dr. b ch 01_lecture_presentation

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

1Foundations: An

Introduction to

Anatomy

PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations prepared by

Steven Bassett

Southeast Community College

Lincoln, Nebraska


Introduction

• Anatomy

• The study of external structures

• The study of internal structures

• The study of the relationship between body

parts

• Physiology

• The study of how the body functions


Microscopic Anatomy

• Microscopic anatomy

• The study of structures that cannot be seen

without magnification

• Cytology—study of cells

• Histology—study of tissues


Microscopic Anatomy

• Macroscopic anatomy

• The study of structures that can be seen

without magnification• Surface anatomy: refers to the superficial

anatomical markings

• Regional anatomy: refers to all structures in a

specific area of the body, whether they are

superficial or deep

• Systemic anatomy: The study of the organ

systems of the body (digestive system,

cardiovascular system, etc.)


Figure 1.1 The Study of Anatomy at Different Scales

Size

meters (m) millimeters (mm) micrometers (m) nanometers (nm)

Approximate Magnification (Reduction)FactorFrom actual to artwork on this page

Unaided human eye

Hu

man

Bo

dy

Hu

man

heart

Fin

gert

ip (

wid

th)

Larg

e p

roto

zo

an

Hu

man

oo

cyte

Red

blo

od

cell

Bacte

ria

Mit

och

on

dri

on

Vir

uses

Rib

oso

mes

Pro

tein

s

DN

A (

dia

mete

r)

Am

ino

acid

s

Ato

ms

Compound lightmicroscope

Scanning electronmicroscope

Transmission electronmicroscope

( .15) ( .12) ( .6) 20 83 103 103 103 105 106 106 106 107 108

.1nm1nm2nm8–10nm11nm10–120nm120m 10m 1–12m 2m.5mm12mm120mm1.7m

Relative size m to mm Relative size mm to m Relative size m to nm


Other Perspectives on Anatomy

• Developmental anatomy:

• Examines structural changes over time

• Embryology:• study of the first two months of development

• Comparative anatomy:

• Considers different types of animals

• Clinical anatomy:

• Focuses on pathological changes

during illness


Other Perspectives on Anatomy

• Surgical anatomy:• Studies anatomical landmarks important for

surgical procedures

• Radiographic anatomy:• The study of anatomical structures with the

use of x-rays or ultrasound scans on an intact body

• Cross-sectional anatomy:• The use of radiographic techniques (CT and

MRI scans) to look at cross sections of the body


LE 1-16b

Rib

Vertebra Spleen

Aorta

Left kidney

StomachLiver


LE 1-16c

Vertebra

Spleen

Kidney

StomachLiver


Figure 1.2 Comparative Anatomy

Dorsal, hollow nerve

cord forming

brain and

spinal cord

Notochord

a stiffened rod below

spinal cord, usually

replaced by vertebrae

Muscular tail

extends beyond

exit of

digestive tract

Digestive

tract

Mouth Heart Anus

Braincase

of cartilage or

bone surrounds

the brain

Pharyngeal (gill)arches

may persist or be modifiedto form other structures

in adult

Ventral bodycavity

contains thoracicand abdominopelvic

organs

Somites

segmental blocks

forming muscles,

vertebrae, etc.

Skull

surrounds

brain in

cranail cavity

Limb bud

Somites

Somites

Limb

buds

Embryo

Salmon (bony fish)

Chicken

Human

Adult

Vertebrae

surround

spinal cord

in spinal cavity

Skull

Skull

Vertebrae

Vertebrae

The similarities between

vertebrates are most apparent

when comparing embryos at

comparable stages of

development.

The similarities are less

obvious when comparing

adult vertebrates.

All vertebrates share a basic

pattern of anatomical organization

that differs from that of other

animals.

BasicVertebrateBody Plan


Levels of Organization

• Chemical/Molecular (simple)

• Cell

• Tissue

• Organ

• Organ system

• Organism (complex)



• Chemical/Molecular

• Over a dozen elements in the body

• Four of them make up 99% of the body

• Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen

• Major classes of compounds

• Water

• Carbohydrates

• Proteins

• Lipids

• Nucleic acids


Figure 1.3 Composition of the Body at the Chemical Level of Organization

Molecularcomposition ofthe body

Elemental composition of the body.Trace elements include silicon,

fluorine, copper, manganese, zinc,

selenium, cobalt, molybdenum,

cadmium, chromium, tin,

aluminum, and boron.

Hydrogen

62%

Oxygen

26%

Carbon

10%

Nitrogen

1.5%

Carbohydrates

3%

Lipids

10%

Proteins

20%

Water – 66%

OTHER ELEMENTS

Calcium

Phosphorus

Potassium

Sodium

Sulfur

Chlorine

Magnesium

Iron

Iodine

Trace elements

0.2%

0.2%

0.06%

0.06%

0.05%

0.04%

0.03%

0.0005%

0.0000003%

(see caption)



• Cell

• The smallest living unit in the body

• Tissue

• Many cells and some surrounding material

• Organ

• Combination of tissues



• Organ System

• Combination of various organs make up a

specific system

• For example: the stomach, small intestine, large

intestine, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas make up

the digestive system

• Humans are composed of 11 organ systems


Figure 1.4 Levels of Organization

Organism Level

Organ System Level

Organ Level

Tissue Level

Cellular Level

Chemical or

Molecular Levels

.1nm

10nm

10m

1mm

1mm

120mm

1.7m

Size

All of the organ systems must

work together for a person to

remain alive and healthy.

IntegumentarySkeletal

Muscular

Nervous

Endocrine

CardiovascularLymphoid

Respiratory

Digestive

Urinary

Reproductive

The cardiovascular system

includes the heart, the blood,

and blood vessels.

The heart is a

complex three-

dimensional organ.

Cardiac muscle tissue

constitutes the bulk of

the walls of the heart.

Cardiac muscle tissue

is formed from interlocking

heart muscle cells.

Heart muscle cells

contain within them

contractile

protein fibers.

Complex contractile

protein fibers are

organized from molecules.

Molecules are

formed from

interacting atoms.


Figure 1.5 An Introduction to Organ Systems (Part 1 of 2)

ORGAN SYSTEM MAJOR FUNCTIONS

Integumentarysystem

Skeletalsystem

Muscularsystem

Nervoussystem

Endocrinesystem

Cardiovascularsystem

Protection from environmental

hazards; temperature control

Support, protection of soft tissues;

mineral storage; blood formation

Locomotion, support, heat

production

Directing immediate responses to

stimuli, usually by coordinating the

activities of other organ systems

Directing long-term changes

in the activities of other organ

systems

Internal transport of cells and

dissolved materials, including

nutrients, wastes, and gases


Figure 1.5 An Introduction to Organ Systems (Part 2 of 2)

ORGAN SYSTEM MAJOR FUNCTIONS

Lymphoidsystem

Defense against infection and

disease

Respiratorysystem

Digestivesystem

Urinarysystem

Reproductivesystem

Delivery of air to sites where gas

exchange can occur between

the air and circulating blood

Processing of food and

absorption of organic nutrients,

minerals, vitamins, and water

Elimination of excess water,

salts, and waste products;

control of pH

Production of sex cells and

hormones


An Introduction to Organ Systems

• Responsiveness (irritability)• A change in activity based on a stimulus

• Adaptability• Long-term responsiveness

• Growth• The increase in size of an organism

• Differentiation• Becoming specialized to perform particular

functions



• Reproduction• The production of new generations of the

same organism

• Movement• The ability to change the position of

something

• Metabolism

• All the chemical reactions in the body

• Anabolism: the synthesis of complex molecules

• Catabolism: the breakdown of complex molecules



• Digestion is the processes of catabolism that makes nutrients small enough to be absorbed.

• Absorption:• The process of bringing chemicals into the body

• Respiration:• The absorption, transport, and use of oxygen by cells

• Digestion:• The processes of catabolism that make nutrients small

enough to be absorbed

• Excretion:• The removal of wastes


Figure 1.6 The Organ Systems of the Body (Part 1 of 12)

The Integumentary System

Protects against

environmental hazards;

helps control body

temperature

Hair

Epidermis and

associated

glands

Fingernail



The Skeletal System

Provides support; protects

tissues; stores minerals;

forms blood cells

SkullAXIAL

SKELETONAPPENDICULAR

SKELETON

Sternum

Ribs

Vertebrae

Sacrum

Supporting

bones

(scapula and

clavicle)

Upper

limb

bones

Pelvis (supporting

bones plus sacrum)

Lower

limb

bones



The Muscular System

Allows for locomotion;

provides support;

produces heat

Axial

muscles

Appendicular

muscles



The Nervous System

Directs immediate

responses to stimuli,

usually by coordinating

the activities of other

organ systems

CENTRAL NERVOUS

SYSTEM

Spinal

cord

Brain

Peripheral

nerves

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS

SYSTEM



The Endocrine System

Directs long-term

changes in activities

of other organ

systems

Pineal gland

Pituitary gland

Thyroid glandParathyroid gland

Thymus

Suprarenal gland

Pancreas

Ovary in

femaleTestis in male



The Cardiovascular System

Transports cells and

dissolved materials,

including nutrients,

wastes, and gases

Heart

Artery

Vein

Capillaries



The Lymphoid System

Defends against

infection and disease;

returns tissue fluid to

the bloodstream

Thymus Lymph nodes

Spleen

Lymphatic vessel



The Respiratory System

Delivers air to sites where

gas exchange can occur

between the air and

circulating blood;

produces sound

Pharynx

Trachea

Lung

Diaphragm

Nasal cavity

Sinus

Larynx

Bronchi



The Digestive System

Processes food and

absorbs nutrients

Salivary gland

Stomach

Large intestine

Pharynx

Esophagus

Liver

Gallbladder

Pancreas

Small intestine

Anus



The Urinary System

Eliminates excess

water, salts, and

waste products

Kidney

UreterUrinary

bladder

Urethra



The Male Reproductive System

Produces sex cells

and hormones

Prostate gland

Seminal gland

Ductus

deferens

Urethra

Epididymis

Testis

Penis

Scrotum



The Female Reproductive System

Produces sex cells

and hormones;

supports embryonic

development from

fertilization to birth

Mammary

gland

Uterine

tube

Ovary

Uterus

Vagina

External

genitalia


The Language of Anatomy

• Superficial Anatomy

• Using the proper terms to identify the

structures of the body helps physicians

communicate with each other and the patient

• The terms are typically derived from Latin or

Greek

• Latin or Greek is used because they are descriptive

languages


Figure 1.7 The Importance of Precise Vocabulary



• Anatomical Landmarks

• Anatomical position

• standing upright, arms at sides, palms facing

forward (little fingers by the thigh), feet flat on the

floor, face straight ahead. The hands are at the side

• All discussion of the human body is in reference to

the anatomical position

• Supine: lying down (face up) in the anatomical

position

• Prone: lying down (face down) in the anatomical

position


Figure 1.8a Anatomical Landmarks Frons or

forehead (frontal)

Craniumor skull

(cranial)

Faciesor face

(facial)

Cephalonor head

(cephalic)

Oris or mouth (oral

Mentis or chin

(mental)

Axilla or armpit

(axillary)

Brachiumor arm

(brachial)

Antecubitisor front of

elbow

(antecubital)

Antebrachiumor forearm

(antebrachial)

Carpusor wrist (carpal)

Palmaor palm

(palmar)

Pollexor thumb

Digits

(phalanges)or fingers (digital

or phalangeal)

Patellaor kneecap

(patellar)

Crus or

leg (crural)

Tarsus or

ankle

(tarsal)

Digits (phalanges)or toes (digital or

phalangeal)

Hallux or great toe

Pes or foot

(pedal)

Anterior view in the anatomical position.

Femur or

thigh (femoral)

Pubis(pubic)

Inguenor groin

(inguinal)

Manusor hand

(manual)

Pelvis(pelvic)

Umbilicusor naval

(umbilical)

Abdomen(abdominal)

Mammaor breast

(mammary)

Thoracis or

thorax, chest

(thoracic)

Cervicis or neck (cervical)

Bucca or

cheek (buccal)

Auris or

ear (otic)

Oculus or

eye (orbital or ocular)

Nasus or nose (nasal)

Trunk


Figure 1.9a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)

Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)

Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)

Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

Right lobe of liver, gallbladder,

right kidney, portions of stomach,

small and large intestine

Cecum, appendix, and

portions of small intestine,

reproductive organs (right

ovary in female and right

spermatic cord in male),

and right ureter

Left lobe of liver, stomach,

pancreas, left kidney, spleen,

portions of large intestine

Most of small intestine and

portions of large intestine,

left ureter, and reproductive

organs (left ovary in female

and left spermatic cord

in male)

Abdominopelvic quadrants divide the area into

four sections. These terms, or their abbreviations,

are most often used in clinical discussions.


Figure 1.9b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

More precise anatomical descriptions are provided by

reference to the appropriate abdominopelvic region.

Left

hypochondriac

region

Left lumbar

region

Left inguinal

region

Right inguinal

region

Right lumbar

region

Right

hypochondriac

region

Epigastric

region

Umbilical

region

Hypogastric

region



• Abdominopelvic quadrants and regions

• Select organs found within the abdominopelvic

quadrants

• RUQ: Most of the liver, gallbladder

• LUQ: Most of the stomach, spleen

• RLQ: cecum, appendix, right ureter, right ovary,

right spermatic cord

• LLQ: left ureter, left ovary, left spermatic cord


Figure 1.9c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

Quadrants or regions are useful because there is a

known relationship between superficial anatomical

landmarks and underlying organs.

Stomach

Spleen

Urinary bladder

Liver

Gallbladder

Large intestine

Small intestine

Appendix



• Anatomical directions

• The most common directional terms used are:

• Superior

• Inferior

• Anterior

• Posterior

• Medial

• Lateral

• Superficial

• Deep


Figure 1.10 Directional References

SUPERIOR SUPERIOR

INFERIOR INFERIOR

Anterior viewLateral view

Right Left

Proximal

Lateral Medial

Distal

Distal

Proximal

Posterior

or dorsalAnterior

or ventral

Cranial

Caudal


Table 1.2 Regional and Directional Terms



• Sectional Anatomy

• There are many different ways to dissect a

piece of tissue for further study. These are

referred to as dissectional cuts or

dissectional planes.

• Sagittal cut (midsagittal and parasagittal)

• Transverse cut

• Frontal cut

• Oblique cut



• Sectional Anatomy

• Sagittal cut: separating left and right

• Midsagittal: separating left and right equally

• Parasagittal: separating left and right unequally

• Transverse cut: separating superior and

inferior

• Frontal cut: separating anterior and

posterior

• Oblique cut: separating the tissue at an

angle


Figure 1.11 Planes of Section

Frontal plane

Transverse plane

Sagittal plane



• Sectional Anatomy: Body cavities

• If you remove an organ from the body, you will

leave a cavity

• The body cavities are studied in this manner:

• Posterior cavity

• Anterior cavity




• Posterior cavity

• Cranial cavity: consists of the brain

• Spinal cavity: consists of the spinal cord




• Anterior cavity

• Thoracic cavity

• Abdominal cavity

• Pelvic cavityAbdominopelvic cavity



• Sectional Anatomy: Anterior cavity

• Thoracic cavity consists of:

• Pleural cavity: lungs

• Pericardial cavity: heart

• Mediastinal cavity: space between the apex of

the lungs



• Sectional Anatomy: Anterior cavity

• Abdominopelvic cavity consists of:

• Peritoneal cavity: stomach, intestines, spleen,

liver, etc.

• Pelvic cavity: urinary bladder



• Sectional Anatomy: Body cavities• Each ventral cavity consists of a double-

layered serous membrane

• The membrane nearest the wall of the body (farthest from the organs) is the parietal membrane• parietal pleura, parietal pericardium, parietal

peritoneum

• The membrane farthest from the wall of the body (nearest the organs) is the visceral membrane• visceral pleura, visceral pericardium, visceral

peritoneum


Figure 1.14 The Ventral Body Cavity

Ventral Body Cavity (Coelom)

Thoracic Cavity Abdominopelvic Cavity

Right Pleural Cavity Mediastinum Left Pleural Cavity

Pericardial Cavity

Abdominal Cavity Pelvic Cavity

• Provides protection

• Allows organ movement

• Lining prevents friction

Surrounded by chest wall and

diaphragm

Surrounds right

lung

Contains the

trachea, esophagus,

and major vessels

Surrounds heart

Surrounds left lung

Contains the peritoneal

cavity

Contains many

digestive glands

and organs

Contains urinary

bladder,

reproductive

organs, last portion

of digestive tract

Separated by diaphragm into

subdivided into includes the

also contains


Figure 1.13ab Body Cavities

POSTERIOR ANTERIOR

Pleural

cavity

Thoracic

cavity

Pericardial

cavity

Diaphragm

Peritoneal

cavity

Abdominal

cavity

Pelvic cavity

Abdominopelvic

cavity

Lateral view of the subdivisions of the ventral body cavities.

The muscular diaphragm separates the superior thoracic

(chest) cavity and the inferior abdominopelvic cavity.

The heart projects into the

pericardial cavity like a fist

pushed into a balloon.

Heart

Visceral

pericardium

Pericardial

cavity

Parietal

pericardium

Air space

Balloon


Figure 1.13cd Body Cavities

Anterior view of the

ventral body cavity

and its subdivisions

Peritoneal

cavity

Pleural

cavity

Pericardial

cavity

Diaphragm

Pelvic

cavity

Sectional view of the thoracic cavity. Unless otherwise

noted, all sectional views are presented in inferior

view. (See Clinical Note on pp. 22–23 for more details.)

Sternum

Heart in

pericardial

cavity

Pleural cavity

Pleura

Mediastinum

Spinal cord

Right

lung

Right

lungLeft

lung

Left

lung