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GRENAA GYMNASIUM

Extended EssayHow and to what extent the opposition and the artistic movements influenced in

politics during the military regime?

Yasmin Vieira da Silva

Candidate number :

Word Count: 3993


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Yasmin Vieira da Silva Grenaa GymnasiumCandidate number: Extended Essay

History Extended Essay

Abstract

From 1964 to 1985 Brazil experienced a military regime that not only scaredmany lives, but nurtured artists, students and civilians creativity and audacityand that resulted in many different kinds of resistance movements. The aim ofthis investigation was to inquire into some of these resistance movements andtheir influence on the military regime.

In investigating this topic, it was necessary to take a close look into two of the

major artistic movements of the time:Arte Engajada and Tropicalismo;together with the two other major resistance movements: the students andrevolutionary groups. An intense research was undertaken so it would bepossible to answer simple questions as why it happened, who was involved,how did they act and what they achieved.Great material was available, including movies and a book written by one ofthe persons that was part of it all.

The information collected was conclusive. Not only it was possible to answer to

these questions but the answers to them lead to a conclusion for the researchquestion of this essay. Though the movements had done incredible deeds littlepolitical influence they had gained and though they left their marks in society,they were all seized by the military. And had very little influence in the how theregime came to an end.

Word count: 217

How and to what extent the opposition and the artistic movementsinfluenced in politics during the military regime?


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1) Introduction:This essay will have a focus on the opposition and the events linked to themthat happened during the military dictatorship in Brazil, from 1964 to 1985.On 1April 1964; Brazil dived into a new phase in its history. For 21 years, the countrywent through a system of military government that marked the nation, itspeople and its institutions. It was two decades of confrontation between politicaland social forces. In this conflict both sides, government and opposition haveused all their resources: censorship, terrorism, torture and guerrillas. Thecountry was governed by Institutional Acts and during its toughest period, themilitary abolished all civil rights and freedom of the press. Hundreds of people

were murdered, imprisoned and tortured. The streets were filled withdemonstrations and rebellions. 1The youth joined in the fight against thegovernment and numerous movements sparkled throughout the country. Therepression turned the country into a creative desert. The oppression and itsdeplorable measures nurtured artists creativity. All disciplines exhibitedimaginative and agile solutions in order to co-exist with the regimes grim

prohibitions. Artists became specialists in metaphor as politics and art walkedside by side. How much they influenced one another is what is going to be

discussed in this essay. Furthermore, an answer to the research question:

will be presented after a close look into the actions taken by revolutionarygroups of the time like the MR8, the student movements and the two major

cultural movements that arose during the regime: A Arte Engajada (TheEngaged Art) where its participants believed that only through rebellion thecountry could be changed and the Tropicalismo, that criticized the comportmentas path to social change.

2) Background to the Military Coup:

1 Movie "Four days in September Original title O que isso, Companheiro?- 1997.

1:17min.


to what extent the opposition and the artistic movements influenced in politics during the milito what extent the opposition and the artistic movements influenced in politics during the mil


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In 1920, during the Old Republic1, a political protest movement was organized by themilitary. Because the responsible for the movement were part of an intermediate levelof military hierarchy, the event was known as Tenentismo2. Such movement broughtthe military into the political scene and gave them political strength to later on enable

attempts of coup. Three Governments were to suffer military attack: Getlio Vargas in1954, Juscelino Kubitscheks in 1955 and the most successful one, Joo Goularts in1964.2

The Military shared a strong anticommunist view developed in the Militarys HigherWar College.3 The Military, believed the internal war was to be applied in Brazil andthe primary threats, according to them, came from within, from the leftist laborunions, peasant unions, intellectuals, cleric and university students. They allthreatened the country, and had to be neutralized.3

Jnio Quadros was elected in 1960 with great public support. His program armed theadministrative austerity and to tackle corruption and inflation.4In an attempt torecover the support he had lost a few months after he took office, Jnio started topractice the independent external policies, tightening relations with Cuba, the USSRand Communist China.5 However, those were times where the whole world wasdivided. The Cold War was at its peak, and because of the economy it was time forBrazil to deviate from the U.S. But the approximation with the communists countrieswasnt seen with good eyes by the conservatives. The UDN (National democraticUnion) party, who had brought Jnio to power, started attacking him aggravating thecrisis. His term only lasted six months. He resigned claiming he was being crushed byterrible forces6 (See appendix 1 resignation letter)

3) The Military Coup

The Vice president, Joo Goulart, known as Jango, was in a commercial and diplomaticmission in the former USSR and in China. Who took office was the president of theCongress, Pascoal Ranieri Mazzilli.7Jango was seen as threat to the country by theopposition, the military generals, for his association with parties such as theCommunist Party of Brazil4 and Socialist Brazilian Party5. The Navy, the Army and Airforce Ministers disclosed a manifest that forbade the vice-president to take office8, butcontrary of what the opposition believed, Jango was not a communist. He simply did

2 www.historiabrasileira.com/brasil-republica/causas-do-golpe-militar-de-1964/

3 Thomas E. Skidmore, The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil 1964-85,Oxford University Press,1990. Page 4

4 Jos Geral Couto, Brasil: Anos 60. Editora tica, 1988. Page 7







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not believe in the savage capitalism installed in the country at the time. He believed insocial reforms, including land reform, although he had come from a family oflandowners9

The country was divided into two opposing currents. There were those who believedthat the constitution should be obeyed, these groups were mostly composed ofworkers, trade unions, students, and many center-left wing politicians. And there wereothers, who supported new presidential elections. Jango could only go back to Brazilunder support of the governor of Rio Grande do Sul, Leonel Brizola, who threatenedwith civil-war if the vice-president was not allowed to succeed to the presidency inaccordance to the Constitution. But Jango was only accepted in power by the military,after the system had been changed to Parliamentarism. Thus, Jangos political powerswould be limited and he would not be a threat10

He had no congressional support to any of his major reforms. Convinced by the radicalnationalist around him, Goulart took his fight to the people and organized severalrallies, but it was a shoot in the foot as the action only awakened the anger of theopposition.11

A speech was held in Rio de Janeiro by Leonel Brizola and Jango where theyannounced the government plans, and eighteen days later, on the 31st 1964, GeneralOlimpio Mouro, departed with his troops without authorization of other military andinitiated the armed movement that sought to overthrown the president.12 On the 1st ofApril, Jango left to Brasilia in an attempt to stop the coup, but ended up accepting theoverthrow and left to Uruguay in exile.13

4) The Military Regime

The Military said the main goal of the coup was to restore discipline and thearmed forces hierarchy, and also avoid that the internal enemies of thecountry install communism.14 To stop the communism threat the militarysubstituted the democratic regime for authoritarianism. That was when theupheaval begun. Many of the left were arrested, accusations of torture poppedout in various parts of the country, lawmakers were stripped off their mandates,civilians had their political rights suspended, civil and military servants aredismissed or retired.15 Ranieri took office but the power was actually in the


10 Tereza A Meade, A Brief History of Brazil. Facts on File; 2 edition,2009. Page 155.




14 http://cpdoc.fgv.br/producao/dossies/FatosImagens/Golpe1964




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military regimes hands and the Supreme Command of the revolution6, whostayed in power for two weeks, issued their own Institutional Act anintervention of the military government that had not been foreseen in theConstitution that had no legal basis and were supplanted, together with their

complementary, until number seventeen.16The regime was ruled by five different presidents and a military junta. (seeappendix 2 - time line)During Castelo Brancos mandate (1964-1967) two IAs (Institutional Acts) wereissued and the 1967 Constitution, which stated that the president was electedby an electoral college, however only a military leader could be a candidate. Italso centralized power, giving the president full power to issue more IAs andgovern the country as he wished. The Law of National Securitywas the last cardplayed by Castelo Branco. Security meant repression, which in turn meant,defend the homeland, against its own people.17

General Arthur da Costa E Silva (1967-69) was part of the hardliner, the mostoutspoken men in the military. His mandate marked the harshest time of theregime.

4.1) The lA-5

In December 1968 the Institutional Act 5 was decreed and gave the presidentenough power to close the Congress for two weeks, revoke politics andinstitutionalize the repression. Military officers supervised universities andstudent groups closely and many of the countrys leading intellectuals,musicians, artists and writers were sent to exile abroad. The Al-5 censured: 500

lyrics, 500 movies, 450 plays, 200 books, 150 magazines and soap operasynopsis. Meanwhile torture, executions and disappearances becamecommon.18 The years to follow became known as the led years7By the end ofthe regime, 380 people were killed; over 40 people were arrested, torturedand/or sent to exile.19 (See appendix 3 - list of people who were deposed,exiled, imprisoned, kidnapped, tortured or killed)

General Emlio Mdici (1969-1974), his successor, was elected president rightafter the short mandate of the Military Junta .His mandate is known for theEconomic Miracle and the Pharaoh Projects, which were major constructions

like the hydroelectric dam in Itaip. But in order for them to happen, majorforeign investments were needed, which meant that the government washanding the countrys finances over to foreign debts.20 Because of the Al-5, allmeans of communication were being strictly controlled by the censorship and


17 Thomas E. Skidmore, The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil 1964-85, Oxford University Press,1990 p. 47

18 Tereza A Meade, A Brief History of Brazil. Facts on File; 2 edition,2009. p.166

19 http://www.lab.org.uk



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the majority became unaware of the lack of freedom and repression in whichthe country was immersed and like that, the government had the majorityfooled that the country was doing good because of the Military. The Regimespropaganda was everywhere. Brazil: Love it or Leave it

propaganda

His successor, General Ernesto Geisel (1974-1979) launched a slow process towardsdemocracy. His term coincided with the end of the economic miracle and thepopulations dissatisfaction at high rates. Seeing that the country was once again

moving towards hyperinflation, the Military led by Geisel started a movement ofelongation for opening institutional policy. It was the political opening821 Asdistention to democracy started, the government reduced the censorship and thepress, that once published recipes, now showed series of reports on corruption andpolitical stewardship. In October 1978, the Constitutional Amendment repeals Al-5,restores habeas corpus and paves the way for the return of democracy, which was tohappen under General Figueiredos mandate (1979-1984).It was under his mandatethat the Amnesty Law was passed, granting the right to return to Brazil all politicians,artists and other Brazilians exiled and sentenced for political crimes.22

4.2) Democratization and Diretas J The end of the RegimeIn the last years of the dictatorship, Brazil was facing a series of problems, inflationwas high and so was the recession. The opposition was gaining ground with theemergence of new parties and the strengthening of unions.23 In 1984, a great popular

20 Tereza A Meade, A Brief History of Brazil. Facts on File; 2 edition,2009 page.168

21 Tereza A Meade, A Brief History of Brazil. Facts on File; 2 edition,2009 page 174

22 http://www.lab.org.uk/

23 Tereza A Meade, A Brief History of Brazil. Facts on File; 2 edition,2009 page 176



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5) The Opposition

I. The Armed Struggle

As the regime tightened their grip some leftists felt that the only way toconfront it was through the armed struggle. The main actions of these groupswere bank robberies, theft of weapons from the barracks, hijacking and eventhe kidnapping of foreign diplomats.26TheMR8 (Revolutionary movement October 8) was a small urban activist groupwhich carried out the most effective opposition against the militarygovernment. On the 4th of September, 1969 together with another activistgroup, ALN (National Liberating Action), Charles Elbrick, a U.S diplomat, waskidnapped and they demanded allowance to broadcast an antigovernment

manifesto

on radioand TVand therelease of15politicalprisonersand theirfreepassage

to exile inMexico.27

The actwassignificantnot only inBrazil but

throughout the world since no U.S Ambassador had been kidnapped before. Inthe following year, two more Ambassadors were kidnapped. Ehrenfried vonHolleben, from Germany, and Giovanni Bucher, the Swiss ambassador.28

They were kidnapped by different urban guerrillas groups but their demandswere the same, the release of political prisoners and their safe passage toforeign countries. Together, they were responsible for the release of over fiftyprisoners.29


27 Movie Four days in September Original title O que isso, Companheiro?,1997.19:03min.

28 http://www.jblog.com.br/hojenahistoria.php?itemid=8830

29 http://www.jblog.com.br/hojenahistoria.php?itemid=6240


Newspaper cover from 8th September, 1969 Prisoners traveland kidnappers promise to release the embassador still today


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II. UNE and the Passeata dos Cem Mil

Of all the movements that opposed the government, the students were themost organized and powerful. They formed the UNE (Unio Nacional Estudantilor National Student Union). Already in 1963, they produced plays and pamphletsongs to express their support to Jango and their repulse to the military.30 Theyrealized various manifestations of protest and demonstrations. In one of them,the police repression caused the death of the student Edson Lus Souto, in

March 1968, which triggered more protests and marches. On the 22nd of June,students were met with violence by the police in a march that ended by the U.S

embassy. Thereaction of thestudents causeda conflict thatresulted in 28deaths, hundredsof wounded andthousands in jail.

That day becameknown as thebloody Friday.Because of thenegativerepercussion ofthis episode, the

militarycommand,

eventually allowed a march that was dated 26th of March. It was the March of

the One hundred thousand a march where one hundred thousand peopleattended, including artists, students, intellectuals and religious people.31Its considered one of the most important manifestations of popular resistanceagainst the regime; it marked the culmination of the student movement and thebeginning of its downfall. After this event, then president Costa e Silvascheduled a meeting with the leaders of the civil society but none of therequests made by the students were met. This resulted in another march, whichin turn resulted in the prohibition of any kind of manifestation in the country. By

30 Caetano Veloso, Tropical Truth. Companhia das Letras, Page 64

31 http://www1.folha.uol.com.br


March of the one hundred thousand Folha Imagem


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In 1970 what seemed to be bloody bodies appeared floating in the riverArrudas, in Belo Horizonte. What these dolls actually were was the work of theplastic artist Arthur Barrio called Trouxas35. Their aim was to denounce theway bodies killed in military prisons were simply tossed away. This happeningwas part of the artistic event From the body to the Earth organized byFrederico Morais that lasted 3 days and had as goal to react within the field ofaesthetics to the reality of the regime.

In the cinema, there are many movies of resistance there were released priorand during the regime. The period of the Cinema Novo, which goes from 1964

to 1968, speaks to the troubled context of installation of the regime. Thedevelopment projects and speaking in favor of the social order featured othersubject within the movement. Among other films of that era, as: "TheChallenge" (1965), "Earth in Trance" (1967) and "The Brave Warrior" (1968).36

These movies caused a rupture in facing the socio-cultural reality of thecountry. After this period, the dominance of political discourse loses its forceengaged in the production of the newcinema. This new change reflectedthe effectiveness of the instruments ofcensorship and repression established

by regime. In the same period, theCinema Novo approached theproposal that came fromTropicalismo, which criticizednationalism and patriotic aversion toradical elements of foreign culture. Theexile of some filmmakers and adaptation of other participants to the

35 http://www.digestivocultural.com/colunistas/coluna.asp?codigo=1336&titulo=Vanguarda_e_Ditadura_Militar



The art is now a kind ofguerrilla. Art is a form of

ambush. Acting unpredictably,where and when least expected,the artist creates a permanent

state of constant tension

Frederico Morais


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opportunities offered by the growing Brazilian cultural industry ended upwearing the movement.

Another way the UNE found to convey their messages was through the press.

Pamphleteering poetry and their didactic theater was also a way of passingtheir message.37 In 1969, they founded O Pasquim,38 a weekly tabloid thatmarked the beginning of the alternative press and made history creating a newway of communication using a lot of humor and irony, so that editors could saywhatever they wanted without bringing direct conflict with the military.Even with the AI-5 in force, the intelligence and humor of the journalists andcomedians who made up O Pasquimmanaged to circumvent censorship andended up being one of the best weapons that criticized the government. Thepress was a great weapon in the fight against the regime, it sought to bringinformation to all social levels and stand against the censorship of the regime.

Under this scenario, with the role of the student movements and a growingurban mass, the population started considering protests songs as musicalgenre having its peak with the enforcement of the AI-5. Many songs becamefamous during the festivals of Brazilian popular musical between the years60/70, likeZelo by Srgio Ricardo;Arrasto by Vincius de Moraes and EduLobo; Pra No Dizer Que No Falei Das Flores by Geraldo Vandr (see appendix4- lyrics)

IV) Tropicalismo

Caetano Veloso and Gilberto Gil, two

Bahian musicians who advocatedcreative openness and a critical visionof Brazilian popular music in general,propelled this brief yet tremendousmovement.




Walking and singing

And following the song

We are all equalArm in arm or not

Schools, streets

Fields, buildingsWalking and singing

And following the songPra no dizer que no falei

das flores by Geraldo Vandr


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The tropicalistas were different than the engaged youth. Their main goal wasthe awareness, the social change but with no political strings. Therefore, art forthem should always be spoken for a broader political project. For them, changewould come from a stronger criticism in costumes and behavior. They also had

an attitude that was completely odd to the time and it was linked to anothermovement that was growingbigger in various continents: TheHippie Movement.39

So that, without incurring theleftist militant discourse and therightist music of protest,Tropiclias musical profile was itsmost controversial side.Tropicalistssongs represented a

shift from protest and romanticsongs not only in terms of musicbut in lyrics. In music, showingthe international influence,especially of the electronicinstruments, a true revolutionwithin the MPB. In lyrics, it

foresaw political positioning, and prioritized elements not considered in othersongs. Compositions were perceptive, humorous and often paradoxical blendedthat created controversies, critically assessed cultural traditions, or focused on

the incongruities in the society.40


40 http://tropicalia.com.br/eubioticamente-atraidos/visoes-estrangeiras/tempos-de-audacia



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Gil and Caetano decided to use the third MPB festival (October 1967) as forumto kick off their radical new musical movement. 41 Annual pop music festivalswere on the most importantdevelopments of the music scene at this time.

But the majority did not understand the movement, hated by the right for their

provocative attitude far from the restricted patterns of culture and the leftistsproposal; Tropicalismo would pay its price. During this festival, within the firstverses of the anti-nationalist songAlegria, Alegria, Caetano Velosowas booed. 42Many listeners couldnot relate to its fragmented imagery:(see appendix 5 - for lyrics)


42 http://tropicalia.com.br/eubioticamente-atraidos/visoes-estrangeiras/tempos-de-audacia


Walking against the windWithout handkerchief, withoutdocumentsIn the almost December Sun, I goThe sun scatters intospaceships, guerrillasIn beautiful cardinalI go


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In 1968 the episode repeated itself,this time at the TUCA theInternational Song Festival and to thesound of Its Forbidden to ForbidWith the ovation, Caetanodelivered a off-the-cut speechchastising his intolerant audience4344

And many other tropicalistas songsdenounced the political conservatism:

(see appendix 3 for lyrics)


44 http://www.podcast1.com.br/programas.php?codigo_canal=144&numero_programa=112


Cars burn in flamesBreaking down the shelves

The bookcases, the statuesThe glass, crockery, books, yesI say no to noI sayIt is forbidden to forbid

proibido Proibir - CaetanoVeloso

Above my head the aircraft

Under my feet the trucksPoints to the plains()I organize the movement

Tropiclia - Caetano Veloso(1968)

Is that the youth that says thatwants to take power? You have

the courage to applaud a song, akind of music that you wouldntdare to cheer last year? It is thesame youth that will always killtomorrow, the old man enemythat died yesterday? () If youare too politics as you are to

aesthetics we are better offwithout you. You dont

understand anything,anythingCaetano Veloso


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and repercussion were long lived; The revolutionary movements wereresponsible for the freedom of dozen of political prisoners. Though these groupswere eventually seized, the kidnappings of foreign diplomats drew theinternational attention to the situation of the country; The students managed to

go to the streets even under the harshest period of the regime, such was theirorganization and power. They fought against the regime and spoke for thosewho were silenced by the military. Demonstrations, like The March of the oneHundred Thousand that was considered the most important movement ofpopular resistance and organized by the UNE were evidence of the strength ofthis group.When talking about arts, it is hard to say who influenced who but the regimesgrim prohibitions were definitely the fuel to the students and therevolutionaries. To the Brazilian artists in the 60s and 70s, art, culture, politicsand aesthetics were conveyed in the same matter as political participation. The

level of challenge goes from highest to lowest degree. In one group, it should fitthe CPC created by UNE as a way to bring political awareness to all socialclasses through art and songs of protest. Through thin and refined subtlety,they sought to draw attention to a reality of total repression of freedom ofthought. But the "engaged-art" of the students, meant that the art forms shouldbe nothing more than a tool of protest and spread of revolutionary ideas, aweapon in the fight against the rising oppression of the regime. Tropicalismowas kind of a break trough of this narrow view. Its work was not made with thesole purpose of attacking the regime. But it is without a doubt that most of theartist of that period intended to make politics while doing arts.

With all the displays of the dissatisfaction with the regime, obviously theyinfluenced in politics, though they had great social and cultural influence, inpolitics, their influence was rather limited since the regime always found a wayto overpower them, hence all the artists, that were sent to exile, together withall the participants of revolutionary groups when not killed, all the students thatwere arrested, killed and exiled and all the IAs that were passed prohibiting allthese manifestations, in particular the IA-5 that censured hundreds ofproductions.As mentioned in section 4.2. there were other factors that drove the regime toits end other than great popular movement. The end of the dictatorship its not

given to the dozens of resistance demonstrations that sparkled over thecountry, or the protests songs and even less to Tropicalismo, it was aculmination of hyperinflation, recession, unemployment and particularly theeconomic crisis. These factors did increase the opposition; but the end ofregime is given to the of the Economic Miraclethe economic plan put in forceunder Medicis term. But the youth definitely showed its strength. Themovements did not fail; they achieved what they could have achieved under thecircumstances but nothing further.



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1 First Brazilian Republic: it was the period in Brazil's history that extended fromthe proclamation of the Republic on November 15, 1889 until the Revolution of 1930.

2 Derivative of the Portuguese word for Lieutenant Tenente.

3 Escola Superior de Guerra or Higher War College. It was modelled in the U.S National WarCollege.

4 Partido Comunista do Brasil PCdoB

5 Partido Socialista Brasileiro - PSB

6 Comando Supremo da Revoluo- composed of three members: Brigadier Francisco deAssis Correia de Melo (Air), Vice Admiral Augustus Rademaker (Navy) and General Artur daCosta e Silva, representing the Army and strongman of the triumvirate .

7 Led years Anos de chumbo. The harshest time of the dictatorship.

8 Abertura Poltica

9 CPC Centro Popular de Cultura ( Popular cultural centre)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil 1964-85,Thomas E. Skidmore,Oxford University Press, 1990

Brasil: Anos 60.Jos Geral CoutoEditora tica, 1988.

A Brief History of Brazil.Tereza A MeadeFacts on File; 2 edition, 2009.

Verdade Tropical


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