UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
EPIDEMIOLOGY AND ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BOVINE BRUCELLOSIS IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
MUKHTAR SALIHU ANKA
FPV 2014 6
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EPIDEMIOLOGY AND ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BOVINE BRUCELLOSIS
IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
By
MUKHTAR SALIHU ANKA
Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia,
in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
January 2014
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COPYRIGHT
All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos,
icons, photographs and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra
Malaysia unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within
the thesis for non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use
of material may only be made with the express, prior, written permission of
Universiti Putra Malaysia.
Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia
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DEDICATION
Dedicated to my mum Hajiya Safiya Salihu Anka for her love and support.
ABSTRACT
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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment
of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
EPIDEMIOLOGY AND ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BOVINE BRUCELLOSIS
IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
By
MUKHTAR SALIHU ANKA
January 2014
Chairman: Latiffah Hassan, PhD
Faculty: Veterinary Medicine
Bovine brucellosis is an important bacterial disease in cattle and other bovine species
including bison, elk and buffalo and is mainly caused by the bacterium
Brucellaabortus. Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease with serious economic impact to
livestockindustry in both developed and developing countries. The present study was
carried out to understand the epidemiology of bovine brucellosis in Peninsular
Malaysia; to describe its occurrence and distribution, to evaluate spatial and temporal
clusters pattern and distribution, to identify potential risk factors associated with
bovine brucellosis, to assess economic impact of bovine brucellosis to farmers and
costs of monitoring, control and eradication to government and finally to evaluate the
effectiveness of culling policy of area-wise eradication program of brucellosis in
Peninsular Malaysia.
A retrospective examination of surveillance data between 2000 and 2008 was carried
out to investigate the presence and occurrence of bovine brucellosis in Peninsular
Malaysia. The findings showed that bovine brucellosis is widely distributed across
the peninsula. The annual seroprevalence for the 9-year study period was 2.7% and
21.7% for individual animal and herd level prevalence respectively. The herd
prevalence fluctuated but remained high within the period of the study while animal
prevalence was comparatively low but has a more discerning trend over the study
period. In the second study, data on the surveillance activities was aggregated into
district level due to lack of farm coordinate and confidentiality of the farm centriole
of the districts was used as the coordinate to run spatial and temporal cluster, the
ArcGIS and Sat Scan softwares were used for the analysis. The result showed that
bovine brucellosis clustered in both space and time and cluster pattern confirmed the
earlier finding of similar trend. Three clusters were detected: the first cluster around
the state of Pahang and part of Johor covering 5 districts with 68 km radius, the
second cluster was situated in Kelantan covering large area of 230 km with 51
districts and the third cluster wa in Selangor affecting 6 districts covering 34 km.
However, the cluster was not statistically significant. High risk areas (hot spot) were
also detected to be around the clusters identified.
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A case-control study was conducted in four states of Peninsular Malaysia: Kelantan,
Pahang, Negeri Sembilan and Selangor whereby 71 farmers were interviewed to
investigate the potential risk factors associated with bovine brucellosis in Peninsular
Malaysia. Blood and vaginal swabs from cattle, whenever permissible, were
collected to detect Brucella abortus. Questionnaire on the herd-level risk factors was
developedincluding information on general farm management, biosecurity, medical
history and public health awareness. Serological tests as well as culture and
identification test were performed on the samples using Rose Bengal Plate Test and
Brucella agar with supplement respectively. Univariate analysis was conducted for
the potential risk factors and disease status and variables significant on the analysis
were modeled into multivariate logistic regression. Seroprevalence was 1.8%
(n=282) but samples were cultured negative. The Potential risk factors included
farmers with more than one species of animals, presence of wildlife and history of
abortion. About 78.9% of the farmers participated in the survey reported assisting
their animals during delivery and 71.8% had not been using basic personal protective
equipments such as glove and face mask to protect them from potentially contracting
the infection. Similarly, 2.8% reported consumed unpasteurized milk from their
animals. In addition, 19.7% have had episodes of fever with one farmers experienced
undulant fever, and was later diagnosed as infected with brucellosis.
A case-control study assessed the direct economic impact of bovine brucellosis in
Peninsular Malaysia. This study incorporated the data from 71 farms based on the
record of year 2010, surveillance data from DVS, data from DVS statistics on
estimated cattle population and some conservative assumption based on proxy. The
estimated direct economic cost of bovine brucellosis in Peninsular Malaysia was
calculated using a simple spread sheet tool based on established method by Bennett
et al 2003. The total economic loss in 2010 from sampled farms due to bovine
brucellosis was estimated to be RM 1,445,367.30. Resources spent for the control
and eradication accounted for 21% (RM302, 036) of the lost. This included the cost
of vaccination of RM 13,736.00 and compensation cost of RM 288, 300.00 There
were also significant devastating impacts to livestock farmers which accounted for
79% (RM 1,143,331.30) of the cost which included milk reduction losses of RM54,
581.30, partial carcass condemnation ofRM 961,000.00 and loss due to abortion
accounted for RM 127,750.00.
A cross-sectional survey was carried out to evaluate the efficiency of the culling
process prescribed for seroreactor cattle in Malaysia. Fourteen abattoirs in four
states: Kelantan, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan and Selangor were visited and data on
culled cattle from 2005 to 2008 were examined. The data was managed and analysed
using Microsoft Excel. A total of 1,954 cattle were culled in the 14 abattoirs in the
four states from 2005 to 2008. In 2005, 157.9% seropositive cattle were culled and
for 2006, 2007 and 2008 only 51.5, 41.0 and 88.4% were culled respectively. The
state of Selangor has the highest culling rate of 114.2%, followed by Pahang
(94.0%), Negeri Sembilan (22.0%) while Kelantan had no record of culling within
the study period. The overall culling rate for the studied states within the study
period was 72.16%.
In conclusion, bovine brucellosis in Peninsular Malaysia is widely distributed with
major clustering of high risk areas. The disease occurrence was associated with
several factors such as system of management, other species of animal in the farm
and history of abortion. The economic burden of the disease was significant and
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estimated to be RM 1,445,367.30 in the year 2010. The area-wise eradication
program of brucellosis was shown to be effective in reducing the prevalence.
However, there is a need for improvement especially in area of enforcement of the
culling policy.
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Abstrak tesis yang dipersembahkan kepada senat University Putra Malaysia
Sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah
EPIDEMIOLOGI DAN IMPAK EKONOMI BRUSOLOSIS BOVIN DI
SEMENANJUNG MALAYSIA
Oleh
MUKHTAR SALIHU ANKA
January 2014
Pengerusi: Latiffah Hassan, PhD
Fakulti: Perubatan Veterinar
Bruselosis bovin merupakan penyakit yang disebabkan oleh bakteria Brucella
abortus pada lembu dan spesies lain termasuk banteng, rusa dan kerbau. Brucelosis
adalah penyakit zoonosis yang memberi kesan ekonomi yang serius kepada industri
ternakan di negara maju dan membangun. Kajian ini telah dijalankan untuk
memahami epidemiologi brucelosis lembu di Semenanjung Malaysia, untuk
menggambarkan kejadian dan taburan, untuk menilai corak gugusan ruang dan masa
dan taburan, untuk mengenalpasti faktor risiko berkaitan dengan brucelosis lembu,
untuk menilai kesan ekonomi disebabkan oleh penyakit ini kepada petani dan kos
kepada kerajaan untuk program pemantauan, kawalan dan pembasmian dan akhirnya
untuk menila keberkesanan dasar pemusnahan program pembasmian bruselosis di
Semenanjung Malaysia.
Pemeriksaan retrospektif data pengawasan antara tahun 2000 dan 2008 telah
dijalankan untuk menyiasat kehadiran dan kejadian brucelosis lembu di
Semenanjung Malaysia. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahawa taburan brucelosis lembu
didapati secara meluas di seluruh Semenanjung Malaysia. Seroprevalens tahunan
bagi tempoh 9 tahun ialah 2.7% dan 21.7% masing-masing bagi haiwan individu dan
kelompok. Prevalens kelompok berubah-ubah tetapi kekal tinggi dalam tempoh
kajian manakala prevalens haiwan adalah agak rendah tetapi mempunyai tren yang
berbeza dalam tempoh kajian.Dalam kajian kedua, data aktiviti pengawasan telah
diagregatkan ke peringkat daerah kerana kekurangan data koordinat ladang dan bagi
memelihara kerahsiaan ladang. Daerah digunakan sebagai koordinat untuk
menjalankan analisis gugusan ruang dan masa menggunakan ArcGIS dan perisian
Sat Scan.. Hasilnya menunjukkan bahawa brucelosis lembu adalah bergugusan
mengikut ruang dan masa, corak gugusan mengesahkan trend yang hampir sama.
Tiga gugusan depat dikesan: gugusan pertama di seluruh negeri Pahang dan
sebahagian daripada Johor yang meliputi 5 daerah dengan 68 km radius, gugusan
kedua terletak di Kelantan meliputi kawasan besar 230 km dengan 51 daerah,
gugusan yang terakhir telah ditemui di Selangor melibatkan 6 daerah meliputi 34 km
walaupun gugusan itu tidak ketara secara statistik. Kawasan berisiko tinggi (hot spot)
juga dikesan di sekitar gugusan yang dikenal pasti.
Satu kajian kes-kawal telah dijalankan di empat negeri di Semenanjung Malaysia;
Kelantan, Pahang, Negeri Sembilan dan Selangor di mana 71 petani telah
ditemuramah tentang faktor risiko yang berpotensi berkait dengan bruselosis lembu
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di Semenanjung Malaysia. Darah dan swab vagina lembu, bilamene dibenarkan,
dikumpulkan untuk mengesan Brucella abortus.. Soal selidik faktor risiko kumpulan
peringkat telah dibina termasuk maklumat mengenai pengurusan am ladang,
biosekuriti, sejarah perubatan dan kesedaran kesihatan awam kepada petani. Serologi
dan kultur dan pengenalpastian telah dijalankan ke atas sampel menggunakan Ujian
Rose Bengal dan agar Brucella dengan makanan tambahan. Analisis univariat telah
dijalankan untuk faktor risiko yang berpotensi dan status penyakit dan
pembolehubah yang bekeertian pada analisis dimasukkan ke model regresi logistik
multivariat. Seroprevalens yang diperolehi ialah 1.8% (n = 282) tetapi sampel
dipepati negeri pada kultur. Faktor risiko potensi yang dikenalpasti adalah petani
dengan lebih dari satu spesies haiwan, kewujudan hidupan liar dan sejarah
keguguran. Lebih kurang 78.9% daripada petani mengambil bahagian dalam kajian
melaporkan membantu haiwan mereka sewaktu proses kelahiran dan 71.8% didapati
tidak pernah menggunakan peralatan asas perlindungan peribadi seperti sarung
tangan dan topeng muka untuk melindungi mereka daripada dijangkiti oleh jangkitan
tersebut. Begitu juga 2.8% dilaporkan minum susu dari haiwan merekayang tidak
dipasteurkan. Di samping itu, 19.7% mempunyai episod demam dimana seorang
daripada petani tersebut mengalami demam undulan, dan kemudiannya telah
didiagnosis dengan bruselosis.
Kajian kes-kawal ini juga menilai kesan ekonomi langsung brucelosis lembu di
Semenanjung Malaysia. Kajian ini menggabungkan data yang dikumpul daripada 71
ladang berdasarkan rekod tahun 2010, data pengawasan dari Jabatan Perkhidmatan
Haiwan, data statistik dari Jabatan Perkhidmatan Haiwan mengenai anggaran
populasi lembu dan beberapa andaian konservatif berdasarkan proksi. Anggaran kos
ekonomi langsung bruselosis lembu di Semenanjung Malaysia telah dikira
menggunakan kaedah yang dibina oleh Bennett et al 2003. Jumlah kerugian ekonomi
ladang yang disampel disealibatabkan bruselosis lembu dianggarkan sebanyak RM
1,445,367.30.Sumber yang dibelanjakan bagi kawalan dan pembasmian
menyumbangk sebanyak 21% (RM302, 036) daripada kerugian. Ini termasuk kos
pemvaksinan sebanyak RM 13,736 dan kos pampasan sebanyak RM 288, 300. Kesan
ekonomi buruk yang besar juga didapati kepada penternak yang menyumbangkan
sebanyak 79% (RM 1,143,331.30) daripada kos termasuk kerugian pengurangan
susu sebanyak RM54,581.30, kondemnasi separa karkas RM 961,000 dan kerugian
akibat keguguran sebanyak RM 127,750 .
Satu kajian keratan-rentas telah dijalankan untuk menilai kecekapan proses
pemusnahan yang ditetapkan untuk lembu yang seropositif di Malaysia, di mana
sebanyak 14 rumah penyembelihan di empat negeri Kelantan, Pahang, Negeri
Sembilan dan Selangor telah dilawati dan data mengenai lembu yang dimusnahkan
dari tahun 2005-2008 diperiksa. Data tersebut diurus dan dianalisis menggunakan
Microsoft Excel..Sebanyak 1,954 ekor lembu telah dimusnahkan dalam 14 rumah
penyembelihan daripada empat negeri yang kami lawati dari 2005 hingga 2008. Pada
tahun 2005, 157.9% lembu seropositif dimusnahkan and bagi tahun 2006, 2007 dan
2008 tedapat 51,5, 41.0 dan 88,4% dimusnahkan, masing-masing. Negeri Selangor
mempunyai kadar pemusnahan tertinggi sebanyak 114.2%, diikuti oleh Pahang (94.0
%), Negeri Sembilan (22.0%) manakala Kelantan tidak mempunyai rekod
pemusnahan dalam tempoh tersebut. Kadar pemusnahan keseluruhan bagi negeri-
negeri yang dikaji dalam tempoh kajian ini adalah 72.16%.
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Kesimpulannya, bruselosis lembu di Semenanjung Malaysia tertabur secara meluas
dengan gugusan utama kawasan berisiko tinggi. Kewujudan penyakit dikaitkan
dengan beberapa faktor seperti sistem pengurusan ladang, spesies haiwan lain di
ladang dan sejarah pengguguran. Beban ekonomi penyakit bagi ladang yang
disampel adalah dianggarkan sebanyak RM 1,445,367.30.pada tahun 2010. Program
pembasmian brucelosis didapati berkesan untuk mengurangkan prevalen
penyakit.Walau bagaimanapun, terdapat keperluan untuk penambahbaikan
terutamanya dalam bidang penguatkuasaan menakai haiwan yang berpenyakit.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my profound gratitude to Almighty Allah for giving me the
opportunity and wisdom in pursuing through to this achievement. I am grateful to the
Chairperson of my PhD committee, Assoc Prof Dr Latiffah Hassan for her
continuous coaching and support throughout the years of my PhD, for burning the
midnight oil reading, re-reading and revising my work, for asking insightful
comments and questions, and for offering invaluable advice. Assoc Prof Dr. Siti
Khairani Bejo, Professor Dr. Zaianal Abidin Mohamed and Dr. Ramlan Bin
Muhamad for their invaluable guidance, advice, encouragement through the course
of the study and in preparation of this thesis. Without their patience, support and
contribution, I wouldn‘t have accomplished the goal of finishing this dissertation.
I am especially grateful to the Department of Veterinary Services Putrajaya and
Veterinary Research Institute Ipoh, state and district veterinary department staff and
owners of farms in the four states we visited for granting me the permission to collect
samples and for their time in helping me interviewing the farmers. I thank the
managers of the abattoirs in Pahang, Selangor, Kelantan and Negeri Sembilan for
their assistance in providing us with data. Specifically, my gratitude goes to Dr. Azri
Adzhar, late Dr. Roosevien Farida Nilawati Rachmat of the DVS Putrajaya for their
help and assistance during the course of the study.
Additionally I appreciate the help of Dr. Annas Saleh, Dr. Muhamad Salim Bin Tahir
for their kind assistance during our data collection, thank you for helping me
converse with the farmers. Special thanks to the staff who accompanied me to the
field during our farm sampling, individuals like En Mohd Faizal Bin Abdullah, En
Amin bin Abd.Hamid, Puan Nazira Abu, En Mohd Helmy Bin Mahroob, En Azri bin
Samin, Encik Wan Azaman bin Wan Mahmud, Encik Hassan Gua Musang, and
many more that I may not have enough space to mention here.
To my colleagues and friends especially Dr. Ibrahim Abubakar Anka, Dr.
Abdulrasheed Bello Aliyu, Dr. Hassan Ismail Musa, Dr. Adamu Abubakar Yarima,
Dr. Khumran Armiyau Mada, Dr Kabir Sahabi Kalgo, Nasiru Matazu for their
guidance from the inception to the completion of this study, thank you. They have
been instrumental in helping me shape my thesis and providing me with insight to
the joys (and stress) of academic research. My thanks are due to Encik Hafiz, Encik
Hajar and Cik Krishnamma in the Bacteriology Laboratory, Department of
Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veteriunary Medicine, Universiti
Putra Malaysisa for their technical assistance.
I am especially grateful to my Director of Veterinary Service in Zamfara State
Directorate of Livestock Development Dr. Auwal Bawa Moriki for his
encouragement during my study. Special thanks also go to my colleagues Dr. Bello
Mainasara Shinkafi, Dr. Muhammad Muhammad Bagudu and Dr. Usman Ismail
Gusau all in Zonal Veterinary Clinic Gusau Zamfara State for their support.
I am especially gratitude to my parents specifically my mother Hajiya Safiya Anka
and my late Father Alhaji Salihu Anka for giving me guidance, support and prayers.
My heartfelt appreciation goes to my wife Miss Maryam Anka, whose dedication,
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love and persistent confidence in me has taken the load off my shoulder. To my son
Al-ameen Mukhtar Anka, you are the source of strength and perseverance. It was you
who motivated me when times were difficult and I felt like there was no light at the
end of the tunnel.One love to my brothers and sisters for their support and
encouragement, especially Sani Salihu Anka for his motivation and assisance.
Finally, I would like to thank everyone who has contributed to the successful
realization of this thesis, as well as expressing my apology that I could not mention
them personally one by one.
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I certify that a thesis examination committee has met on 08/01/2014 to conduct the
final examination of Mukhtar Salihu Anka on his thesis entitle “Epidemiology and
Economic Impact of Bovine brucellosis in Peninsular Malaysia” in accordance with
the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 and the Constitution of the
Universiti Putra Malaysia [P.U.(A) 106] 15 march 1998. The Committee
recommends that the student be awarded the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Member of the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows:
Abdul Rahim bin Abdul Mutalib, PhD
Associate Professor
Faculty of veterinary Medicine
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Chairman)
Saleha bt Abdul Aziz, PhD
Professor
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Internal Examiner)
Mohd Zamri b Saad, PhD
Professors
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Internal Examiner)
Husni Omar Mohammed, Phd
Professor
Population Medicine & Diagnostic Sciences
College of Veterinary Medicine
Cornell University
United States
(External Examiner)
________________________________
Noritah Omar, PhD
Associate Professor and Deputy Dean
School of Graduate Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date: 17 Febuary 2014
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This thesis was submitted to the senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been
accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows:
Latiffah Hassan, PhD
Associate Professor
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Chairman)
Siti Khairani Bejo, PhD
Associate Professor
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)
Mohamed Zainal Abidin, PhD
Professor
Faculty of Agriculture
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)
Ramlan Bin Mohamed, PhD
Director
Veterinary Research Institute, Ipoh
(Member)
________________________
BUJANG BIN KIM HUAT, PHD Professor and Dean
School of graduate Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date:
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DECLARATION
Declaration by graduate student
I hereby confirm that:
this thesis is my original work;
quotations, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced;
this thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any other
degree at any other institutions;
intellectual property from the thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-owned
by Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Research) Rules 2012;
written permission must be obtained from supervisor and the office of
Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) before thesis is
published (in the form of written, printed or in electronic form) including
books, journals, modules, proceedings, popular writings, seminar papers,
manuscripts, posters, reports, lecture notes, learning modules or any other
materials as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;
there is no plagiarism or data falsification/fabrication in the thesis, and
scholarly integrity is upheld as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Graduate Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the Universiti
Putra Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012. The thesis has undergone plagiarism
detection software.
Signature: _______________________ Date: 8 January 2014
Name and Matric No.: Mukhtar Salihu Anka
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Declaration by Members of Supervisory Committee
This is to confirm that:
the research conducted and the writing of this thesis was under our supervision;
supervision responsibilities in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate Studies)
Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) are adhered to.
Signature: ________________________ Name of
Chairman of
Supervosory Committee: _______________________
Signature: ________________________ Name of
Member of
Supervosory Committee: _______________________
Signature: ________________________
Name of Member of
Supervosory
Committee: _______________________
Signature: ________________________
Name of Member of
Supervosory
Committee: _______________________
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TABLES OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT iii
ABSTRAK vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
APPROVAL
ix
xi
DECLARATION xiii
LIST OF TABLES xviii
LIST OF FIGURES xix
LIST OF ABBREVIATION xx
CHAPTER
1 INTRODUCTION
1
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Background
2.2 The organism
2.3 Epidemiology of bovine brucellosis
2.3.1 Brucella infection in cattle
2.3.2 Clinical sign
2.3.3 Mode of transmission and route of exposure
2.3.4 Reservoir
2.3.5 Source and level of exposure
2.3.6 Distribution and occurrence
2.4 Pathogenesis of brucellosis
2.5 Virulence and pathogenicity
2.6 Diagnosis
2.7 Risk factors influencing transmission of brucellosis
2.7.1 Risk factors influencing transmission between herd
2.7.2 Risk factors influencing intra-herd transmission
2.7.3 Host susceptibility
2.8 Public health significant
2.9 Geographical information system
2.10 Economic impact of brucellosis
2.11 Principles of control and eradication
1.11.1 Bovine brucellosis in Malaysia
1.11.2 Present situation
2.12 Conclusion and areas for future research
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
6
7
8
9
9
11
11
12
12
13
13
14
16
17
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18
3 DISTRIBUTION, PATTERN AND TREND OF BOVINE
BRUCELLOSIS IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Materials and methods
19
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20
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3.2.1 Study area
3.2.2 Data sources
3.2.3 Data analysis
3.2.4 Spatial distribution
3.3 Results
3.3.1 Descriptive study of seroprevalece and trend of bovine
brucellosis
3.3.2 Spatial distribution
3.4 Discussion
3.5 Conclusions
20
20
20
21
21
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22
28
31
4 SPATIO-TEMPORAL CLUSTER DISTRIBUTION OF BOVINE
BRUCELLOSIS IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Materials and methods
4.2.1 Description of data
4.2.2 Purely spatial with Bernoulli probability model
4.2.3 Space-time with Bernoulli model
4.3 Results
4.4 Discussion
4.5 Conclusion
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33
38
39
5 A CASE-CONTROL STUDY OF RISK FACTORS FOR BOVINE
BRUCELLOSIS SEROPOSITIVITY IN PENINSULAR
MALAYSIA
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Materials and methods
5.2.1 Study population
5.2.2 study design
5.2.3 Data collection
5.2.4 Data analysis
5.3 Results
5.3.1 Description of the study herds
5.3.2 Univariate logistic regression
5.3.3 Multivariate logistic regression
5.3.4 Occupational risk and awareness among farmers about
brucellosis
5.4 Discussion
5.5 Conclusion
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40
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41
41
41
42
42
43
43
43
49
52
6 ASSESSMENT OF ECONOMIC IMPACT OF BOVINE
BRUCELLOSIS IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Materials and methods
6.2.1 Source of information/data
6.2.2 Assumptions
6.2.23Data analysis
6.3 Results
6.4 Discussion
6.5 Conclusion
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7 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ON TESTING AND CULLING OF
BOVINE BRUCELLOSIS SEROREACTORS BETWEEN 2005
AND 2008 IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Materials and methods
7.2.1 Data source
7.2.2 Data management and analysis
7.3 Results
7.4 Discussion
7.5 Conclusion
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65
66
66
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66
69
72
8 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
FUTURE RESEARCH
8.1 General discussion
8.2 Conclusion
8.3 Recommendations for future research
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73
75
76
REFERENCES/BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDICES
BIODATA OF STUDENT
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
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99
111
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LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
3.1 Herd-level seroprevalence of bovine brucellosis based on several
factors in Peninsular Malaysia between 2000 and 2008
23
4.1 Clusters identified (2000 to 2008) of bovine brucellosis in
Peninsular Malaysia
34
4.2
4.3
Characteristic of space-time cluster of bovine brucellosis in
Peninsular Malaysia between 2000 and 2008
Duration of space-time cluster of bovine brucellosisin Peninsular
Malaysia from 2000 to 2008
35
35
5.1 Management practice univariate analysis of potential risk factors
for bovine brucellosis herd seropositivity in Peninsular Malaysia
45
5.2 Biosecurity univariate analysis of potential risk factors for bovine
brucellosis herd seropositivity in Peninsular Malaysia.
46
5.3 Medical history univariate analysis of potential risk factors for
bovine brucellosis herd seropositivity in Peninsular Malaysia.
47
5.4 Multivariate logistic regression of potential risk factors for bovine
brucellosis herd seropositivity in Peninsular Malaysia
48
5.5 Potential risk of Brucella infection among cattle farmers 49
6.1 Parameters for the calculation of bovine brucellosis economic
impact in Malaysia
56
6.2 Estimated direct cost of bovine brucellosis in Peninsular Malaysia
for 2010
58
6.3 Inferential estimated direct cost of bovine brucellosis in Peninsular
Malaysia for 2010
59
7.1 Number of cattle population and number of cattle sample between
2005 and 2008
67
7.2 The percentage of cattle culled from Pahang, Selangor, Kelantan
and Negeri Sembilan from the total seropositive from year 2005 to
2008
68
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
2.1 Geographical distribution of bovine brucellosis in the world 7
2.2 Brucellosis pathogenesis. 8
3.1 Annual Herd-Level Seroprevalence of Bovine Brucellosis in
Peninsular Malaysia from 2000 to 2008.
24
3.2 Annual cattle seroprevalence of bovine brucellosis in Peninsular
Malaysia from 2000 to 2008
24
3.3 Annual seroprevalence of bovine brucellosis between 2000 and
2008 of herds in each state in Peninsular Malaysia
25
3.4 Annual animal-level seroprevalence of bovine brucellosis between
2000 and 2008 in each state in Peninsular Malaysia
26
3.5 Choropleth map showing the overall prevalence of seropositive herd
in Peninsular Malaysia between 2000 and 2008.
27
3.6 Choropleth map showing the overall prevalence of seropositive
cattle in Peninsular Malaysia between 2000 and2008
27
3.7 Choropleth map showing the cattle population of Peninsular
Malaysia in 2008
28
4.1 Identified high risk areas and pattern of bovine brucellosis spread in
Peninsular Malaysia from 2000 to 2008
36
4.2 Result from the Space-time analysis showing significant cluster area
(high risk) of bovine brucellosis in peninsular Malaysia during
period 1 (2000to 2003) shown in light brown, period 2 (2004 to
2007) shown in orange and Period 3 (2005 to 2008) shown in dark
brown.
37
5.1 Location of study areas, the shaded areas indicate the study state 44
6.1 Estimated direct loss (and percentages) due to bovine brucellosis in
Peninsular Malaysia
59
6.2 Percentage burden to both farmers and government of bovine
brucellosis for 2010
60
6.4 Inferential estimated direct loss (and percentages) due to bovine
brucellosis in Peninsular Malaysia for 2010
60
6.4 Inferential percentage of burden to both farmers and government of
bovine brucellosis for 2010
61
7.1 Total number and percentage of seroreactors and culled cattle 69
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Arc GIS Geographic information system (GIS) software
AUSVETPLAN Australian Veterinary Emergency Plan
CD4Tcell Cluster of differentiation 4 timus dependent cells
CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CFSPH Center for Food Security and Public Health
CFT Complement Fixation Test
CI Confidence Interval
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
DSM Department of Statistics Malaysia
DVS Department of Veterinary Services
EFSA European Food Safety Authority
ELISA Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
ESRI Economic and Social Research Institute
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agricultural organization of united nation
FMD Food and Mouth Disease
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GIS Geopraphical Information System
HPAI Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza
IgM Immunoglobulin M
IH Institute Haiwan
JHSPH Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health
JUPEM Department of Survey and Mapping
LPS Lipopolysaccharide
MOA Ministry of Agriculture
MTM Malaysia-Thailand-Myanmar peninsula
NPC National Poison Centre
OIE International Organization for Animal Health
OR Odds ratio
PAHO Pan American Health Organization
PCR Polymerase chain reaction
PFGE Pulsed field gel electrophoresis
PPE Personal Protective Equipment
RB51 Strain RB51 vaccine
RBPT Rose Bengal Plate Test
RM Malaysian Ringgit
rRNA Ribosomal ribonucleic acid
S19 Strain 19
SNP Single nucleotide polymorphism
VRI Veterinary Research Institute
WHO World Health Organization
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Bovine brucellosis (Bang’s disease, Enzootic Abortion, Epizootic Abortion, Slinking
of Calves, and Contagious Abortion) is an infectious disease in cattle and other
species including bison, buffalo and elk caused by the bacterium Brucella abortus.
This organism is a facultative intracellular pathogen with up to seven biovars (1-6
and 9) have been reported. Some of these biovars differ only slightly from each other
biochemically (OIE, 2009). Other Brucella species that have been uncommonly
associated with the disease in cattle including B. melitensis and B. suis (Carvalho et
al., 2010).
Brucellosis is considered as a highly infectious zoonotic disease with a serious
economic repercussion on both humans and animals (Radostits et al.,
2000;Abernethy et al., 2006). Occupational exposure to Brucella has been reported
in laboratory workers, farmers, veterinarians and others who are in contact with
infected animals or tissues. Brucellosis is one of the most easily acquired laboratory
infections (Robichaud et al., 2004). In addition, individuals who do not work with
animals or tissues may become infected by ingesting unpasteurized contaminated
milk or dairy products (Corbel, 2003). Infection in humans is manifested in the form
of fever, lethargy and night sweats as initial symptoms. However, complication may
set in as a result of chronic infection, which follows involvement of many organs and
system such as liver, spleen, kidney and skeleton among others (Wright, 1997).
Major efforts have been undertaken around the world to control brucellosis in
livestock due to its significant economic losses and the often debilitating
consequences in humans (Halling & Boyle, 2002). The incidence of bovine
brucellosis varies both within and between countries. Advances in the control and
eradication practices have led to a significant reduction in the disease incidence or
complete eradication in some countries, including the United Kingdom,
Scandinavian countries, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Finland, Norway and
Sweden (Seleem et al., 2010). However, bovine brucellosis remains a significant
threat in Africa, the Middle East, Central and South America, and Asia including
Malaysia (Corbel, 2006). The disease is usually introduced into a herd from an
infected animal, but may also enter the herd via semen from infected bulls and via
contaminated fomites. Bovine brucellosis can be eradicated from a herd by test and
culling or by depopulation. Other important measures for control and eradication are
quarantine of infected animals and good surveillance system. Vaccination may be
used to control this disease in endemic areas, or used as part of an eradication
program (Nicoletti, 1984).
Spatial epidemiology has recently been used to aid in understanding of infectious
diseases including those that are zoonotic in nature (Ostfeld et al., 2005).
Understanding spatial distribution of diseases can provide an insight into their
determinants and helps in their control (Ruankaew, 2005; JHSPH, 2006).
Geographical distribution is a key element in the epidemiologic investigation, and
several tools have been explored for spatial-related data (Auchincloss et al., 2012).
The tools can be in the form of a simple map or more complex that includes
modeling by which geographic distribution of diseases can be visualized and
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analyzed in time. Therefore the map can reveal spatio-temporal trends, patterns, and
relationships that are difficult to discover in tabular or other formats (Ruankaew,
2005). Spatial epidemiology of bovine brucellosis in Malaysia has not been explored.
Knowledge about the spatial distribution is crucial for disease control and
prevention.
Animal health economics is a growing discipline that is becoming more important as
aid to decision making in livestock health at various stages. The stages of
intervention and decision making range from individual animal to the national herd
stage and lastly to international disease mitigation effort (Otte & Chilonda, 1987). In
recent years, there has been an increasing interest in estimating the magnitude of
financial losses or impact of livestock diseases and control strategies (Bennett, 2003)
in both developed and developing countries (FAO, 1962). Estimation of the overall
financial losses due to bovine brucellosis in the country will help to demonstrate the
magnitude of the economic damage caused by the disease, particularly to farmers,
livestock industry and the country. Most of the study conducted in Malaysia
concluded that bovine brucellosis is of economic importance. However, none has
performed economic analysis to estimate the impact of disease on the livestock
industry or farmers, nor evaluate possible cost of controlling the disease.
The study aimed to enhance the understanding on the epidemiology of bovine
brucellosis in Peninsular Malaysia so that disease control can be tailored to the local
disease situation. In addition, to substantiate the claim that the disease is of economic
significance, an economic analysis was performed based on the data that were
obtained during this research work and supported by other data that were not able to
be gathered during this work.
Three major hypotheses were
1. Brucellosis is clustered in several areas in Peninsular Malaysia.
2. Several factors (risk) play a vital role in the occurrence of bovine brucellosis.
3. Bovine brucellosis causes a significant economic losses in the livestock
industry in Malaysia
The specific objectives of this study were to:
1. determine the distribution, patterns and trends of the seroprevalence of bovine
brucellosis in Malaysia between 2000 and 2008.
2. identify spatio-temporal distribution of bovine brucellosis in Peninsular
Malaysia.
3. identify potential risk factors associated with bovine brucellosis among cattle
herds.
4. estimate the direct economic impact of bovine brucellosis
5. evaluate the efficiency of culling of bovine brucellosis seroreactors between 2005
and 2008.
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