInfluencesInfluences
IndividualIndividualEmotionsEmotions
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OB Applications of Understanding Emotions
Ability and Selection Emotions affect employee effectiveness.
Decision Making Emotions are an important part of the
decision-making process in organizations.
Motivation Emotional commitment to work and high
motivation are strongly linked.
Leadership Emotions are important to acceptance of
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OB Applications of Understanding Emotions
Interpersonal Conflict Conflict in the workplace and individual
emotions are strongly intertwined.
Deviant Workplace Behaviors Negative emotions can lead to employee
deviance in the form of actions that violate
established norms and threaten theorganization and its members.
Productivity failures Property theft and destruction
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Ability and Selection Emotional Intelligence
(EI) Self-awareness Self-management
Self-motivation Empathy Social skills
Research Findings High EI scores, not
high IQ scores,characterize highperformers.
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Emotional Labor An employees expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work.Emotional Dissonance:
Employees have to project one emotion while simultaneouslyfeeling another
Can be very damaging and lead to burnoutTypes of Emotions:
Felt : the individuals actual emotions Displayed : required or appropriate emotions
Surface Acting: displaying appropriately but not feeling those
emotions internally Deep Acting: changing internal feelings to match display rules -
very stressful
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Affective Events Theory (AET) An event in the work environment triggers
positive or negative emotional reactions Personality and mood determine response intensity
Emotions can influence a broad range of workvariables
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Implications of AET1. An emotional episode is actually the result of a series of
emotional experiences triggered by a single event
2. Current and past emotions affect job satisfaction
3. Emotional fluctuations over time create variations in job
performance4. Emotion-driven behaviors are typically brief and variable
5. Both negative and positive emotions can distractworkers and reduce job performance
Emotions provide valuable insights about behavior Emotions, and the minor events that cause them,
should not be ignored at work: they accumulate
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Emotional Intelligence (EI)
A persons ability to: Be self-aware
Recognizing own emotions when experienced
Detect emotions in others
Manage emotional cues and information EI plays an important role in job performance EI is controversial and not wholly accepted
Case for EI:
Intuitive appeal; predicts criteria that matter; is biologically-based. Case against EI:
Too vague a concept; cant be measured; its validity is suspect.
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M OB A li i f E i
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More OB Applications of Emotionsand Moods
Negotiation Emotions, skillfully displayed, can affect negotiations
Customer Services Emotions affect service quality delivered to customers which, in
turn, affects customer relationships
Emotional Contagion : catching emotions from others Job Attitudes
Can carry over to home, but dissipate overnight Deviant Workplace Behaviors
Negative emotions lead to employee deviance (actions thatviolate norms and threaten the organization)
Managers Influence Leaders who are in a good mood, use humor, and praise
employees increase positive moods in the workplace.
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