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Wprowadzenie do
makroekonomii
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M.Brzoza-Brzezina:
Macroeconomics II - Introduction
to Macroeconomics
2
Zespół
Wykłady:
- Michał Brzoza-Brzezina
Konsultacje: piątki, 17.30 – 18.30, pokój 6/3 „C”,
Materiały: http://web.sgh.waw.pl/~mbrzez
Ćwiczenia:
- Mgr Anna Duszak,
- Mgr Tomasz Kleszcz
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M.Brzoza-Brzezina:
Macroeconomics II - Introduction
to Macroeconomics
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Podręcznik
Podręcznik
Burda & Wyplosz: Makroekonomia. Podręcznik europejski, Polskie Wydawnictwo Ekonomiczne 2013
Materiały w sieci: http://www.oup.com/uk/orc/
Inne materiały wskazane podczas zajęć
![Page 4: Wprowadzenie do makroekonomii - Warsaw School of Economicsweb.sgh.waw.pl/~mbrzez/Makro_II/Introduction to macroeconomics.pdf · Będzie egzamin zerowy (w styczniu)](https://reader031.vdocuments.pub/reader031/viewer/2022031423/5c75ac5509d3f2a52b8bf853/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
M.Brzoza-Brzezina:
Macroeconomics II - Introduction
to Macroeconomics
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Zaliczenie
Zaliczenie ćwiczeń zależy od:
- Aktywności
- Prac domowych
- Kolokwium (12.12 lub 19.12)
- Szczegóły ustalą ćwiczeniowcy
Zaliczenie ćwiczeń warunkiem pisania
egzaminu
Będzie egzamin zerowy (w styczniu)
Ocena końcowa: 50% z ćwiczeń, 50% z
egzaminu
![Page 5: Wprowadzenie do makroekonomii - Warsaw School of Economicsweb.sgh.waw.pl/~mbrzez/Makro_II/Introduction to macroeconomics.pdf · Będzie egzamin zerowy (w styczniu)](https://reader031.vdocuments.pub/reader031/viewer/2022031423/5c75ac5509d3f2a52b8bf853/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
M.Brzoza-Brzezina:
Macroeconomics II - Introduction
to Macroeconomics
5
Syllabus
1. Introduction to macroeconomics: questions asked by economists, real and nominal variables, national accounts, the perils of using identities
2. The economy in the long run
Economic growth: stylized facts about growth, the Solow growth model, sources of economic growth
Money, prices and exchange rates in the long run: the economy in long-run equilibrium: potential output, NAIRU, natural rate of interest and eqilibrium exchange rate; long-run neutrality of money; purchasing power parity
Labor markets and unemployment: labour supply and demand, voluntary and involontary unemployment, downward wage rigidities, the Phillips curve
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Syllabus cont’d
3. The economy in the short run
Stylized facts and main theories about business cycles: pro, counter and acyclical variables, deterministic and stochastic theories of business cycles, the role of nominal rigidities and productivity shocks
Private and public sector behavior: budget constraints of the private and public sector, aggregate constraint and Ricardian equivalence, intertemporal choice, sources of private demand, the IS curve
Money and credit: creation of money and credit, demand for money, the LM curve
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M.Brzoza-Brzezina:
Macroeconomics II - Introduction
to Macroeconomics
7
Syllabus cont’d
3. The economy in the short run …
General equilibrium and monetary policy: short-run fluctuations under fixed interest rates, stability of equilibrium, monetary policy and its role in stabilizing the economy, the effects of monetary policy, preference and money demand shocks, the AD-AS model
4. Open economy: interest rate parity, Mundell-Fleming model, the economy under flexible and fixed interest rates
5. Fiscal policy: the stabilizing and redistributive role of the government, public debt and deficit, fiscal rules, fiscal multipliers
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Outline of this lecture
1. What is macroeconomics?
- Questions raised by macroeconomics
- The role of models
- Modern approach to macro modelling
2. Macroeconomic accounts
- Gross domestic product
- Flows of incomes and expenditures
- Real and nominal variables
- Macroeconomic identities
This lecture follows chapters 1 and 2 of the textbook
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1. What is macroeconomics?
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M.Brzoza-Brzezina:
Macroeconomics II - Introduction
to Macroeconomics
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Questions raised by macroeconomics
Macroeconomics concentrates on the
behaviour of aggregated variables: GDP,
consumption, investment, unemployment,
inflation, wages, exchange rates, balance of
payments etc.
Tries to answer several important questions
and provide policy advice.
Note: macro performance affects micro
happiness (welfare)
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What determines long-run growth?
Real Gross Domestic Product, 1870 - 2010
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Why do some economies grow faster than other?
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What causes cyclical fluctuations? Should we reduce
them? How can we do it?
Quarterly Rate of Change in GDP (in %),
UK, 1962:1-2010:4
(% change of GDP in one quarter relative to previous quarter)
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What causes unemployment? How can we
reduce it?
Unemployment rates: EU, US, Switzerland (percent)
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What causes inflation? How can we fight it?
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How do financial markets interact
with the macroeconomy?
Example: financial crisis 2007-08
caused a deep recession
Did wrong macro policy (e.g. to
expansionary monetary policy) cause
the crisis?
How does the credit crunch affect
economic growth? How can we fight it?
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How to deal with poverty and
inequality?
Poverty and inequality are a serious
problem both in national and
international dimentions
Which policies help, which do not?
Often an empirical question
Serious problem: endogeneity!
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The role of models Reality is extremely complicated
To understand it we need models
Simplified versions of real world (selected aspects)
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Models are only models …
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Macroeconomics II - Introduction
to Macroeconomics
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Or even better…
„Essentially, all models are wrong, but
some are useful”
Box, G. E. P., and Draper, N. R.,
(1987), Empirical Model Building and
Response Surfaces, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, NY, p.424.
M.Brzoza-Brzezina:
Macroeconomics II - Introduction
to Macroeconomics
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© Oxford University
Press, 2012. All rights
reserved.
Fig. 1.10
Endogenous and Exogenous Variables
Endogenous variables are the object of analysis in an economic
model.
Exogenous variables are determined outside the economic model.
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Macroeconomics II - Introduction
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Modern approach to macro modelling
Until 1970s macro models based on ad-hoc
relationships of aggregated variables
e.g. Phillips curve: permanent trade-off between
inflation and unemployment
This resulted in misleading policy advice (Phelps,
Friedman, Lucas critique) – stagflation in 1970’s
Everything in macroeconomics comes from individual
behaviour
Mainstream approach since 1980’s: We should base
every macro model on individual behaviour
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Microfoundations Households maximize lifetime utility
They choose consumption, labour supply, real money holdings to maximize:
subject to budget constraint
Firms maximize profits
They choose prices and production method subject to production function, market structure (competition), price stickiness etc.
In equilibrium (after aggregation) all markets clear:
- Labour demand equals labour supply
- Production equals consumption
- Money demand equals money supply
This is called general equilibrium
0,,max
tt
ttt
t
P
MlcuU
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Example – contemporaneous macro model
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2. Macroeconomic accounts
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What are national accounts?
Set of statistical definitions
Plays central role in studying
macroeconomics
Discretionary with many drawbacks
But still the best way to measure
economic activity and development we
have
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Gross domestic product
GDP is a measure of productive activity
It is a flow variable
Measured for a geographic area
(usually country)
Defined over a time interval (usually
year or quarter)
Can be measured in three ways
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GDP: definition 1
GDP=sum of all net final sales
Only final sales – e.g. for consumption
purposes.
Intermediate sales are not accounted
for – GDP does not depend on the
length of the production chain
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GDP: definition 2
GDP=sum of value added
Value added is the difference between
sales and cost of raw materials,
unfinished goods and imports
Value added is not counted twice
Hence, sum of value added must equal
value of final sale (corrected for tax).
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GDP: definition 3
GDP=sum of factor incomes
One persons expenditure (def. 1) is
someone else’s income
Usual production factors: labour and
capital
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Drawbacks of GDP accounting
Measures directly only legal economy – underground activities are estimated roughly
Does not account for many important activities – e.g. housekeeping
GDP is a bad measure of welfare – does not account for social conditions (e.g. good sidewalks or playgrounds), environmental conditions, equality of incomes etc.
Alternative measures exist, e.g. UN human development index.
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GDP per Capita and Life Satisfaction in 2006
Sati
sfac
tio
n w
ith
life
ind
ex
GDP per capita 2006
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Components of HDI
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Source: HDR 2013
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Circular flow
As mentioned, every expenditure is someone’s income
Examples:
- taxes are private sector’s expenditure but the government’s income
- imports are the domestic economy’s expenditure but the foreign economy’s income
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(S-I) (X-Z)
(T-G)
Rest of
World
Government
Private
Sector
Figure 2.02
Circular flow (manual)
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(S-I) (X-Z)
(T-G)
Rest of
World
Government
Private
Sector
Figure 2.02
Circular flow (automatic)
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Components of GDP
Consumption (C) Investment (I) Government
purchases (G)
Australia 56.4 22.4 17.4
Germany 58.5 18.2 18.9
France 56.8 20.1 23.6
UK 65.0 17.0 21.0
Italy 59.3 20.7 19.9
Japan 57.4 24.0 18.1
Canada 56.4 21.4 19.7
Switzerland 59.1 21.4 11.3
USA 69.8 18.8 15.8
Euro Area 57.2 20.8 20.5
Source: IMF
Table 2.3
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© Oxford University
Press, 2012. All rights
reserved.
67.5 1,057.6 1,565.7 United Kingdom
78.2 7,911.5 10,122.6 United States
59.6 211.4 354.5 Switzerland
53.1 154.4 290.9 Sweden
67.8 1,293.9 1,907.7 France
64.9 1,554.2 2,395.0 Germany
% of GDP (billions of € ) (billions of € )
Households disposable income GDP
Sources: OECD Economic Outlook, ECB
Table 2.4
GDP and Household Disposable Income, 2009
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Real and nominal variables
Most economic variables including the national accounts can be measured in nominal or real terms
Nominal variables are measured in units of money
Examples: nominal GDP, nominal consumption, nominal wages
Real variables are measured in units of goods
Examples: real GDP, real consumption, real wages
Real variables tell us how much purchasing power has our income, wage etc.
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How to construct real variables?
Nominal variables are usualy easily available: e.g. the lecturers wage
Real variables are constructed by dividing the nominal variable by the respective deflator (price of the underlying good)
Real GDP=Nominal GDP/GDP deflator
Real wage=Nominal wage/CPI
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Deflators
Source: IMF
Inflation in Italy, 1985-2010
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Table 2.01
Source: Eurostat
Euro Area: Growth Rates (% per annum)
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Key accounting identities
From definition 1 (final sales go for consumption, investment etc.):
Y=C+I+G+X-M
From definition 3 (incomes are spent on consumption, savings and (net) taxes):
Y=C+S+T
Resulting balance of sectors:
(S-I)+(T-G)=(X-M)
Savings of the private and public sector equal (approx.) the trade balance
Consequence: twin deficits
Important: these are all definitions, do not speak about causality!!!
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reserved.
S - I T - G CA
USA -5.6 -8.8 -3.2
Japan 10.3 -6.7 3.6
Belgium 3.9 -2.6 1.3
Denmark 4.7 0.8 5.5
France 2.6 -4.8 -2.2
Germany 8.1 -2.5 5.6
Italy -1.3 -2.2 -3.5
Netherlands 11.5 -3.8 7.7
Spain 0.7 -5.2 -4.5
Sweden 4.7 1.6 6.3
UK 5.8 -8.3 -2.5
Euro area 4.1 -3.9 0.2
The Accounting Identity in 2010 (% of GDP)
Table 2.5
Source: OECD
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Twin deficits
Source: Wikipedia
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The Effect of Fiscal Consolidation on the Current Account
John Bluedorn and Daniel Leigh
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