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A N S E L M A N D A M B I G U I T Y

D a v i d L e w i s ' p a p e r A n s e l m a n d A c t u a l i ty 1 c o n t a in s o n e o f t he

m o s t p e n e t r a t i n g m o d e r n tr e a t m e n t s o f A n s e l m ' s s o -c a ll e d o n t o -

l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t f o r t h e e x i s te n c e o f G o d a s f o r m u l a t e d i n c h. 2

o f h i s Pro s to g io n . ~ N e v e r t h e l e s s I t h i n k t h e r e i s a s e r i o u s d i f f i c u l t y

w i t h L e w i s ' a n a l y s i s . I s h a l l f i r s t e x p l a i n t h e p r o b l e m I s e e a n dt h e n g i v e a d i f f e r e n t a n a l y s is o f th e a r g u m e n t , o n e w h i c h a v o i d s

t h e p r o b l e m b u t w h i c h r e t a in s m u c h o f th e s p i ri t o f L e w i s ' a n a -

lys is .

L e w i s ' p a p e r fa ll s n e a t l y i n t o t w o m a i n p a r t s : ( i) a n a n a l y s is

o f A n s e l m ' s c h . 2 a r g u m e n t , l e a d i n g t o ( ii ) a n i n d e x i c a l t h e o r y

o f a c t u a li ty . ~ H i s r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a r g u m e n t is b a s e d o n t h r e e

m a i n p r e m i s s e s :

1 . W h a t e v e r e x is ts i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a n b e c o n c e i v e d t o

e x i s t i n re a l i ty . ( p . 1 7 6 ) T h a t i s , f o r a n y u n d e r s ta n d a b ] k e b e i n g

x t h e r e i s a w o r l d w s u c h t h a t x e x i s t s i n w . ( 1 7 7 )

2 . W h a t e v e r e x is ts i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g w o u l d b e g r e a t e r i f i t

e x i s t e d i n r e a l i t y t h a n i f i t d i d n o t . ( 1 7 6 ) T h a t i s , f o r a n y u n d e r -

s t a n d a b l e b e i n g x , a n d f o r a n y w o r l d s w a n d v , i f x e x is ts i n w

b u t x d o e s n o t e x i s t i n v , t h e n t h e g r e a t n e s s o f x i n w e x c e e d s t h e

g r e a t n e s s o f x i n v . ( 1 7 8 )

3 . S o m e t h i n g e x i st s i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a n w h i c h n o t h i n g

g r e a t e r c a n b e c o n c e i v e d . ( 1 7 6 ) S e e b e l o w .

a n d a n u n c o n t r o v e r s i a l f o u r t h p r e m i s s :

4 . T h e a c t u a l w o r l d i s a w o r l d . ( 1 8 0 )

1 Nous 4 (1970), 175-188..2 The furthe r argum ent in ch. 5, the arguments in A nselm's reply to G aun ilo,

and the quite different ontological argument in the Cartesian tradition must beke pt carefully d istinct fro m the argum ent in An selm 's oh. 2.~ For a crit icism of the index ical theory of actual ity, see Ro bert M errihewAdams, Theo r ies of Actual i ty , Nuns 8 (1974), 211-231.



4 3 4 INTERN TION L IOURN L FOR PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION

T h e f ir s t a n d s e c o n d p r e m i s s e s L e w i s is w i l l in g t o g r a n t ( 1 7 7 , 1 7 8 ) ,

b u t t h e t h i r d s u f f e r s f r o m a t l e a s t a f o u r f o l d a m b i g u i t y . I t c a n b e

r e a d a s

3 A . T h e r e is a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e in g x s u c h t h a t f o r n o w o r l d

w a n d b e i n g y d o e s t h e g r e a tn e s s o f y i n w e x c e e d t h e g r e a t n e s s o f

x i n t h e a c t u a l w o r l d . ( 1 7 9 )

3 B . T h e r e a r e a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g x a n d a w o r l d v , s u c h

t h a t f o r n o w o r l d w a n d b e i n g y d o e s t h e g r e a t n e s s o f y i n w

e x c e e d t h e g r e a t n e s s o f x i n v . ( 1 8 0 )

3 C . T h e r e is a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g x s u c h th a t f o r n o w o r l d s

v a n d w a n d b e i n g y d o e s t h e g r e a t n e s s o f y i n w e x c e e d t h e g r e a t -n e s s o f x in w . ( 1 8 0 )

3 D . T h e r e is a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g x s u c h th a t f o r n o w o r l d

w a n d b e i n g y d o e s t h e g r e a t n e s s o f y in w e x c e e d t h e g r e a t n e s s

o f x i n w . ( 1 8 0 )

T h e c o n c l u s io n o f t h e a r g u m e n t i s

T h e r e i s a b e i n g x e x i s t i n g i n t h e a c t u a l w o r l d s u c h t h a t f o r n o

w o r l d w a n d b e i n g y d o e s th e g r e a t n e s s o f y in w e x c e e d t h e g r e a t -

n e s s o f x i n th e a c t u a l w o r l d . ( 1 8 1 )

U s i n g 3 A o r 3 C , th e a r g u m e n t a s a w h o l e i s v a l i d ( 1 8 0 ) , a n ds o th e q u e s t i o n is o n e o f t h e t r u t h o f 3 A o r 3 C . N o w , g i v e n 4 ,

3 C i m p l i e s 3 A , b u t L e w i s a r g u e s t h a t 3 C h a s n o i n d e p e n d e n t

c r e d i b i li t y t o l e n d to 3 A . ( 1 8 2 - 1 8 5 ) H e t h e r e f o r e t u r n s t o 3 A ,

a n d t h i s l e a d s i n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f a c t u a l i t y .

I w a n t t o f o cu s o n L e w i s ' c l a im t h a t 5 C h a s n o i n d e p e n d e n t

c r e d i b i li t y to le n d t o 3 A . O n p . 1 8 2 L e w i s c o n s i d e rs o n e r e a s o n

t h e o n t o l o g i c a l a r g u e r m i g h t g i v e f o r a c c e p t i n g 3 C :

H e m i g h t a s s u m e t h a t f o r e v e ry d e s c ri p t io n h e u n d e r s t a n d s t h e re

is s o m e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g a n s w e r i n g t o t h a t d e s c r i p ti o n . B u tw h a t o f s u c h w e l l - u n d e r s t o o d d e s c r i p ti o n s as l a r g e s t p r i m e o r

r o u n d e d s q u ar e .'? P o s s i b l y h e c a n g iv e s o m e a c c o u n t o f u n d e r -

s t a n d a b l e b e i n g s s u c h t h a t o n e o f t h e m a n s w e r s t o a n y u n d e r -

s t a n d a b l e d e s c r i p t io n ; b u t i f s o , w e c a n h a r d l y c o n t i n u e t o g r a n t

h i m P r e m i s e 1, a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h e v e r y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g

c a n b e c o n c e i v e d t o e x i s t. P r e m i s e 1 i s i n d i s p e n s i b l e t o t h e a r g u -

m e n t f r o m 3 C . . . .

B u t t h i s p a s s a g e c o n f l i c t s w i t h t w o p a s s a g e s e a r l i e r i n t h e p a p e r :

I t is o u r p l a n t o r e a s o n e x p l i c i tl y a b o u t p o s s i b l e w o r l d s a n d p o s -

s i b le t h in g s t h e r e i n . T h e s e p o s s i b l e w o r l d s w i ll b e i n c l u d e d i n

o u r d o m a i n o f d is c o u r s e . T h e i d i o m s o f q u a n t i f ic a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e ,

w i l l b e u n d e r s t o o d a s r a n g i n g o v e r a l l t h e b e i n g s w e w i s h t o t a l k

a b o u t , w h e t h e r e x i s t e n t o r n o n e x i s t e n t.



N S E L M N D M B I G U I T Y 4 3 5

I n t h e c o n t e x t a t h a n d , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s e n s e o f p o s s ib i l i t y is

c o n c e i v a b i l i t y . P o s s i b l e w o r l d s a r e c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d s . I f s o m e

o t h e r w i s e p o s s ib l e w o r l d s a r e in c o n c e i v a b l e - - s ay , se v e n t e e n -

d i m e n s i o n a l w o r l d s - - w e s h o u l d n o t c o u n t th o s e ; w h e r e a s i f

s o m e o t h e r w i s e i m p o s s ib l e w o r l d s a r e c o n c e i v a b l e - - s ay , w o r l d s

i n w h i c h t h e r e is a l a rg e s t p r i m e - - w e s h o u l d c o u n t t h o se . ( 1 7 6 -

1 7 7 )

A g a i n , w h i l e d i s c u s s i n g h i s p r e m i s s 1 , h e s a y s :

I s t h e p r e m i s e c r e d i b l e ? I h a v e n o w i s h t o c o n t e s t i t . S o m e o n e

m i g h t s a y t h a t a r o u n d s q u a r e is a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g t h a t

d o e s n o t e x i s t i n a n y c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d ; a n d p e r h a p s t h e r e ise n o u g h l a ti t u d e i n t h e n o t io n s o f u n d e r s t a n d a b i l i ty a n d c o n -

c e i v a b i l i t y s o t h a t h e m i g h t b e w i t h i n h i s r ig h t s . B u t t h e o n -

t o l o g i c a l a r g u e r i s a l so w i t h i n h i s r i g h t s, a n d t h a t i s w h a t m a t -

t e r s . ( 1 7 7 )

C u r i o u s l y , t h e e x a m p l e s l a r g e s t p r i m e a n d r o u n d s q u a r e i n t h e

t w o p a s s a g e s f r o m p p . 1 7 6 - 1 7 7 a r e e x a c t l y t h o s e o b j e c t e d t o in t h e

p a s s a g e o n p . 1 8 2 .

I f t h e p a s s a g e s o n p p . 1 7 6 - 1 7 7 a r e t o b e t a k e n s e r i o u s l y , a n d I t h i n k

t h e y s h o u l d b e , t h e n th e c l a im o n p . 1 82 m u s t b e w i t h d r a w n . M u s tp r e m i s s 3 C t h e n b e g r a n t e d ? I s t h e a r g u m e n t s o u n d a f t e r a l l ? I f

n o t , w h e r e is t h e m i s t a k e ?

I I

T h e a r g u m e n t , a t l e a s t a s f o r m u l a t e d b y L e w i s , i s i n d e e d u n s o u n d .

G a u n i l o ' s L o s t I s l a n d o b j e c t i o n ~ p l a i n l y a p p l i e s t o i t: ( i) t h e

a r g u m e n t u s i n g 3 A o r 5 C i s v a l i d , w h e t h e r t h e d o m a i n o f u n d e r -

s t a n d a b l e b e i n g s c o n t a in s a ll u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g s in g e n e r a l o r

w h e t h e r i t i s r e s t r i c t e d t o u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g s w h i c h a r e a ls o , u n d e r -

s t a n d a b l e is l a n d s ; ( ii ) i f L e w i s ' p r e m i s s e s 1 a n d 2 ( a n d 4 ) a r e

t r u e f o r a d o m a i n c o n t a i n i n g a l l u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e in g s , t h e y r e m a i n

t r u e f o r a d o m a i n r e s t r i c t e d t o u n d e r s t a n d a b l e i s la n d s ; ( i ii ) i f L e w i s '

p r e m i s s 3 C c a n b e a r g u e d f o r in t h e w a y h e su g g e s ts o n p . 1 8 2 ( a n d

i f s u c h a n a r g u m e n t c a n n o t b e d i s a r m e d i n t h e w a y h e t ri e s t h e r e ) ,

t h e n t h e s a m e a r g u m e n t w i l l s u p p o r t 3 C w h e r e t h e d o m a i n i s r e -

s t ri c te d t o u n d e r s t a n d a b l e i s la n d s . H e n c e i f L e w i s ' f o r m u l a t i o n o f

4 Gaunilon, In Behalf of the Fool sect. 6, in St. Anselm: Basic Writings S. N.Dean e, tr., (La Salle , Ill.: O pen Court, 1962), pp. 150-151.



43 6 IN TE R N A T IO N A L JO U R N AL F O R P H IL O S O P H Y O F R EL IG IO N

A n s e l m ' s a r g u m e n t i s s o u n d , s o is t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r m u l a t i o n

o f t h e a r g u m e n t f o r G a u n i l o ' s L o s t I s l a n d . W e c a n n o t a v o i d th e

d i f f i c u l t y r a i s e d a b o v e w i t h L e w i s ' a n a ly s i s b y s i m p l y g r a n t i n g

t h a t t h e o n t o l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t i s s o u n d a f t e r a l l - - a t l e a s t n o t u n l e s s

w e w a n t t h e L o s t I s l a n d .

B u t w h i l e G a u n i l o ' s L o s t I s l a n d o b j e c t i o n s h o w s t h a t s o m e t h i n g

i s w r o n g w i t h t h e a r g u m e n t a s f o r m u l a t e d b y L e w i s , i t d o e s n o t s h o w

w h a t i s w r o n g . I su g g e s t t h a t o n e p l a u s i b l e a c c o u n t o f w h a t i s w r o n g

i s t h e f o l l o w i n g . T h e a r g u m e n t r e st s o n a f u n d a m e n t a l a m b i g u i t y

b e t w e e n t w o s e n se s in w h i c h a t h i n g m a y b e s a i d to h a v e a p r o p e r t y .

T h e f i rs t i s t h e o r d i n a r y , s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d s e n se o f h a v i n g . I n th i s

s e n s e a n i n d i v i d u a l h a s a p r o p e r t y q) o n l y i f t h e i n d i v i d u a l e x is t s . 6

A n i n d i v i d u a l t h a t f a i l s t o e x i s t a l s o f a i l s t o h a v e a n y p r o p e r t i e s a t a l l

i n t h i s s e n s e . 7

T h e r e i s a s e c o n d s e n se , h o w e v e r , i n w h i c h w e m a y s a y th a t a n

i ~ d i v i d u a l h a s a c e r t a i n p r o p e r t y , w h e t h e r i t e x i s t s o r n o t . T h i s

i s w h a t I s h a l l c a l l e s s e n t i a l l y h a v i n g o r c o n c e p t u a l l y h a v i n g . I n t h i s

s e n s e a n i n d i v i d u a l m a y b e s a i d to h a v e a c e r t a i n p r o p e r t y e s s e n t i a l ly

o r c o n c e p t u a l l y i f ( to a f i rs t a p p r o x i m a t i o n ) i t w o u l d h a v e t h a tp r o p e r t y , i n t h e f i r s t s e n s e o f h a v i n g , i f i t d i d e x i s t . T h a t i s , a n

i n d i v i d u a l l y x c o n c e p t u a l l y o r e s s e n t i a l l y h a s a p r o p e r t y q0 i f a n d

o n l y i f x ' s e x i s t i n g i n s o m e s e n s e e n t a i l s x s h a v i n g % i n t h e f i r s t

s e n se . T h e s e n o t i o n s w i l l b e m a d e r a t h e r m o r e p r e c i s e s h o r t l y .

T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n is as f o l l o w s . I t h i n k t h e r e i s

s I t i s som e t i m es sugges t ed tha t G a un i l o ' s ob j ec t i on fa i l s because , w h i l e be i ngt han w h i ch no g rea t e r (be i ng ) can be conc e i ved i s ~ cons i s t en t de sc r i p t i on (o ra t le a s t w e h a v e n o r e a s o n to t h i n k i t is n o t ) , i s l a n d th a n w h i c h n o g r e a t e r

( i s l and) can be con ceiv ed i s no t . Cf ., e .g ., John H . Hic k , Philosophy oJ Re-ligion, 2nd ed . , (E ng l ew o od C l i f fs , N . J . : P ren t i ce -H a l l , 1973) , p . 17. B u t eveni f t he se c l a i m s abou t cons i s t ency a re t rue , t he f ac t i s i r r e l evan t . U nde r s t andab l ei s l ands , l i ke unde r s t andab l e be i ngs i n gene ra l , m ay be i ncons i s t en t and i m -poss i b l e ones . T he a rgum en t d oes no t p re su ppo se cons i s t ency i n e i t he r ca se(a l t hough i f t he a rgum en t w orks i t p roves cons i s t ency , ab ess e ad posse).

O n e m a y w a n t t o c o u n t e n a n c e p r o p e r t i e s th a t a r e n o t e x i s te n c e - e n ta i li n g i nt h i s w ay . F o r i n s t ance , one m i gh t ~ , an t t o a l l ow a p rope r t y o f be i ng conce i vedo r t h o u g h t o f , w h i c h w o u l d n o t b e e x i s te n c e - e n ta i li n g s i n ce m a n y t h in g s w h i c hd o n o t e x i s t c a n n e v e r t h e l e s s r e a l l y b e t h o u g h t o f o r c o n c e i v e d . H o w e v e r t h em e t a p h y s i c s o f t h i s m i g h t b e w o r k e d o u t , I d o n o t w a n t t o c o n s i d e r s u c hp rop e r t i e s he re . I f one i n s i s t s on a l l ow i ng t hem , t hen I m u s t i n s i s t i n t u rn onres t r i c t ing the c l ass of perfeer ( s ee be l ow ) t o ex i s t ence -en t a i li ng p rope r t i e s .

O n e m i gh t be t em p t ed t o s ay tha t i t re a l l y ha s t he p ro pe r t y o f non -ex i s t encea t l e a s t . I p r e fe r t o s ay t ha t , w h i l e som e unde r s t andab l e be i ngs m ay con-ceptually have t he p rope r t y o f non -ex i s t ence , none can rea l ly have i t . N on-ex i s t en t s do no t really have t he p rope r t y o f non -ex i s t ence ; t hey j u s t r ea l l y Jailt o have t he p rop e r t y o f ex i s t ence . Inc i de n t a l l y , I s ee no r ea son no t t o t r ea tex i s t ence a s a p rop e r t y - - a l be i t a ve ry spec i a l one .



ANSELM AND AMBIGUITY 4 3 7

a t l e a s t o n e p e r f e c t l y g o o d s e n s e in w h i c h w e m i g h t s a y th a t e v e n a n

u n r e a l G o d is g r e a t e r t h a n a r e a l s t o n e , a n d a t l e a st o n e p e r f e c t l y g o o d

s e n s e i n w h i c h w e m i g h t s a y t h a t a r e a l s t o n e i s g r e a t e r t h a n a n u n -

r e a l G o d . I t h i n k f u r t h e r t h a t A n s e l m ' s a r g u m e n t t r a d e s o n t h e

a m b i g u i t y .

L e t u s s i n g l e o u t c e r t a i n p r o p e r t i e s a s value propert ies ( g r e a t -

m a k i n g p r o p e r t i e s ) , o r perJec t ions . W i t h i n b r o a d l i m i t s , i t m a k e s

l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e w h i c h o n e s w e c h o o s e , p r o v i d e d t h e r e a r e s o m e .

T h a t d e p e n d s o n y o u r theory o f p e r f e c t i o n s . T h e m o s t p l a u s i b l e w a y

t o d e f i n e g r e a t e r is t o d o i t i n t e r m s o f p e r f e c t i o n s o r g r e a t - m a k i n g

p r o p e r t i e s . O n e a t tr a c t i v e d e f i n it i o n , w h i c h w e s h al l a d o p t , m a y b e

p u t p r o v i s i o n a l l y a s f o l lo w s :

x i s g r e a t e r t h a n y i f a n d o n l y i f t h e c l a s s o f p e r f e c t i o n s x h a s

p r o p e r l y i n c l u d e s t h e c la s s o f p e r f e c t io n s y h a s ?

T h e n o n e s e n s e i n w h i c h e v e n a n u n r e a l G o d i s g r e a t e r t h a n a r e a l

s t o n e is th i s : t h e c l a ss o f p e r f e c t i o n s G o d c o n c e p t u a l l y h a s p r o p e r l y

i n c l u d e s t h e c l a s s o f p e r f e c t i o n s t h e s t o n e r e a l l y h a s . I f G o d d i d

e x i s t , h e w o u l d h a v e a l l t h e p e r f e c t i o n s t h e s t o n e i n f a c t h a s , a n dm o r e b e s i d e s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f s t o n es h a v e a n y p e r f e c t i o n s

a t a l l , t h e n a r e a l s t o n e i s g r e a t e r t h a n a n u n r e a l G o d i n t h e s e n s e

t h a t t h e c l as s o f p e r f e c t i o n s t h e s t o n e r e a l l y h a s p r o p e r l y i n c l u d e s

t h e c l as s o f p e r f e c t i o n s G o d r e a ll y h a s . S i n c e, b y h y p o t h e s i s , G o d

d o e s n o t e x i s t , h e d o e s n o t r e a l l y h a v e a n y p e r f e c t i o n s a t a l l .

B e f o r e w e p u r s u e t h is a m b i g u i t y i n t h e n o t i o n o f g r e a t e r , l e t

u s l o o k a t t h e s e t w o s e n se s o f h a v i n g m o r e c lo s e ly . L e w i s , a s

w e h a v e se e n, a d o p t s t he n o t io n s o f u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g a n d

c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d . L e t u s i n c o r p o r a t e th e s e n o t i o n s in o u r o w na n a l y si s . W h a t e v e r d i f f ic u l ti e s t h e s e n o t i o n s m a y h a v e o n L e w i s '

a c c o u n t a r e in h e r i t e d b y o u r o w n , b u t o u r a n a l y s i s d o e s n o t a d d a n y

n e w d i f f i c u l t i e s a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s . W e a d o p t t h e f o l l o w i n g f e a t u r e s o f

L e w i s ' a c c o u n t :

1) U n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g s a n d c o n c e iv a b l e w o r l d s n e e d n ot b e

c o n s i s t e n t o r o t h e r w i s e p o s s i b l e b e i n g s o r w o r l d s . ( 1 7 6 - 1 7 7 )

s Th ere are alternative definitions, depending on on e's theory of perfections.Some classical theories, for instance, rank perfections in a linearly.-orderedhierarchy in such a way that nothing can have a higher perfect ion withouthaving all the lower perfections too. On such a theory, the above definition of

gre ater is equivalent to: x is greater than y if and only if x has a perfect ionthat y does not have. In the absence of such a hierarchy, however, this lat terdefini tion would not guarantee that gre ater be assymetric.



43 8 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION

2 ) E v e r y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g e x is ts i n s o m e c o n c e i v a b le w o r l d .

( L e w i s ' p r e m i s s 1 )

N o w L e w i s a r g u e s f o r a n i n d e x i c a l t h e o r y o f a c t u a l i t y , a c c o r d i n g

to w h i c h , f o r e v e r y c o n c e iv a b l e w o r l d w w i ts e l f i s t h e a c t u a l

w o r l d f r o m t h e v a n t a g e p o i n t o f w . I d o n o t w a n t to c o m m i t m y -

s e lf t o a n i n d e x i c a l t h e o r y o f a c t u a l it y , b u t I d o w a n t t o m a k e t h e

n o t i o n o f h a v i a a g i n t h e f i r s t s e n s e ( w h i c h I s h a l l h e n c e f o r t h c a l l

r e a l l y - h a v i n g o r r - h a v i n g ) i n d e x i c a l i n t h is w a y . I f a n u n d e r s t a n d -

a b l e b e i n g e x i s t s i n a L e w i s - c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d w a n d h a s a p r o p e r t y

qo t h e r e , t h e n a n d o n l y t h e n s h a l l w e s a y t h a t x r - h a s cp i n w .

W h i c h p r o p e r t i e s a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g r -h a s t h us d e p e n d s o n

t h e w o r l d t h a t i s c h o s e n . I n g e n e r a l t h e r e w i l l b e s o m e w o r l d s ,

t h o s e i n w h i c h t h e b e i n g d o e s n o t e x i s t , i n w h i c h i t r - h a s n o p r o p -

e r t i e s a t a l l . I n o t h e r w o r l d s , i t w i l l r - h a v e s o m e p r o p e r t i e s , b u t t h e y

w i l l v a r y f r o m w o r l d t o w o r l d .

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e s h a ll s ay th a t a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g x

i n L e w i s ' s e n s e, c o n c e p t u a l l y h a s ( h e n c e f o r t h c - h a s ) a p r o p e r t y

c i f a n d o n l y i f x r-h a~ s q~ i n e v e r y L e w i s - c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d i n

w h i c h x e x i st s. 9 I n s h o r t , a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g c - ha s e x a c t l y

i ts e s s e n t i a l p r o p e r t i e s . 10 N o t e t h a t c - h a v i n g , u n l i k e r - h a v i n g , i s n o t

w o r l d - r e l a t i v e . T h e p r o p e r t i e s a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g c - h a s a r e

i n v a r i a n t f r o m w o r l d to w o r l d . I f w e w a n t , w e c a n s p e a k o f x 's c-

h a v i n g q~ i n i v, b u t t h e r e f e r e n c e t h e r e t o a w o r l d i s v a c u o u s . W h i c h

p r o p e r t i e s a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g r- h as d e p e n d s o n w h e t h e r i t

e x i s t s o r n o t , a n d i n w h i c h w o r l d . B u t t h e i d e a b e h i n d c o n c e p t u a l l y

h a v i n g o r e s s e n t i a l l y h a v i n g w a s t h a t a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g c o n -

c e p t u a l l y o r e s s e n t i a l l y h a s t h e p r o p e r t i e s i t d o e s w h e t h e r i t e x i s t s

o r n o t .

I t f o l l o w s f r o m t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s t h a t , i f a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e

b e i n g e x i s t s i n a c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d w , t h e n i t r - h a s i n w a l l t h e

p r o p e r t i e s i t c - h a s . I n g e n e r a l i t w i l l r - h a v e o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s t o o i n

w , s i n c e x m a y r - h a v e a p r o p e r t y q~ i n w a n d y e t n o t r - h a v e q~ i n

a l l c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d s i n w h i c h x e x i s t s .

B e f o r e w e t u r n t o A n s e l m ' s a r g u m e n t p r o p e r , t h e re a r e s o m e

9 Or , i f one prefers Lew is ' coun terpar t theory to a theo ry in w hich the sam ebeing ex ists in several w orlds, w e say: x c-has q~ if an d o nly if, fo r eve ry con-ceivable wor ld w and unders tandable being y, i f y i s a counterpar t of x andy is in w then y r-has rO in w. Cf. Da vid Lewis, Co un terp art T heo ry andQuant i f ied Modal Logic , T h e J o u r n a l o f P h i l o s o p h y 65 (1968), 115-126.l o Ib i d . section 5, 119-125.




f u r t h e r p r e l i m i n a r i e s . P r e m i s s 1 o f th e a r g u m e n t w i ll r e q u i r e u s t o

c o m p a r e t h e g re a t n e s s o f an u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g in o n e c o n c e i v a b l e

w o r l d w i t h i t s g r e a t n e s s i n a n o t h e r c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d . T h e p r o v i s i o n a l

d e f i n i t io n o f g r e a t e r , g i v e n a b o v e , m u s t t h e r e f o r e b e r e v i s e d t o

i n c l u d e e x p l i c i t r e f e r e n c e t o c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d s . W e t h u s h a v e t h e

f o l l o w i n g d e J i n i t i o n s c h e m a :

A n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g x i n a c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d w i s g r e a t e r

t h a n a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g y in a c o n c e iv a b l e w o r l d w * i f

a n d o n l y i f t h e c l as s o f p e r f e c t i o n s x h a s i n w p r o p e r l y i n c l u d e s

t h e c l a s s o f p e r f e c t i o n s , y h a s i n w * .

N o t i c e t h a t ' h a s ' o c c u r s tw i c e i n t h is s c h e m a . A t e a c h o c c u r r e n c e ,

i t m a y b e r e a d e i t h e r a s ' r- h a s ' o r as 'c - h a s ' . T h e r e a r e t h u s f o u r

s e n se s o f g r e a t e r w h i c h fi t t h e s c h e m a :

x in w i s r /r -greater t h a n y i n w * i f a n d o n l y i f th e c l a ss o f p e r -

f e c t i o n s x r- h a s in w p r o p e r l y i n c l u d e s t h e c l a s s o f p e r f e c t i o n s

y r - h a s i n w * .

x i n w i s r /c -greater t h a n y i n w * i f a n d o n l y i f t h e c l a s s o f

p e r f e c t i o n s x r -h a s i n w p r o p e r l y i n c l u d e s t h e c l a s s o f p e r f e c t i o n s

y c-has. 1,

x i n w i s c /r -greater t h a n y i n w * i f a n d o n l y i f t h e c l a s s o f

p e r f e c t i o n s x c - h a s p r o p e r l y i n c l u d e s t h e c l a s s o f p e r f e c t i o n s y

r - h a s i n w * .

x in w i s c / c - g r e a t e r t h a n y i n w * i f a n d o n l y i f t h e c l a s s o f

p e r f e c t i o n s x c - h a s p r o p e r l y i n c l u d e s t h e c l a s s o f p e r f e c t i o n s y c - h a s .

N o t e t h a t t h e se f o u r s e n se s o f g r e a t e r a r e m u t u a l l y i n d e p e n d e n t ;

n o n e e n t a i l s a n y o f t h e o t h e r s .H a v i n g m a d e t h i s f o u r f o l d d i s t i n c t i o n , l e t u s s e t i t a s i d e f o r t h e

m o m e n t . A n s e l m ' s a r g u m e n t d e p e n d s c r u c i a ll y o n a f a l la c y o f e q u i v -

o c a t i o n in v o l v i n g th e s e s e n s e s o f g r e a t e r .

I I I

W e a r e n o w i n a p o s i t i o n t o g i v e o u r a n a l y s i s o f A n s e l m ' s o n t o -

l o g i c a l a r g u m e n t i n P r o s l o g i o n ch. 2 . T h e te xt i s th i s ~- :

i t Th e perfect ions an understandable being c-ha s are invariant from w orld toworld. Cf. above.t.~ De ane, tr. (cf. above, n. 4 ), p . 8.



44 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION

H e n c e , e v e n t h e f o o l i s c o n v i n c e d t h a t s o m e t h i n g e x i s t s i n t h e

u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a t l e a s t , t h a n w h i c h n o t h i n g g r e a t e r c a n b e c o n -c e i v e d . F o r , w h e n h e h e a r s o f t h i s , h e u n d e r s t a n d s i t . A n d w h a t -

e v e r i s u n d e r s t o o d , e x i s t s i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g . A n d a s s u r e d l y

t h a t , t h a n w h i c h n o t h i n g g r e a t e r c a n b e c o n c e i v e d , c a n n o t e x i s t

i n t h e u n d e r s t an d in g a lo n e . Fo r , s u p p o s e i t ex i s t s i n t h e u n d e r -

s t an d in g a lo n e : t h en i t c an b e co n ce iv ed t o ex i s t i n r ea l i t y ; wh ich

is g rea te r .

T h e r e f o r e , i f t h a t , t h a n w h i c h n o t h i n g g r e a t e r c a n b e c o n -

c e i v e d , e x i s t s i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g a l o n e , t h e v e r y b e i n g , t h a n

w h i c h n o t h i n g g r e a t e r c a n b e c o n c e i v e d , i s o n e , t h a n w h i c h ag rea t e r c an b e co n ce iv ed . B u t o b v io u s ly t h i s i s im p o s s ib l e . Hen ce ,

t h e r e i s n o d o u b t b u t t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s a b e i n g , t h a n w h i c h n o t h i n g

g r e a t e r c a n b e c o n c e i v e d , a n d i t e x i s t s b o t h i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g

an d i n r ea l i t y .

L e t u s ex t r ac t s o m e ex p l i c i t p rem i s s e s f ro m th i s t ex t :

A ) S o m e t h i n g e x i st s i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a t l e a st , t h a n w h i c h

n o t h i n g g r e a t e r c a n b e c o n c e i v e d .

An s e lm t e ll s u s th a t t h e r ea s o n fo r (A) is t h a t w h e n h e [ th e fo o l]h e a r s o f t h i s , h e u n d e r s t a n d s i t . T h i s s u g g es ts t h e r ead in g : So m e

u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g c - h a s t h e p r o p e r t y o f b e i n g t h a t t h a n w h i c h

n o g r e a t e r ( in s o m e s e ns e ) c a n b e c o n c e i v e d . I f w e a d o p t t h is

r e a d i n g , h o w e v e r , w e g e t a v e r y w e a k a r g u n a e n t , o n e w h i c h i s n o t

o n l y u n s o u n d b u t p l a i n l y i n v a l i d . T h e r e a d e r m a y v e r i f y t h is f o r

h i m s e l f a f t e r t h e r e s t o f t h e a r g u m e n t h a s b e e n e x a m i n e d . ( C f . a l s o

n . 2 1 . ) I s u g g es t t h a t we t ak e t h e p h ra s e ' s o m e th in g ex i s ts i n t h e

u n d e r s t a n d i n g ' t o m e a n s i m p l y t h e r e is a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g .

W e h a v e t h e n : F o r s o m e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g - - a n d l e t u s c a l li t a - - n o u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g y i s g r e a t e r t h a n a . B u t w i t h r e s p e c t

t o w h i c h c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d s ? L e t u s d e l a y t h a t q u e s t i o n f o r a

w h i l e , a n d s i m p l y o b s e r v e t h a t , in a d d i t i o n t o t h e f o u r f o l d a m -

b i g u i t y o f g r e a t e r m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e r e i s a n a d d i t i o n a l a m -

b ig u i t y i n th e p rem i s s a r is i n g f ro m th e wo r ld - r e l a t i v i t y o f g re a t e r . 13

T o s i g n a l t h e l a t t e r , l e t u s wr i t e s im p ly :

P r e mi s s 1 : F o r e v e r y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g y , i t i s no t the case

th a t y i n w i s g rea t e r t h an a i n w* ,

l eav in g ' w ' a n d ' w * ' f r ee u n t i l we s ee h o w to r e s o lv e t h e am b ig u i t y .

13 This latter ambiguity is the one Lewis explicates with his four readings ofhis premis s 3 pp. 179-180).




B ) F o r s u p p o s e i t e x i s ts i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g a l o n e : th e n it c a n

b e c o n c e i v e d t o e x i s t i n r e a l it y ; w h i c h is g r e a t e r .

H e r e I t h i n k i t c a n b e c o n c e i v e d to e x i s t i n r e a l i t y m a y b e t a k e n

a s t h e r e i s a c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d i n w h i c h a e x i s ts ( o r r - h a s e x i s t e n c e ) .

W e k n o w f r o m ( 2 ) i n s e c t i o n I I , a b o v e , t h a t th e r e is s u c h a w o r l d .

N o w w h e r e A n s e l m s a y s S u p p o s e i t e x is t s i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g

a | o n e , w e a r e t o a d d t h e g l o s s a n d n o t i n r e a l i t y . T h a t is , s u p p o s e

a d o e s n o t e x i s t ' 4 i n t h e actual w o r l d . T h e n t h e c l a i m s ee m s to b e

t h a t, fo r a n y c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d w i n w h i c h a d o e s e x i s t - - a n d t h e r e

is o n e - - a is g r e a t e r i n w t h a n i t i s in t h e a c t u a l w o r l d . '~ R e a d i n g' @ ' , w i t h L e w i s , a s d e n o t i n g t h e a c t u a l w o r l d , o n e o f t h e c o n c e i v a b l e

w o r l d s , 16 w e h a v e :

Premiss 2: I f a d o e s n o t e x i s t i n @ , t h e n f o r e v e r y c o n c e i v a b l e

w o r l d w, a e x i s t s in w o n l y i f a in w i s g r e a t e r t h a n a i n @ .

N o w ( 2 ) f r o m s e c t io n I I , a b o v e , t o g e th e r w i t h P r e m i s s 2, y i e ld s :

I f a d o e s n o t e x i s t i n @ , t h e n f o r s o m e c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d w , a in w

i s g r e a t e r t h a n a i n @ .

A n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t o f th i s i s s u p p o s e d t o b e i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

P r e m i s s 1 , s o t h a t w e c a n c o n c l u d e b y reductio t h a t a e x i s t s i n t h e

a c t u a l w o r l d a f t e r a ll . T h i s t e ll s u s h o w t o c o n s t r u e P r e m i s s 1 , w h i c h

w e l e f t a m b i g u o u s . W e m u s t c o n s t r u e i t e i th e r a s :

F o r e v e r y c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d w a n d e v e r y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g y,

i t i s n o t t h e c a s e t h a t y in w i s g r e a t e r t h a n a i.n @ ,

o r el se as s o m e s t r o n g e r f o r m u l a t i o n w h i c h e n t a i l s t h is . T h e o n l y

p l a u s i b l e c a n d i d a t e f o r t h i s s t r o n g e r v e r s i o n i s :

F o r ev e r y c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d s w a n d w * a n d e v e r y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e

b e i n g y, i t i s n o t t h e c a s e t h a t y in u , is g r e a t e r t h a n a i n w * .

T h e s e a r e m y e q u i v a l e n t s o f L e w i s ' P r e m i s s 3 A a n d 3 C , r e s p e c t i v e ly .

14 Or: does n ot r -have ex i s t ence . Cf . n . 7 , above .~5 No te tha t A nse lm does not e xpl i c i t l y say tha t whatever ex i s t s i n t he unde r -s t and i ng w ou l d be g rea t e r i f i t ex i s ted i n r ea l i t y t han i f i t d i d no t ( i. e. , t ha t i f

any unde r s t anda b l e be i ng x ex i s ts i n one conce i vab l e w o r l d w b u t no t i n ano t he rw * , t hen x i n i v i s g rea t e r t han x i n w *) - - L ew i s ' f o rm u l a t i on o f h i s P rem i s s2 (p . 176) . A nse l m does no t m ake t h is gene ra l c l a im . S t i l l, [ t h i nk he w ou l dhave accep t ed i t .,6 L ew i s adds a spec i a l p rem i s s (h is fou r t h , p . 180 ) t ha t @ i s a con ce i vab l ew or l d . L e t u s s i m p l y t ake t h is fo r g ran t ed .



442 INTERNATIONALJOURNAL FOR PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION

W e s h al l h e n c e f o r t h w o r k o n l y w i t h t h e w e a k e r v e r s io n . E v e r y t h in g

w e s a y a b o u t i t b e l o w c a n b e a p p l i e d muta t i s mu tand i s t o t h e s t r o n g e r

f o r m u l a t i o n t o o .

I V

G i v e n P r e m i s s 1 , i n e i t h e r t h e w e a k o r t h e s t r o n g f o r m u l a t i o n ,

t o g e t h e r w i t h P r e m i s s 2 , t h e a r g u m e n t i s c le a r l y v a l i d - - w e c a n c o n -

c l u d e th a t a d o e s e xi st in t h e a c t u a l w o r l d - - b u t o n l y i f w e d o n o t

c o m m i t a f a l la c y o f e q u i v o c a t i o n . B o t h P r e m i s s 1 a n d P r e m i s s 2

c o n t a i n t h e t e r m ' g r e a t e r , ' a n d w e h a v e s e e n t h a t t h a t i s s u b j e c t t o

a f o u r f o l d a m b i g u i t y . T h e a r g u m e n t w i l l b e v a l id , t h e r e f o r e , o n l y

i f w e c o n s i s t e n t l y e n a p l o y t h e s a m e s e n s e o f ' g r e a t e r ' i n t h e t w o

p r e m i s s e s . W e h a v e t h e n f o u r v a l i d f o r m s o f t h e a r g u m e n t . D o e s

a n y o f th e m s u c c ee d a s a p r o o f ?

( i) R e a d i n g r / r - g r e a t e r t h r o u g h o u t . T h e n P r e m i s s 1 s a ys

t h a t t h e r e i s a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g a s u c h t h a t t h e r e i s n o c l a s s

o f p e r f e c t io n s , r - h a d b y s o m e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g i n s o m e c o n -

c e i v a b l e w o r l d , w h i c h p r o p e r l y i n c lu d e s t h e c l as s o f p e r f e c t i o n s

r - h a d b y a i n @ . B u t th i s is u n a c c e p t a b l e . F o r c o n s i d e r a n u n d e r -

s t a n d a b l e b e i n g z t h a t c - h a s all p e r f e c t i o n s . B y ( 2 ) o f se c t i o n I I ,

a b o v e , z ex i s ts in s o m e c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d , s a y w . H e n c e z r- h a s a ll

p e r f e c t i o n s in w . F r o m P r e m i s s 1 , c o n s t r u e d w i t h r/r-greater, i t

t h e r e f o r e f o l l o w s t h a t a r- h a s a ll p e r f e c t i o n s i n @ , a n d t h u s t h a t a

e x is ts in @ . H e n c e b y g r a n t in g P r e m i s s 1 i n th i s s en s e , w e w o u l d

already h a v e g r a n t e d t h e e x i s te n c e o f a in @ . T h u s t h e f o r m o f t h e

a r g u m e n t w i t h r / r - g r e a t e r b e g s t h e q u e s t i o n i n v i r t u e o f P r e m i s s 1.

( ii ) R e a d i n g r / c - g r e a t e r t h r o u g h o u t . T h e n P r e m i s s 1 s ay s

t h a t t h e r e is an . u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g a s u c h t h a t t h e r e i s n o c l as s

o f p e r f e c ti o n s , r - h a d b y s o m e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g in s o m e c o n -

c e i v a b l e w o r l d , w h i c h p r o p e r l y i n c l u d e s t h e c l a s s o f p e r f e c t i o n s

c - h a d b y a . B u t o n c e a g a in , c o n s i d e r a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g z a s

a b o v e . S i n c e z r - h a s a l l p e r f e c t i o n s i n s o m e c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d , i t

f o l l o w s f r o m P r e m i s s 1 , c o n s t r u e d w i t h r / c - g r e a t e r , t h a t a c - ha s a ll

p e r f e c t i o n s . P r e m i s s 1 , s o c o n s t r u e d , is guaranteed true , g i v e n o n l y

t h e m i n i m a l a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g t h a t

c - h as a l l p e r f e c t i o n s . ,7 B u t n o w l o o k a t P r e m i s s 2 . C o n s t r u e d w i t h

lr This does n ot presuppose that p erfections are jointly compatible; under-standable beings need not be otherwise possible or consistent. Cf. (1) fromsection II, above.



NSELM ND MBIGUITY 4 4 3

r / c - g r e a t e r , i t s a y s t h a t if t h e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g a, d e s c r i b e d

b y P r e m i ss 1 , d o e s n o t e x i st in @ , t h e n i n e v e r y c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d

i n w h i c h i t d o e s e x i s t i t r - h a s a l l t h e p e r f e c t i o n s i t c - h a s a n d perimpossible) m o r e b e s i d e s .

B u t P r e m i s s 2 , s o c o n s t r u e d , i s h a r d l y p l a u s i b l e - - a t l e a s t i t i s

n o m o r e p l a u s i b l e t h a n t h e c o n c l u s i o n t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d . U n l e s s w e

h a v e a n t e c e d e n t r e a s o n t o t h i n k t h a t a e x i s t s i n @ , o r u n l e s s w e

c a n d e d u c e P r e m i s s 2 f r o m s o m e o t h e r p r i n c i p l e w e h a v e r ea so n , t o

g r a n t , w e h a v e n o r e a s o n f o r a c c e p t i n g i t . B u t n o o t h e r p r i n c i p l e

s u g g e st s i t se l f . W e c a n n o t p l a u s i b l y d e d u c e P r e m i s s 2 f r o m a n y

g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f i t . F o r u n l e s s t h a t g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i s r e s t r i c t e d t o

u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g s w e h a v e a n t e c e d e n t r e a s o n to t h i n k e x i st in

@ , t h e r e w i l l b e n o g o o d r e a s o n t o g r a n t i t .

( ii i) R e a d i n g c / r - g r e a t e r t h r o u g h o u t . T h e s i t u a t i o n i s a n a l -

o g o u s t o ( i) a b o v e .

( i v ) R e a d i n g c / c - g r e a t e r t h r o u g h o u t . T h e s i t u a t i o n i s a n a l -

o g o u s t o ( ii ) a b o v e .

P r e m i s s 1 , a s w e s ee , i s g u a r a n t e e d t r u e w h e r e g r e a t e r i s t a k e n

a s e i t h e r r / c - g r e a t e r o r c / c - g r e a t e r , g i v e n o n l y t h e m i n i m a l a s s u m p -

t i o n m e n t i o n e d . U n d e r e i t h e r r e a d i n g , a w i l l c - h a v e a t l e a s t o n e

p e r f e c t i o n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f a c -h a s at le a s t o n e p e r f e c t i o n ,

t h e n P re m i s s 2 is g u a r a n t e e d t r u e w h e r e g r e a t e r i s t a k e n a s

r / r - g r e a t e r o r c / r - g r e a t e r . F o r e v e r y c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d w i n w h i c h

a e x i s t s , i t w i l l c - h a v e , a n d t h e r e f o r e r - h a v e i n w , a t l e a s t o n e p e r -

f e c t i o n , w h e r e a s , i f a d o e s n o t e x i s t in @ , i t r- h as n o p e r f e c t i o n s

t h e r e .

H e r e w e s e e th e b a s i s f o r t h e a r g u m e n t ' s i l lu s i o n o f p l a u s i b i li t y .

T h e i l l u si o n a ri se s f r o m c o n f u s i n g t h e d i s ti n c t io n b e t w e e n c o n c e p t u a l l yh a v i n g a p r o p e r t y a n d r e a ll y h a v i n g i t, a n d t h e r e f o r e o v e r l o o k i n g t h e

a m b i g u i t y i n t h e n o t i o n o f g r e a t e r . G i v e n t h a t f o u r f o l d am b i g u i t y ,

t h e r e a r e s ix t e e n w a y s o f r e a d i n g t h e t w o p r e m i s s e s in c o m b i n a t i o n .

O n f o u r o f th e s e w a y s , th e a r g u m e n t is v a l id , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y

f a i l s o n o t h e r g r o u n d s . O n f o u r o t h e r w a y s , b o t h p r e m i s s e s a r e

g u a r a n t e e d t r u e , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e a r g u m e n t i s i n v a l i d b y a

f a l l a c y o f e q u i v o c a t i o n . T h e i l l u s i o n o f p l a u s i b i l i t y a r i s e s f r o m o v e r -

l o o k i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e .



INTERN TION L JOURN L FOR PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION

V

F i n a l l y , l e t u s r e t u r n t o L e w i s ' a n a ly s i s a n d t o t h e p r o b l e m s k e t c h -

e d i n s e c t i o n I , a b o v e . L e w i s ' 3 A a n d 3 C a r e e s s e n t i a ll y t h e s a m e a s

t h e w e a k a n d t h e s t r o n g f o r m s o f m y P r e m i s s 1 , r e s p e ct iv e l y , is W e

h a v e s e e n t h a t t h e r e a r e s e n s es o f b o t h t h e s e f o r m s o f th e p r e m i s s

i n w h i c h t h e y a re g u a r a n t e e d t r ue , g i v e n t h e m i n i m a l a s s u m p t i o n

m e n t i o n e d . M o r e o v e r , L e w i s h i m s e l f te ll s u s h o w o n e m i g h t t r y to

a r g u e f o r th i s m i n i m a l a s s u m p t i o n , a n d h e n c e f o r 3 C 19: H e m i g h t

a s s u m e t h a t f o r e v e r y d e s c r i p t i o n h e u n d e r s t a n d s t h e r e is so m e

U n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g a n s w e r i n g t o t h a t d e s c r i p t i o n ( 1 8 2 ) . 20 I n

p a ~ 't ic u la r, t h e r e is a n u n d e r s t a n d a b l e b e i n g a n s w e r i n g t o th e

d e s c r i p t i o n ' b e i n g w i t h a l l p e r f e c t i o n s , ' w h i c h I c a n q u i t e w e l l u n d e r -

s t a n d . I t answer s t o t h e d e s c r i p t i o n i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t d o e s c - h a v e

a ll p e r f e c t i o n s . 21 O n c e L e w i s h a s g r a n t e d ( 1 7 6 - 1 7 7 ) t h a t u n d e r -

s t a n d a b l e b e i n g s n e e d n o t b e o t h e r w i s e p o s s i b le , a n d t h a t t h e y m a y

e x is t in c o n c e i v a b l e w o r l d s t h a t n e e d n o t b e o t h e r w i s e p o s s ib l e w o r l d s ,

h e c a n h a r d l y r e f u t e t h e a r g u m e n t f o r 3 C i n t h e w a y h e t ri es o n

p . 1 8 2 .L e w i s ' 3 A a n d 3 C , t h r e f o re , a r e g u a r a n t e e d t ru e w h e n g r e a t e r

i s t a k e n a s r/c-greater o r c / c - g r e a t e r . B u t i t d o e s n o t f o l l o w th a t

t h e a r g u m e n t is a s u c c e s s fu l p r o o f . F o r w i t h g r e a t e r t a k e n in

e i t h e r o f t h e s e w a y s , L e w i s ' P r e m i s s 2 i s i m p l a u s i b l e . . 0 2 A g a i n , w h e n

g r e a t e r is t a k e n i n e i t h e r o f t h e t w o r e m a i n i n g s e n s e s , c/r-greater o r

r/r-greater, L e w i s ' P r e m i s s 2 m a y b e m a d e true,.0 3 b u t 3 A a n d 3 C

b e g t h e q u e s t i o n .

18 Cf. above, the end of sect ion l l I .19 Since 3C implies 5A, the ar gum ent is also an ar gum ent fo r 3A.-00 I t was n ot c lear f rom Lew is ' accoun t a lone ho w such an argum ent w as sup-posed to supor t 3C..21 A nse lm says ev en the fo ol is con vinc ed that so m ething exists in the unde r-s tanding , a t l eas t , than which no grea ter can be conceived . For , when he hearsof th is , he unde rs tands i t . This suggests tha t the descr ip t ion w hose under -s tanding guarantees the t ru th of Premiss 1 i s not be ing wi th a l l per fec t ionsbu t r a the r t ha t than w hich no grea ter can be conce ived . But th i s wi l l no tdo . Al l th i s guarantees i s tha t there i s an unders tandable be ing which c-hasthe prope r ty of be ing tha t than wh ich no grea ter ( in som e sense) can be con-ce ived . No form of the a rgument wi th tha t as i t s f i r s t p remiss i s va l id , much

less sound..02 The argument is analogous to that under ( i i ) above.--3 By req uir ing, in the case of c/r-greater, t ha t eve ry unde r s t andab le be ingc-have at least one perfect ion, or by requir ing, in the case of 'r/r-greater, tha tevery unders tan dable be ing exis ting in a conceivable wo r ld r -have some per-fec t ion there .



NSELM ND MBIGUITY 445

In section I, I argued that Lewis reconstruction of the argument

left itself open to a serious objection. That objection shows that

something else must be taken into account if we are to succeed in

disarming Anselm s ontological argument. The distinction between

really having a property and conceptualy having it is a distinction

sufficient for this task. There may be other, perhaps better, ways

of disarming the argument. That remains to be negotiated.

P UL VINCENT SP DE

ndiana University

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