表语predicative说明主语性质、特征、状态、名称或...
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表语Predicative说明主语性质、特征、状态、名称或身份等，与连系动词一起用，构成复合谓语，通常由名词、代词和形容词或与之相当的结构或语结充当
Contents
第一讲
英语语法概述
第二讲
名词
第三讲
限定词
第四讲
代词
第五讲
形容词和副词（一）
第六讲
形容词和副词（二）
第七讲
动词概述
第八讲
时态
第九讲
语态——被动语态
第十讲
语气——虚拟语气
第十一讲助动词和情态动词
第十二讲非谓语动词
第十三讲介词
第十四讲名词从句
第十五讲定语从句
第十六讲状语从句
第十七讲倒装
第十八讲一致关系
第十九讲替代和省略
练习
第一讲 General Remarks
1.0 Why to Study English Grammar
语言由3个部分组成：语音、词汇和语法
英语语法分词法和句法
1.1 Morphology
词法包括词类、词形变化和用法等
1 Parts of Speech or Word Class
实义词 Notional Words: 开放型 Open System, 这部分词是大量的
结构词 Structural Words: 封闭型 Closed System, 这部分词是有限的
词类
缩写
作用
句法功能
实义词
名词
n.
表示人或事物的名称
充当主语、宾语和表语等
代词
pron.
代词名词或数词
同上
形容词
adj.
表示人或事物的性质和特征
充当定语、表语等
数词
num.
表示数量或顺序
充当主、表、宾、定和状语等
动词
v.
表示动作或状态
充当谓语
副词
adv.
说明动词、形容词或其他副词
充当状语
结构词
冠词
art.
表示名词的泛指或特指
帮助构成名词词组
介词
prep.
表示名词或代词与其他词的关系
帮助构成介词词组
连词
conj.
连接词与词，短语与短语，句子与句子
感叹词
int.
表示说话时的感情
*辨认词性的常用方法
（1）看含义
（2）看词形
（3）看句法功能
（4）根据读音
2词形变化Inflections
（1） 名词有单复形式
（2） 代词有主格、宾格和所有格等
（3） 形容词、副词有原级、比较级和最高级
（4） 动词有不定式、过去式、过去分词和现在分词
（5） 数词有基数词和序数词
（6） 冠词有不定冠词、定冠词和零冠词
1.2 Syntax
句法式介绍句子种类和句子结构等内容
1 Members of Sentence
构成句子、在其中起不同语法作用的部分叫句子成分
常见七中句子成分
（1） Subject表示句子描述的是“谁”或“什么”，是谓语的陈述对象，通常由名词、代词或与之相当的结构充当
（2） Predicate说明主语的动作或所处的状态，由动词充当。由一个部分独立构成的谓语叫简单谓语Simple Predicate;由两个或更多的部分构成的谓语叫复合谓语Compound Predicate,例如
They study hard. (SP)
I want a radio. (SP)
Tom can swim. (CP)
They are engineers. (CP)
（3） Predicative说明主语性质、特征、状态、名称或身份等，与连系动词一起用，构成复合谓语，通常由名词、代词和形容词或与之相当的结构或语结充当,例如
My uncle is a writer.
This picture looks beautiful.
（4） Object表示及物动词动作的对象或内容，或用于介词后构成介词短语。通常由名词、代词或与之相当的结构充当。例如
She teaches English in a middle school.
We all like him.
（5） Complement补充说明主语或宾语，说明其名称、特征、状态或动作等。由动词、名词、形容词或其他相当的结构充当。补充说明宾语的成分叫宾语补足语Object Complement;宾补和宾语一起构成复合宾语Complex Object。补充说明主语的叫主语补足语Subject Complement,主补和主语一起构成复合主语Complex Subject。例如
They all consider this task important. (OC)
The house was painted white. (SC)
（6） Attribute修饰或限定名词，通常由形容词或相当的结构充当。例如
This is a difficult problem.
（7） Adverbial修饰动词、形容词、副词或整个句子，通常由副词或与之相当的结构充当，例如
Horses run fast.
*主要成分和次要成分
主语和谓语是主要成分，即任何句子（祈使句除外）都至少包含这两个部分
2 Sentence Patterns
英语中除There be句型外，所有简单句都可以概括为5种基本句型
1）主动（SV） She works very hard.
2）主动宾（SVO） He studies Chinese history.
3）主动表（SVP） He is an artist.
4）主动宾补（SVOC） His father will make him a doctor.
5）主动宾（间接）宾（直接）（SVOiOd） He gave me some books.
3句子的种类——根据用途
1） Statement:陈述一件事，或一种看法
2） Question:询问或怀疑一种情况，有以下4种：
（1） General Question
Do you like this picture?
（2） Special Question
（3） Who is that gentleman?
（4） Alternative Question
Would you like to have tea or coffee?
（5） Tag Question
She is a physics teacher, isn’t she?
3） Imperative:提出请求或发出命令
4） Exclamation:对人或事物的性质、程度或内容等表示感叹。常用what和how引导。what引导中心词是名词的感叹句，how引导中心词是动词、形容词或副词的感叹句。
4句子的种类——根据结构
1） Simple Sentence:只包含一个主谓结构的句子
The man knocked at the door.
2） Compound Sentence:由并列连词Coordinate Conjunction连接、含有两个或者更多主谓结构的分句Clause
The man knocked at the door but no one answered.
3） Complex Sentence:由一个主句Main Clause和一个或几个从句Sub-clause构成的句子。从句由从属连词Subordinate Conjunction引出
5 Phrases
短语，也叫词组，是由两个或更多的词在一起连用、意义相对完整但不能独立成句的语言单位。常见8种短语如下
1） Noun Phrase
The books on the shelves belong to Professor Wang.
2） Verb Phrase
They put forward a suggestion.
3） Infinitive Phrase
She will teach me to sing the song.
4） Gerundial Phrase
I always enjoy going to concerts.
5） Participle Phrase
Hearing the good news, she jumped with joy.
6） Prepositional Phrase
There is a village at the foot of the mountain.
7） Adjective Phrase
The students are full of enthusiasm.
8） Adverbial Phrase
A moment later, they found the lost child.
*如何确定短语种类——主要看该词组的中心词（Head Word）
6英语书写要注意的问题
标点符号
并列分句之间须用连接词如and, but等，如不用，必须用分号“；”
英语中没有顿号
第二讲 Noun
2.0 Brief Introduction
名词根据词汇意义分成专有名词Proper Noun(人名、地名和机构等特有名称)和普通名词Common Noun(一类人或事物的共有名称)。Common Noun又分为可数名词和不可数名词
大类
次类
例词
英语名词
专有名词
John, London, the United Nations
普通
名词
可数
个体名词
map, box, story
集体名词
people, family
不可数
物质名词
water, metal
抽象名词
honesty, happiness
2.1 Countable Noun
可数名词Countable Noun分个体名词Individual Noun集合名词Collective Noun,一般是表示人、团体和物体名称的词。可数名词有单数Singular Number和复数Plural Number两种形式
1规则名词的复数形式
在词尾加-s或-es，以辅音字母加-y结尾的变y为ies
2不规则名词的复数形式
1） 以o结尾的大多加es
cargoes
echoes
heroes
Negroes
potatoes
tomatoes
某些外来词，却只加s
autos
dynamos
kilos
pianos
photos
以oo或元音字母加o 结尾的也只加s
bamboos
radios
ratios
studios
zoos
2） fe/f结尾，多数变f为ves
halves
knives
leaves
lives
loaves
shelves
thieves
wives
wolves
但有些只加s
beliefs
chiefs
cliffs
gulfs
proofs
roofs
safes
3） 沿用古英语形式（单词元音变化）
child-children
foot-feet
goose-geese
man-men
mouse-mice
ox-oxen
tooth-teeth
woman-women
4） 源于拉丁、希腊语
5） analysis-analyses
appendix-appendices
axis-axes
basis-bases
crisis-crises
hypothesis-hypotheses
synthesis-syntheses
thesis-theses
bacterium-bacteria
criterion-criteria
datum-data
medium-media
nucleus-nuclei
phenomenon-phenomena
radius-radii
stratum-strata
formula-formulae
6） 单复同形
aircraft
jin
barracksli
buffalo
peacock
Chinese
series
crossroads
sheep
deer
shark
fish
species
fruit
swine
giraffe
Swiss
headquarters
works
horsepower
yuan
means
*fish/fruit做复数时，表示种类，例如
I caught a fish.
Larger fish devoured the smaller ones.
There are various fishes in the aquarium.
7） 部分集合名词既可作单数（整体），也可作复数（成员）
audience
army
band
class
committee
couple
crew
crowd
faculty
family
group
government
jury
public
team
union
*但cattle, mankind, militia, personnel, police, people, staff, youth等总用作复数。其中people用单复数形式时表示“民族”，当要表示上述词的个体意义时，须用相应的其他词，如：a cow, a person, a policeman, a young man
8） 合成名词的复数，一般加在主体词上
brother-in lawbrothers-in–law
commander-in-chiefcommanders-in-chief
comrade-in-armscomrades-in–arms
looker-onlookers-on
man-of-warmen-of-war
passer-bypassers-by
story-tellerstory-tellers
如无主体词，加最后
go-betweengo-betweens
个别合成名词，要求各部分都变化
a woman doctorwomen doctors
a man servantmen servants
9） 有些词通常只用复数
(1) 表示成双成对的
compasses
cross-roads
glasses
pants
pliers
scissors
shears
shorts
spectacles
tongs
trousers
tweezers
(2) 表示较多数量的
ashes
belongings
commons
dregs
outskirts
lodgings
remains
overalls
stairs
savings
wages
surroundings
10） 部分科学名词，虽以s结尾，但用作单数
acoustics
economics
electronics
ethics
mathematics
physics
politics
statistics
mechanics
11） 有些词习惯语中常以复数出现
Jim is friends with Tom.
Do you want to change places with me?
Give my regards to Jack.
We are making preparations for our trip.
Things have changed.
If you do that, you’ll make matters worse.
I don’t want to hurt her feelings.
He was all smiles.
He took great pains to study well.
He refused to take sides in the debate.
Mary had words with her boss the other day。
2.2 Uncountable Noun
不可数名词指那些不可以一一计数的词，包括Material Noun和Abstract Noun，一般没有复数形式，其量的概念通常用一个单位词Unit Noun或度量词Measure Noun来表示
1单位词修饰不可数名词
a piece of bread (paper…)
a piece/ an article of furniture
a pile/ heap of coal (rubbish…)
a loaf of bread
a grain of rice (sand, salt…)
a block of ice
a lump of sugar
a bottle of beer (wine…)
a bag of sand
a burst of laughter
a fit of anger
a piece of information (advice…)
a game of chess
a flash of lightning
常常也用来修饰可数名词
a bunch of flowers (graspes, keys)
a string of pearls
2度量词修饰不可数名词
3易错的不可数名词
advice
baggage
bread
chalk
clothing
damage
equipment
food
furniture
grass
information
knowledge
luggage
machinery
meat
money
news
paper
poetry
progressprose
sceneryrice
stationery
sugar
thread
work
4部分名词的两重性
有些词表示物质或抽象的概念时不可数，表示种类或具体事物时可数
metal
art
beauty
youth
iron
glass
tea
ice
medicine
preparation
room
talk
chicken
lamb
fish
fruit
I have been taking much medicine recently for my cold.
We should always keep medicines where children can’t get them.
5有些名词，加-s后意思发生变化
advices通知airs傲气arms武器attentions殷勤authorities当局brains智力clothes衣服conditions条件contents目录customs海关damages赔偿金emotions情绪expectations前程experiences经历forces军队goods货物greens青菜grounds宅地irons镣铐looks外表manners礼貌morals品行pains努力papers文件regards问候sprits酒精、兴致times时代waters水域works作品
2.3 Possessive Case
1 “’”+s
当名词是人名，或表示有生命以及被视为有生命的东西时，可用Apostrophe+s表示所有格关系
1） 名词+’s
2） 名词s（复数）+’，不带s的复数+’s
3） 以s结尾的专有名词或普通名词可用’s,也可只用’
Dickens’(s) novels
4） 某物为两人共有，只在两个名词后加’s
Mary and Jane’s car
否则各自加’s
Mary’s and Jane’s cars
*国家、城市等地方名词，以及表示时间、距离、度量及金钱等的名词，虽无生命，也可以用以上形式，表示所有或修饰关系
China’s modernization plan
a two weeks’ holiday
a dollar’s worth of apples
2 of+名词
既可用语有生命名词，也可用于无生命名词，特别时当某名词有较长定语的时候
3 Double Possessive
“of+名词’s/ of +名词性物主代词”结构，常作名词修饰语，常和a, any, some, this, that, these, those等连用，表示部分概念或情感色彩
a friend of my father’s
the important theory of Einstein’s
4 Nominal Possessive Case
1)可用于代替前面提到过的东西，相当于名词性物主代词
2）表示“家，商店”或其他有关人士的处所
my uncle’s
the barber’s
the chemist’s
the Smith’s
*姓氏加s表示“……的全家”,如
the Smiths史密斯一家the Smiths’史密斯一家的住所
2.4 Syntactic Function of Noun
1名词主要充当主语、宾语、表语、宾补、介词宾语和同位语Appositive等成分
2 名词有时充当状语，大多表示时间、距离、重量、价格、温度和倍数等意义
3名词作定语
1） 一个名词直接修饰另一个名词，表示材料、用途或内容，重在性质
a color TV
2） 有时要加ed或与名词、形容词、数词组成复合词，再修饰后边的名词，表示人或事物的特征、状态，重在特征
a colored TV
3） 名词常和数词一起组成作定语的复合结构，有3种形式
i. a three-week holiday
ii. a three weeks’ holiday
iii. a holiday of three weeks
若上述复合结构中作定语的名词可用’s所有格，则i,ii,iii都对，否则ii是错的
a five-act play = a play of five acts
有时，该复合结构还可跟一个由连字符连接的形容词
Dr. Jones has a five-year-old daughter.
第三讲 Determiner
3.0 Brief Introduction
限定词是用于名词前，起泛指、特指、不定量或定量等限定作用，是构成名词短语的必须部分。
限定词包括
冠词：a, an, the…
数词：one, two, first….
数量形容词：some, any, no, much, many, most, all, several….
个体形容词：each, every, both, neither….
指示形容词：this, such….
物主形容词：my, her….
疑问形容词：which, what….
特指形容词：(the) next, (the) only, (the) same, (the) very….
*1广义而言，限定词叫限定性形容词Determinative Adjective,形容词叫描写性形容词Descriptive Adjective。在功能上，限定词是名词短语的必须部分，形容词对构成名词短语来说可有可无。在语序上，限定词总在形容词前。
2不少限定词可用作代词，意义上无太大差别，但是形容词性的，而代词是名词性的，例如
most children大多数儿童
most of the children那些儿童中的大多数
3.1 Article
冠词分不定冠词a(n),定冠词the和零冠词
冠词的搭配
冠词
单数可数
复数可数
不可数
a/an
book
/
/
the
book
books
bread
零冠词
/
books
bread
1 Indefinite Article
不定冠词表示泛指，说明其名称或种类，辅音音素开头用a，元音音素开头用an。不定冠词的一般用法如下：
1） 表示“一个”人或事物
a garden
但是当强调“一”时，用one
I want to buy one copy, not two.
2） 表示“一类”人或事物
3） 固定搭配
after a fashion
come to an end
all of a sudden
have a good time
as a rule
have a word with
as a result
have a cold
as a whole
have a rest
at a loss
keep an eye on
be in a hurry
lend a hand
in a way
make a living
in a word
make a fire
It’s a pity that
make a fool of
put an end to
make a fortune
with a view to
make a study of
with a will
take a walk
take an interest in
once in a while
2 Definite Article
定冠词表示特指
1)表示前面已经提及的或谈话双方都知道的
2)用于单数可数名词前，表示种类
3)表示独一无二的事物以及表示江河、海洋、山脉、群岛和沙漠等地理名称
4)海岛、山峰和湖泊等地理名称一般不用冠词，但被of修饰时要加定冠词
Taiwan Island
Mount Jolmo Lungma
Lake Michigan
the Lake of Geneva
the Island of Taiwan
5)用于被限定意味较强的定语修饰的名词前
the book you bought yesterday
the history of China
the students in the classroom
6)用于具有鉴别意义的普通名词前
the planet Mercury
the play “King Lear”
专有名词后，表示身份、职业或地点的名词用作同位语时，用定冠词表示该事物为一般读者所知；不定冠词表示不太为人们熟悉。
Dickens, the English novelist
Blake, an English poet
7)用于西洋乐器，中国传统乐器作为专有名词或音译名称不用冠词
8)用于某些形容词前，使形容词名词化，表示这一类人或事物。其数的含义要视该词所代表的东西而定
the rich / the poor 复数
the true / the false 单数
9)用于姓氏复数和民族名称前，表示全家和整个民族
The Chinese are a brave and hard working people.
10)用于逢10的年份前,表示某世纪几十年代
in the 1980s
11)用于人体某部位前
12)用于某些计量单位前
Apples are sold by the pound.
试比较These apples are 50 cents a pound.
13)固定搭配
beside the question
by the way
in the air
in the dark
in the distance
in the future
in the morning
in the right
in the end
in the open
in the meanwhile
on the air
in the sun
on the average
on the alert
set the fashion
on the contrary
on the increase
on the right
on the decrease
on the spot
on the rise/fall
out of the question
on the whole
act the lord
to the point
keep the house
carry the day
put to the test
play the fool
take the field
*冠词有时用于姓氏前，表示不定或特定
不定冠词表示只知其名但不熟悉的人
A Mr. Smith called while you were out.
定冠词用语特指某个姓氏的人
I’d like to see the Mr. Smith who works in the box office.
3 Zero Article
零冠词表示泛指或一般概念
1不可数名词、复数可数名词表示泛指时，用零冠词
This bridge is built of wood.
Honesty is the best policy.
Without water man can’t live.
Computers are widely used in the current world.
Teachers generally like diligent students.
2专有名词一般用零冠词，但当其由几个普通名词或带形容词修饰语的名词词组构成时通常用定冠词the
China
Asia
Hyde Park
Peking University
the imperial Palace Museum
the Red Square
the United Nations
the White House
3季节名称、法定节日、球类棋牌运动用零冠词
Summer is coming.
但是：I’ll never forget the summer of 1976. 特指
4中国传统节日通常用定冠词the
5语言名称用零冠词，但特指某民族语言时用定冠词
English is an international language.
The English language is an international language.
6三餐用零冠词，但若特指则不是
When will lunch be ready?
They are going to invite us to tea tomorrow.
The lunch we had yesterday was very delicious.
7当表示独一的头衔、职位或身份的名词作表语、补语或同位语时用零冠词，作主语时则不是
Nelson became monitor of our class.
He was appointed ambassador.
Duke of Kent, father of Queen Victoria, was also interested in Owen’s plan.
The manager wants to see you.
8但teacher, cook, father, nurse等用作人物名称，表示“我们的….”时用零冠词
9两个密切相关的名词连用或习惯用语用零冠词
They became husband and wife.
Father and son were engineers.
The father and the son could not agree on this matter.
10季节用零冠词，但特指时不用
11固定用语,如
after dark
in debt
at random
in trouble
at first
in place of
at desk
on foot
at table
on purpose
at last
under cover of
at night
catch fire
at sea
keep house
at anchor
learn by heart
at home
send word
at dawn
take place
at hand
in bed
by accident
in/after class
by day/night
in effect
by chance
in hospital
take shape
in person
by air/water/land
in return
in sight of
by car/ship/plane
on fire
out of question
by way of
be with child
in face of
go to school
in common
go to bed
in detail
set sail
in future
keep in mind
in order of
take root
in press
make friends with
*1冠词+普通名词表示类、属或泛指一般有以下五种情况
a) a(n)+单数可数
b) the+单数可数
c) 零冠词+复数可数
d) 零冠词+不可数名词(即使前面有描绘性定语)
e) the+形容词
2 冠词+可数名词表示类属的几种方式的区别
a) a(n)+单数可数：用一个具体例子代表全类
b) the+单数可数：概括一类事物，以区别另一类
c) 零冠词+复数可数：通过泛指概括一类的全体
A tiger is a fierce animal.
Tigers are fierce animals.
The tiger is threatened with extinction.
3.2 the Numeral
数词the Numeral分基数词Cardinal Numeral和序数词Ordinal Numeral
1)基数词表示人或事物数量
1十位数和个位数之间要用连字符“-”；百位数和十位数之间，英语要and美语一般不用；英语种没有万，只有ten thousand。billion在美语中为十忆，英语中为万忆，其十忆为one thousand million
2基数词本身无复数形式，习惯用语除外
hundreds of thousands of
tens of thousands of
millions ofhundreds upon hundreds of
3数词常和名词构成复合定语，之间一般有连字符，并且名词是单数形式
2)序数词表示人或事物的次序
序数词前一般用定冠词the，当用a/an时，含义为“又….”
I lost the first 2 games but I managed to win the third game.
前两盘我输了，但我第三盘赢了。
I lost the first 2 games but I want to try a third game.
前两盘我输了，但我想再试一盘。
“名词+基数词”着重表示“编号，号码”, 开头均大写Room 106
“序数词+名词”着重表示“顺序，次序”，the second floor
有时二者可以互换
3）Other Determiners
限定词
单数可数复数可数不可数
all
day
books
hope
an amount of
bread
another
book
any
book
books
bread
a bit of
bread
both
books
a couple of
books
a great deal of
bread
each
book
either
book
enough
books
bread
every
book
(a) few
books
half
an hour
the booksthe bread
(a) little
bread
a lot of
books
bread
many
books
most
books
bread
my, your, etc.
book
books
bread
neither
book
the next
book
books
no
book
books
bread
a number of
books
(the) other
book
books
bread
plenty of
books
bread
a quantity of
books
bread
the rest of
the book
the booksthe bread
the same
book
books
bread
several
books
some
book
books
bread
such
a book
books
bread
that
book
bread
these
books
this
book
bread
those
books
what
book
books
bread
which
book
books
bread
whose
book
books
bread
the whole
book
辨析
1）some/any/no
some用于肯定句或含肯定意味的场合，any用于非肯定句，no用于否定句
i) 当预期的答复是肯定的或表示提议或请求的疑问句中,some可以使用
ii) some可以和单数名词连用表示“某一个”
2）many/much
两者均多用于非肯定句中，肯定句中常用a lot of代替many,用a lot of或a great deal of代替much. A lot of 和a great deal of 也可用于期望肯定答复的疑问句
i) many a+单数可数和many+复数可数意思相同，但前者文气并具强调含义，并要求接单数谓语动词。
3）Each/every
Every强调整体，用于较多数目；each着重个别，可用于2个或更多数目，还可用作代词
4）both/either
both为两者都，接复数动词；either 表示两者中任一个，接单数动词
例Truth may lie on both sides, on either side, or on neither side.
*either接end, side等时有时可指两个都
5）either/any
either为两者中任一个；any为两者以上中任一个
6）neither/none
两者都不用 neither，两者以上都不用none (of)。Neither接单数可数名词，none of 接复数名词
例None of the books belong to me. (都不是)
Of all the books, none belongs to me. （没一本是）
7）All/whole
i) all可接复数可数名词或不可数名词，而whole一般接单数可数名词
ii) all 可用于冠词、所有格或其它限定词之前，而whole只用于冠词等限定词后面
8）another/other
1．another只和单数可数名词连用，表示泛指，other 随便
2．another+单数名词表示不定的“另一个”，the other+单数可数名词表示特指的另一个，other+复数名词表示不定的，但是the other+复数名词表示特定
3．Other前可带some, any, one, his 等其他限定词
*the rest of可修饰大多名词
9）a lot of/plenty of
a lot of绝对数量多；plenty of 相对数量多
10）few/a few/the few
1few为不多，没几个，表示否定*few= only a few
2a few为有几个，少数几个，表示肯定； quite a few, not a few也表示肯定，意为“相当多”，only a few相当于few，表示否定
3 the few表示肯定和特指
11）little/a little/ the little
类似上
常见修饰可数名词的限定词
(a) few, a couple of, both, many, many a, a great many, several, a number of
常见修饰不可数名词的限定词
(a) little, much, a large amount of, a great deal of, a bit of
二者皆可的限定词
some, any, no, enough, most, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a (large/small) quantity of, quantities of
3.4 注意问题
1）限定词的顺序问题
1前位限定词Pre-determiner
(1) all, both, half…
(2) double, twice, three times…
(3) one-third, two-fifths…
2中位限定词Central Determiner
(1) a, an, the…
(2) this, that, these, those
(3) my, your, his…
(4) Mary’s, the students’…
3后位限定词Post-determiner
(1) one, two, three…
(2) first, second, third…
(3) another, last, next, other…
*前位和中位互相排斥
2）限定词一般不直接修饰代词
第四讲 Pronoun
4.0 Brief Introduction
为行文简洁，避免重复，常用代词指代上文提到过的名词、名词词组或更高层次的语法结构
代词分类表
单数
复数
第一人称
第二人称
第三人称
第一人称
第二人称
第三人称
人称
代词
主格
I
You
He, she, it
We
You
They
宾格
Me
You
Him, her, it
Us
You
Them
物主
代词
形容
词性
My
Your
His, her, its
Our
Your
Their
名词性
Mine
Yours
His, hers
Ours
Yours
Theirs
反身代词
Myself
Yourself
Himself, herself, itself
Ourselves
Yourselves
Themselves
指示代词
This, that
Theses, those
相互代词
Each other
One another
不定代词
Some someone anything all little
any anyone nothing both a little
one no one everything each few
Somebody everybody none either a few
Anybody everyone many neither other
Nobody something much such another
疑问代词
who whom whose what which
Whatever whichever whoever whomever
连接代词
Who whom whose what which
关系代词
Who whom whose what which that as
4.1人称代词Personal Pronoun
主格充当主语，宾格充当宾语
1．代词成对或和名词一起使用时，两部分句法功能必须一致
*人称代词的顺序：1第二人称+第三人称+第一人称
2一般：名词+人称代词。You例外
3其他代词一般排列于人称代词之后
2．人称代词作表语时，说明主语一般用主格，说明宾语用宾格。
If I were she, I would take our advice.
I believe the author to be him.
口语中，基本全用宾格。
例：Open the door, please. It’s me.
What would you do if you were him?
3．代词应与其所代替的词在人称和数上一致
2 it的用法
1．作人称代词Personal Pronoun，指代事物、动物、婴儿，以及未知的人或事
2．作非人称代词Impersonal Pronoun，用于引出非人称句，表示天气、时间和距离
3．作形式代词Form Pronoun，充当主语和宾语的不定式短语、动名词短语或从句等
4．作引导词Emphatic it，强调句
4.2 Possessive Pronoun
物主代词分形容词性和名词性两种
1 形容词性物主代词属于限定词范畴，使用要注意避免人称和数的误用
2 名词性物主代词可作主语、宾语和表语
4.3 Reflexive Pronoun
反身代词作用1作宾语，表示动作的承受者时动作发出者本身
2作同位语，对名词或代词作强调
有时可作表语，但不可作主语
*辨析
1.oneself/ by oneself/ for oneself
oneself：亲自…，相当于personally, in person
by oneself：独自…，相当于alone
for oneself：独立…, 相当于without being helped
2.beween ourselves/ among ourselves
between ourselves“咱俩私下说”,不可告诉他人，常作插入成分和表语
among ourselves“在我们之间”，常作状语
4.4 Demonstrative Pronoun
指示代词用于指代上下文中出现的人或事
1this和that都可以指代上文提过的事，但若指代下文即将叙述的事，只能用this
2一些习惯用法中只用that
Jack helped finish my work and that was kind of him.
He told me only part of the story and that was that.
3that和those都常用于关系代词的前述词，即由定语从句或定语从句的省略形式修饰
It’s a different kind of car from that (kind of car) (which) I’m used to.
The president and his wife were among those (who were) present at the ceremony.
4.5 相互代词Reciprocal Pronoun
英文中只有两个相互代词
each other表示两者间的“互相”
one another表示两者或两者以上的“互相”
4.6 不定代词Indefinite Pronoun
*辨析
1 all/both
都可作主语
作同位语：若谓语动词是行为动词，应在动词之前；若为系动词，应在其后
They all agreed with me.
They are both quite wealthy.
I know them all.
2 One/it
One代替可数名词，表示上面所提到的那一类人或物中的一个。复数形式：带定语时为ones，不带定语时为some。It用于指代上文提到的那个无法判定性别的动物或表示物的名词本身，可指单数可数名词或不可数名词。
A good writer is one who can express the commonplace in an uncommon way.
Tom has a red pencil and a blue one/ 2 blue ones.
One也常作不定人称代词，相当于people,所有格为one’s。美语常用he/his代替重复出现的one/one’s
One must be patient if one/he wants to succeed in one’s/his work.
3 No one/none
No one只用于指人，none人/物都可指，若说“若干人（物）之中一个也不”，用none of（后接复数名词），谓语可复可单
No one told us that he was there.
-“How many elephants did you see at the zoo?”
-“None.”
*none指代可数和不可数皆可
有none的两个常用习语
None other than（不是别的）正是……（表示惊讶）
It was none other than John who telephoned me.
None but = not anything( or any person) except只有……，相当于only
None but the aged and the sick stayed at home.
4 Some/any/no/every+ (thing, one, body…)
some类用于肯定句，any类用于否定和疑问句，但有时疑问句中也用something
Everyone为每个人和everybody同义，用于泛指，不可跟of短语；every one为特指每个人或物，可跟of短语
anybody, everybody和every/each+单数名词在正式英语中，其相应的代词形式是he/him/his/she/her，但常用he/his作为通性代词，全接单数动词。但日常英语中，可用复数代词they/them/their来指代，接复数动词形式
Something, anything, nothing被形容词修饰时，置于形容词前
5 some…others…有些…有些…
some…the others…有些…其余的…
be something of n. 算得上是个n.
be nothing of n. 算不上是n.
some+单数+or other 某个n.
5 否定Negation
部分否定Partial Negation
当all, both, each和every (body, thing)等表示整体意义的代词与否定词连用时，一般只表示部分否定
All of the students did not turn up. = Not all of the students turned up.
全部否定Full Negation
必须使用none, no one, neither, nobody, nothing等对整体意义具有否定作用的代词或副词
6 Interrogative Pronoun
疑问代词中的what, which, whose也是疑问形容词Interrogative Adjective，可以和名词连用
英语中的所有疑问代词都可以起名词作用,即单独使用直接在句子中充当成分
1 which/what
which 一般用于有一定选择范围的情况，what用于无选择范围或究竟是什么还不清楚的情况
2 which/who
which一般指物，who一般指人。当有一定选择范围时，which one代替who作宾语，which of可和人称代词或指人的名词连用
Which one do you like better, your mother or your father?
Which of you has stolen my glasses?
第五讲 Adjective and Adverb I (Introduction)
5.0 Brief Introduction
形容词用于修饰名词或代词，表示人或事物的性质和特征，可作定语、表语或补语。副词修饰动词、形容词或副词，作状语。
1系表结构
连系动词及由部分行为动词转化而来的连系动词，后面接形容词为表语，不可为副词。
The dish smells good.
She felt bad at the news.
He looks very serious.
2一些词既可作形容词也可作副词
cleandirectfirmlikelyquickcloseearlyhardlongslowclearenoughhighlowstraightdeadfarkindlymuchtightdeepfastlatenearwrongwide
*well当形容词时仅表示身体状况好，且只可作表语，作副词时，作程度状语
He has not been very well since the operation.
Do the children eat well at school?
Pretty作形容词为漂亮的，作副词为相当地
What a pretty house it is!
The wind blew pretty hard.
5.1 Adjective
用法
1有时形容词加一个定冠词，起名词作用,表示某一类的人或事物，其单复由该词所代表的情况而定
The rich should help the poor.
The wounded were taken to the hospital.
The good in him outweighs the bad.
2固定词组，一个形容词修饰另一个形容词
icy cold
wide open
red hot
dead wrong
deathly pale
种类
1按意义分
品质形容词：有比较等级，Comparable Adjective: big, red, good,…
关系形容词：无比较等级，Incomparable Adjective: international, possible…
2按意义分
动态形容词：可用于祈使句，Dynamic Adjective：brave, calm, active…
状态形容词：不可用于祈使句，Stative Adjective: tall, red, thick…
3按句法功能分
通用形容词Common Adjective:表语、定语皆可用
表语形容词
Predicative Adjective: asleep, afraid, aware, awake, alike, content, alone, ashamed, glad, alive, unable, well, fond, sorry…
定语形容词
Attributive Adjective: wooden, outer, little, woolen, daily, golden, former, weekly, spare, latter, right, only, inner, elder, live…
作表语和定语时意义不同的
ill, hard, certain, little, present
在句子中的位置
1形容词作定语时一般为Pro-modifier放在被修饰名词的前面。但是，以下情况Post-modifier后置
（1） 形容词短语作定语
English is a language easy to learn but difficult to master.
Have you got all the instruments necessary for the experiment?
（2） 形容词作定语修饰some, any, no和body, thing, where等构成的复合代词
There is nothing important in today’s paper.
Let’s go somewhere quiet.
2修饰顺序：意义较具体的，或与名词关系较密切的形容词通常更靠近名词
常见次序：限定词一般描绘性形容词大小、形状年龄、新旧色彩国籍、地区、出处物质、材料用途类别的形容词或名词
名词
our great, socialist motherland
that hungry, tired, sleepy, little match girl
a gloomy-looking, gray, wooden house
*1）同类词排列时，通常较短的在前
a kind, generous, old man
2）几个时，可以用and连接，当形容词并列作表语时，通常由and连接
That is a black and white cat.
He is a bright and diligent boy.
He was tall, dark and handsome.
易混淆的形容词
sleepy/asleep
healthy/healthful
industrial/industrious
historic/historical
continual/continuous
economic/economical
distinct/distinctive
respectable/respectful
live/lively/alive
like/alike/likely
dead/deadly/deathly
sensitive/sensible/sensory
efficient/proficient/sufficient
imaginable/imaginary/imaginative
everyday/every day
all ready/already
popular/populous
considerable/considerate
disinterested/uninterested
honorary/honorable
invaluable/valueless/priceless
illegible/illegal/eligible
practicable/practicaldefective/deficient
alone/lonely
successful/successive
principal/principle
pleasant/pleased
desirable/desirous
imminent/eminent
5.2 Adverb
用法
主要用作状语，修饰动词、形容词或其他副词，还可以修饰介词短语和句子等
*有时可作表语或定语，作定语时通常置于所修饰名词或代词后面，常见的有
above
ahead
downstairs
out
away
anywhere
homethere
abroad
back
in
yesterday
afterwards
below
on
种类
1程度副词Adverb of Degree
修饰形容词、副词，表示程度，可回答To what extent…一类的问题
very, much, so, too, quite, fairly, rather, extremely…
2频度副词Adverb of Manner
修饰动词，表示动作发生的频率程度，可回答how often…一类的问题
always, often, usually, sometimes, seldom, rarely, hardly, never, frequently, occasionally…
3方式副词Adverb of Manner
修饰动词，表示动作进行的方式，可回答In what way…一类的问题
fast, carefully, suddenly, easily, quickly, quietly, slowly…
4时间副词Adverb of Time
表示动作发生的时间范围，可回答When…一类的问题
now, then, today, early, soon, already, before, ago…
5地点副词Adverb of Place
表示动作或状态发生的场所或方位，回答Where…一类的问题
here, there, above, below, away, abroad, up, down, upstairs…
6评注性副词Adverb of Comment
修饰整个句子，表示说话者态度
apparently, clearly, frankly, generally, indeed, obviously, typically, maybe, yes…
7逻辑连接副词Adverb of Logical Connection
修饰整个句子，表示该句与上下文的逻辑关系
however, nevertheless, therefore, thus, furthermore, moreover…
8疑问副词、连接副词、关系副词分别引出疑问句、宾语从句、定语从句等结构
when, where, why, how, whenever
具有2种形式的副词
形容词充当的副词和形容词+ly构成的副词
1意义相同或相近，用法不同，一般，形容词充当副词更接近于表语或补语，或在口语中。它们相应的+ly形式在句子中更接近于方式状语或程度状语
cheap/cheaply
right/rightly
clear/clearly
slow/slowly
close/closely
tight/tightly
fair/fairly
wide/widely
firm/firmly
wrong/wrongly
loud/loudly
deep/deeply
quick/quickly
2意义差别大
high/highly
direct/directly
late/lately
pretty/prettily
sharp/sharply
short/shortly
most/mostly
near/nearly
just/justly
hard/hardly
free/freely
在句子中的位置
1程度副词通常位于被修饰形容词或副词前
当enough作副词修饰形容词或其他副词时，必须置后
2频率副词通常位于行为动词前面，be动词、助动词和情态动词后面
3方式副词通常位于动词（和宾语）后面
4当几个副词同时出现时，排序一般为：方式副词M+地点副词P+时间副词T（时间副词可以提到句首）
该次序也适用于由其他词或词组充当的相应的状语
5评注性副词和逻辑性副词均可用作状语，为插入语的一种
*插入语
当一个语言单位用在句子中，与该句其他成分在语法上没有任何联系即为插入语Parenthesis或叫独立成分Independent Element
1使用插入语的目的
（1） 表示说话人的态度
（2） 表示上下文逻辑关系
（3） 对文中内容表示解释
（4） 表示句子的主次关系，次要部分作插入语
2常见类型
（1） 副词型
a) Frankly, the students didn’t work hard enough last term.
b) The clock Is old; it is, however, in good condition.
（2） 介词短语型
（3） 不定式短语型
（4） 分词短语型
（5） 短句型：
a) The rain didn’t last long, as they had expected.
b) That accident, John recalled, occurred on a summer morning.
副词辨析
altogether / all together
1altogether=entirely完全 / on the whole总的来说
He was not altogether satisfied.
Altogether, he was satisfied.
2all together一起/总共
Let’s sing the song all together.
All together fifty people have registered.
Anyhow / somehow / somewhat
1anyhow无论如何/以任何方式=any way / at any rate
2somehow=in some way or other以某种方式/由于某种原因
3somewhat从某种意义讲/有几分=in a way/rather
It may rain, but I shall go out anyhow.
We must find money for the rent somehow.
I’m somewhat tired of this book .
Early / soon
Early着重绝对时间上的早晚，soon指相对于某特定时间以后的早，不久，强调与该特定时间相隔之短
You should start as soon as possible so as not to keep them waiting.
You should start as early as possible so that you can catch the first train to London.
Either / neither
Either用于否定句中或否定词后，neither用于句首，语序倒装, either…or, neither…nor的句型的动词形式为就近原则
She didn’t go and I didn’t go either.
She didn’t go and neither did I.
Entirely / utterly
Entirely表示肯定态度，utterly表示否定态度
I entirely agree with you.
She is utterly dissatisfied.
Ever / once
Ever 无论何时/究竟,主要用于非肯定句( Nonassertive Sentences)以及形容词和副词最高级表示比较范围的句子中，目的在于加强语气
One曾经/昔日/有一次，相当于一个表示过去时间的状语，多用于谓语是过去时的句子中
Neither of them has ever read this book.
There once lived a man who had two daughters.
Late / lately
Late可作形容词或副词，意思是晚，迟；lately为副词，意思是近来、最近=recently，指过去一点时间或一段时间
He is often late to class.
They moved into a new house lately.
Nothing has been heard of him lately.
Later / latter
Later除作late的比较级形式外，还可作副词，表示后来，以后，过后；latter是形容词，表示后者的，后一半的，也常和former一起构成名词性替代词，the former…, the latter…等
Later on, Cary and Tim came to join us, too.
He spent the latter half of his life in Oxford.
Most / mostly / almost
This is the most interesting novel I have ever read.
She is mostly out on Sunday.
It was almost dark when they reached there.
Not / no
Not为副词，常作谓语等的否定词；no为形容词，对名词进行修饰或限定
They would not help us.
We got no help from them.
Rather / fairly
有时可互换
We know him fairly / rather well.
Rather常修饰贬义的词，fairly多修饰褒义词
Tom is fairly clever, but Peter is rather stupid.
He is fairly rich, but his brother is rather poor.
有些词本身无感情色彩，但用了后有感情倾向
This soup is fairly hot.
This soup is rather hot.
This room is fairly big.
This room is rather big.
Still / yet / already
Still表示无变化的延续性，yet表示尚，与already相对，常用于否定句和疑问句，already是已经，多用于肯定句
The guests are already here. But the meat is not ready yet. It still has to be cooked for another five minutes.
already偶尔也用于疑问句尾，表示惊奇意味
Have you finished the work already? You are very speedy.
so / too
与rather, fairly以及very, quite一样，也常用作程度状语修饰形容词或副词，但在修饰“形容词+名词”时，结构有差异
It is too/so hot a day.
It is rather/quite a difficult book. = It is a rather difficult book.
It is a very/fairly interesting lecture.
so / such
so是副词，修饰形容词，such为限定词，限定名词词组
1such a(n)+adj.+n.such a hot day
+adj.+n(pl.)such hot days
+adj.+n(u.)such hot water
若用so则只可以说so hot a day,但不可说so hot days或so hot water
2当名词的修饰语为限定词时，一般只用so
so little food
so many students
very / much / very much
very修饰形容词、副词，以及充当形容词功能的现在分词和已完全转化成形容词的过去分词
I am very happy to hear of your success.
His argument is very convincing.
He drives very fast.
Much修饰v-ed，以及形容词和副词的比较级
The journey takes much longer time when the roads are crowded.
We were much encouraged by his remarks.
Very much修饰肯定句中的动词
I liked / enjoyed that music very much.
Thank you very much
但否定句中一般不用very
I don’t like it much. = I don’t much like it.
Very / quite
Very非常，程度强；quite还算可以，程度减弱
How are you?
I am very well.
I am quite well.
*quite与表示完全概念的形容词或副词（right, wrong, perfect, certain, empty, full…）连用时，表示完全，和completely 同意
You are quite right.
This bottle is quite empty.
第六讲 Adjective and Adverb II (Comparison)
6.0 Brief Introduction
一般，形容词只有品质形容词才可比较，副词只有表示程度、频率和方式的才有比较级。英语中有3个比较等级：原级Positive Degree、比较级Comparative Degree、最高级Superlative Degree
6.1原级 Positive Degree
1肯定式原级比较：表示一方像另一方那样……
结构：as+adj./adv.原级+as+名词/代词（主格）
Some of the stars may be as large as the sun and as hot as the sun.
2否定式原级比较：表示一方不如另一方那样……
结构：not so/as+adj./adv.原级+as名词/代词（主格）
The melting point of copper is not so/as high as that of iron.
*1该结构中，第一个as/so是副词，后一个是连词，引出一个省略的比较状语从句，该从句一般仅保留参与比较的另一方。若被比较的另一方在状语从句中为主语，则其代词必须用主格
John is as tall as I (am).
2数量关系
This model of car can run twice as fast as that one.
Their room is one-third as large as ours.
3有时该结构不表示比较，而是“与其说……不如说……”
He is not so (much) unintelligent as uneducated.
6.2比较级和最高级 Comparative Degree and Superlative Degree
1形容词
a单音节词，元音/-y/重音结尾的双音节词规则变形(-e+-r, -st; -y变-ier, -iest; 短元音加辅音字母结尾的双写辅音字母再加-er, -est)
b大部分重音开头双音节词、两个音节以上词加more, most形式
*某些以两个辅音结尾的单音节和双音节词常用b结构
justmore justmost just
strictmore strictmost strict
modestmore modestmost modest
源于分词的形容词b结构
tiredmore tiredmost tired
pleasedmore pleasedmost pleased
少数词2者皆可
common
cruel
friendly
funny
polite
2副词
a规则变形：单音节词和个别双音节词early, often…
b加more/most：不小于两个音节的词
*often二者皆可
3不规则变形
good/well
better
best
many/much
more
most
little
less
least
bad/badly/ill
worse
worst
far
farther/further
farthest/furthest
old
elder/older
eldest/oldest
late
later/latter
latest/last
near
nearer
nearest/nest
few
fewer
fewest
*elder, eldest表示年长的意思，因此不可和than连用
my elder brother
his eldest son
4形容词和副词比较级的用法
比较级用于两者间，表示一方超过或不及另一方
结构：比较级+than+比较对象（主格）
说明：1than为连接词，其后所跟实际为一个省略的比较从句
I am taller than he (is tall).
Tom walks more quickly than I (do).
2比较级前常有程度状语修饰，说明双方相差的程度。如much, many, by far, even, still, three years, five times, one-third, 20% etc.
Air in the country is much cleaner than that in the city.
He is three years older than his sister.
This month, they will produce 20% more coal than last month.
*当more后接复数名词时，不能用much修饰，而用many / far
many/far more opportunities
far/much more money
3“…times+比较级”易有歧义（特别是小倍数时），最好用”as…as…” 结构
This room is three times larger than that one.
This room is three/four times as large as that one.
当倍数大时，无所谓
Our trade union movement would be a thousand times stronger if it were better organized.
4”the 比较级…，the 比较级”=“越……越……”，常用部分倒装语序
The earlier you start, the sooner you will be back.
The more books one reads, the more knowledgeable he becomes.
5有时，比较级比较也用“the+比较级+of+比较范围（通常两者）”的结构
He is the cleverer of the two boys.
Of Mary and Jane, who is the smarter?
6not more than只是一般比较级结构，表示“不超过，不及”；no more than超出了一般比较级意义，转义为“只不过，仅仅”
There are not more than 500 students in this school.
There are no more than 500 students in this school.
类似的有
not less thanno less than
not better thanno better than
7more/less…than,,,结构有时不表示比较，而是作“与其说……不如说……”解释
He is more diligent than clever.
She was less hurt than frightened.
该结构还可以和其他词连用
He is much more an actor than a musician.
5形容词、副词最高级用法
结构：(the)+最高级+of(in, among)+比较范围
说明：1形容词最高级前要加the,副词无所谓
2比较范围可以在句首，也可以在句尾，一般不能省略
3most还有作程度副词的功能，表示非常
6.3使用比较级注意事项
1一致性和排他性
Her English is as fluent as her teacher’s.
Tom is more diligent than any other student in his class.
2替代的使用
1助动词替代主句中相关动词
I earn more than I did in the past.
John spends as much time watching TV as he does writing.
2代词替代主句中相关名词
that代替指物的单数可数名词或不可数名词，一般是特指
those代替指人或物的复数名词，一般是特指
one代替人或物的单数可数名词，一般是泛指
ones代替指人或物的复数名词，一般是泛指
The output of coal this year is twice as much as that of last year.
The books on this shelf are more interesting than those on that shelf.
A bridge built of iron is much stronger than one built of stone.
Small bananas are often better than bigger ones.
3有些形容词及其 –ly副词，由于表示绝对意义，不可用于比较等级，也不能被其他程度副词如very等修饰
absolute
sole
eternal
total
first
ultimate
true
unique
wrong
final
correct
last
only
perfect
primary
unanimous
4少数以-or结尾含有比较意义的形容词，后面要求接to来引导比较对象
inferior
junior
superior
senior
5有时，比较级和最高级可以表示相同意思，只是着眼点不同
Richard is the tallest of the three brothers and is the oldest boy in the school.
Richard is taller than his two brothers and is older than any other boy in the school.
第七讲 Verb
7.0 Brief Introduction
7.1 动词的种类一Verb Categories I
根据意义和句法作用分为：普通动词（连系动词+实义动词），特殊动词（助动词+情态动词）
1连系动词Link Verb
无动作意义，连接主语和表语。分成三类：一说明主语所处状态的状态连系动词，如be, look;二说明转变过程的转化连接动词，如turn, grow;三表示变化结果的结果连系动词，如become, get
John’s father is a football coach.
You look very smart today.
The more he thought about it, the angrier he grew.
This ink becomes black when it dries.
*1常用连系动词
appear
be
become
come
fall
feel
get
go
grow
keep
lie
look
remain
rest
run
smell
sound
stand
stay
taste
2由实义动词转化来的连系动词的动作意味减弱，只是表示主语转变后的结果或所处状态
He fell from his bike. 实义动词
He suddenly fell ill. 连系动词
2实义动词Notional Verb
具有实际词义的动词。分成
及物动词Transitive Verb:本身意思不完整，需要接宾语
The people of the world love peace.
不及物动词Intransitive Verb:本身意思完整，无须宾语
The sun rises from the east.
*不少动词兼作及物动词和不及物动词，有的词义不变，有的变，少部分作不及物动词时有被动意义
3助动词Auxiliary Verb
无实际意义，只在句中起语法功能，帮助动词构成疑问、否定、时态和语态等形式
Do you read newspapers every day?
The job will be finished soon.
4情态动词Model Verb
具有一定词义，但不能单独做谓语，只用于构成复合谓语，增加谓语的情态、语气等色彩
We must obey traffic regulations.
7.2 动词种类二 Verb Categories II
按照词汇意义的性 Aspect Character，即动作发生或进行的方式，可分为界限性动词、非界限性动词和双体性动词
1界限性动词Terminative Verb
具有某种内在界限的含义，一旦达到这个界限，该动作就完成了。如come, catch, die, find, five, join, kill, lose, leave, marry, realize
They left for Beijing this morning.
2非界限性动词 Nonterminative Verb
无内在界限，所表示的动作或状态可以一直进行下去
包括1）动态动词Dynamic Verb
具有动作含义：live, sit, stand, study, talk, work, write等
He began to write an hour ago.
2)状态动词Stative Verb
表示感觉、情感、看法、认识、愿望及所有关系等状态含义：be, belong, consist, exist, feel, hate, have, hope, love, want等
I hope to see you again soon.
3双体性动词Verb of Double Aspective Features
随语境不同，可以兼做以上2者：feel, look, move, run, sit, walk, write等
He sat on a chair, reading all the afternoon.
He sat on a chair and began to read.
*瞬间动作动词Momentary Verb表示的是极其短暂的动作，如beat, jump, kick, knock, nod, shake等，要表示这类动词的延续或重复，要用进行时
He nodded.
He was nodding.
7.3 普通动词变化形式Verb Forms
根据使用场合，分：动词原形，也叫不定式，是不带任何人称、数、时态等语法意义的动词形式，是其他各种形式变化的基础；过去式是表示动作发生在过去的动词形式；过去分词主要用于构成完成时和被动语态；现在分词主要用于构成进行时态
1规则动词Regular Verb
1） 以-y结尾，若前面为元音字母，直接加-ed;否则变成-ied
2） 重读闭音节，且词尾只有一个辅音字母，要双写再加-ed
2不规则动词Irregular Verb
死记硬背
*现在分词需要注意的
1）一般-e先去e再加-ing
hate
hating
但，-ee，直接加-ing
agree
agreeing
2)以重读闭音节（包括单音节）结尾，并且词尾只有一个辅音字母，先双写该辅音字母，再加-ing
run
running
以一个元音字母加l结尾也要双写
signal
signaling
但是,两个元音加l就不是
prevail
prevailing
7.4 动词的连续关系Verb Complementation
1 连系动词：只有一种
动词+表语（V+P）
2 实义动词
1）及物动词：三种
（1）动词+宾语（V+O）
（2）动词+宾语+宾补（V+O+C）
（3）动词+间接宾语+直接宾语（V+Oi+Od）
*常跟双宾语的动词
ask
bring
buy
choose
do
deny
fetch
get
give
grant
hand
leave
lend
make
offer
order
pay
pass
promise
sell
send
show
take
teach
tell
write
wish
2）不及物动词：只有一种，就是自身
7.5 短语动词的类型Classification of Phrasal Verb
短语动词Phrasal Verb动词加介词、副词或其他词构成的固定词组，相当于一个实义动词（要与动词短语Verb Phrase相区别，通常是动词+宾语或动词+状语，不能等同为实义动词）可分类为
1 v.+prep.相当于及物动词
She looks after the children during the day.
act on
listen to
amount to
long for
call on
operate on
consist of
resist in
insist on
send for
account for
look at
attend to
object to
care for
rely on
depend on
stand for
laugh at
wait for
apply for
look into
believe in
play with
come across
speak of
go through
2 v.+adv.
1) vt.+adv.相当于及物动词。副词的位置由宾语决定，若宾语是代词，为v.+pron.+adv.
You can count me out.
若宾语是名词，副词可前可后
They put out the big fire. = They put the big fire out.
blow up
carry out
give up
look up
point out
bring up
rule out
find out
talk over
hand in
think over
make out
turn on
put on
wipe out
set aside
take over
pick up
throw away
ring up
turn off
set up
call off
take off
give away
turn down
hand out
win over
2) vi.+adv.相当于不及物动词
The WWI broke out in 1914.
back up
come to
fade away
go on
knock off
pull up
stand up
break down
die away
get up
grow up
look out
run out
take off
catch up
drop out
give in
hang around
pass away
show off
3 v.+adv.+prep.相当于及物动词
I am looking forward to seeing you next week.
The doctor advised him to cut down on smoking.
catch up with
cut down on
fit in with
get along with
go in for
live up to
look up to
run out of
throw back on
come up with
date back to
get away with
get through with
keep up with
look down on
make up for
sit in on
watch out for
come down with
do away with
get down to
go on with
keep out of
look forward to
put up with
stand up to
4 v.+n.+prep.相当于及物动词
They often make fun of the poor boy.
We paid much attention to his remarks.
catch sight of
find fault with
keep an eye on
make fun of
make friends with
pay attention to
shake hands with
take advantage of
take part in
get rid of
give rise to
lose sight of
make a study of
make use of
put a stop to
take care of
throw light on
7.6 Some Common Verbs
affect/effect
affect表示影响……，使……受影响，其宾语表示受影响对象
effect表示产生……影响，其宾语为一含有结果意义的名词
The incident affected the relations between the two countries.
The decision effected some improvement in their work.
Answer/reply
Answer(vt.)可跟直接宾语或宾语从句
Reply(vi.)不能直接跟宾语，但可以加宾语从句
I asked him five questions but he did not reply to a single one.
He replied that he had no idea about the matter.
Arrive/get/reach到达
Arrive(vi.)后接at/in
Get(vi.)后接to
Reach(vt.)直接跟宾语
They arrived at / got to / reached the airport too late to catch the flight.
Assure/ensure
Assure(vt.)使……相信……，使确信
Ensure(vt.)保证……获得、实现，使……获得
He assured me that it was true.
We can’t ensure you a good post.
Bring/take/fetch/carry
Bring(vt.)带来
The ball went over the fence and one of the players asked a boy to fetch it.
Take(vt.)取走
The city’s underground carries more people than the buses.
Fetch(vt.)去取
You had better take an umbrella with you in case of rain.
Carry(vt.)携带
Waiter, bring me a bottle of beer please.
Clash/crash/smash/crush
Clash冲突、撞击
The two armies clashed outside the town.
Crash（使）破碎，尤指有响声的破碎
The plane crashed on a hillside.
Smash击碎，有用暴力使粉碎的含义
The robbers smashed the windows and entered the house.
Crush压碎
He crushed fruit into juice.
Don’t sit on the box. You will crush it.
The car crashed into a tree.
The firemen smashed the window and entered the house.
The two armies clashed outside the town.
Cost/take/spend
Cost花费，指金钱、劳力和时间，主语通常是事物，可跟双宾语；take花费，指时间，主语通常是一件事，也可跟双宾语；spend花费，指金钱、时间，主语总是人
This vase cost him five dollars.
It cost him a great deal of trouble.
It will take him two days to finish the work.
How do you spend your money/time?
Damage/destroy
Damage损坏，仍可修复；destroy毁坏，不可修复
Handle with care. Mind you don’t damage it.
Before they fled, the enemy destroyed the city.
Doubt/suspect
Doubt怀疑某事是不可能或不真实，肯定句中常跟whether或if引出的宾语从句，否定句和疑问句中常跟that引出的宾语从句；suspect怀疑某事是真的，常跟that引起的宾语从句
I doubt whether he is a genius.
Do you doubt that he is a genius?
I don’t doubt that he is a genius.
I suspect that he is a genius.
Dress/wear
Dress可及物或不及物，表示（给）……穿衣服；wear只做及物动词，表示穿着……衣服
He wears a beautiful shirt.
He dresses (himself) quickly.
Fit/suit
前者指尺寸、大小合适；后者指式样、风格、程度的合适
This straw hat does not fit me; it’s too big.
Her blue coat suits her fair skin.
make/do
make，做出原来不存在的东西
do，执行、作出一个行为
occur/happen/take place/break out/appear/emerge/turn up/show up
全部不及物
An accident occurred last night.
A fire broke out last night.
如果必须要用及物动词表达“出现”类意思，可选用bring about, lead to, result in, cause something to happen等
Persuade/convince/advise
Persuade着重情感上的敦促、劝告；convince着重理智方面的辩论、证明。二者都表示结果，即说服了，两者结构差不多
To persuade/convince someone that…
To persuade/convince someone of something
eg: He persuaded/convince me of her sincerity.
He persuaded me that that was not worth buying.
He convinced me that I was wrong.
persuade还可表示“说服某人做（或不做）某事
To persuade someone (not) to do something
To persuade someone into/out of doing something
表示劝说的动作，可以用try to persuade/convince或advise表示
We tried to convince them of their error, but failed.
provide/supply/offer
provide=give what is needed, esp. what a person needs in order to live提供（所需之物品，尤其是生活必需品）
supply=give what is asked for提供他人所要求的东西
offer=present, hold out, or put forward, to be accepted or refused主动提供
My uncle provided me with everything when I studied at the university.
The company has promised to supply the market with a new model of washing machine next year.
He offered me a job in a bank, but I refused.
Receive/accept
Receive仅为收到；accept表示接受
I have received her present but I will not accept it.
Rise/raise/arise
Rise（vi.）上升
Raise（vt.）举起
Arise(vi.)可与rise互换,但比较文气，该词还有起源于和出现的意思，常和form连用
He is too weak to raise that heavy box.
Food prices have risen rapidly in the past few months.
Black smoke rose/arose from the chimney.
Accidents usually arise from carelessness.
Sit/seat
Sit(vi.)坐；seat(vt.)使……坐/供以座位
Speak/say/tell/talk
Speak为不及物动词，意为“说话”，若表示说及某事须用speak about/of, 若表示对谁说用speak to
He speaks quietly.
I shall speak to him about (of) that matter tomorrow.
在一些固定用法中，speak可以接宾语：speak English, speak the truth
talk为不及物动词，意思是连续地“谈话”，其后的接续关系和speak大致相同
He was talking to (with) a friend.
What are they talking about (of)?
Say为及物动词，意思是“说……”，着重在所说的话
He said (to me) that he was tired.
Who said that?
Tell为及物动词，意思是“告诉（某人）（某事）”，“向（某人）讲述（某事）”，它可以接双宾语
I told him my name.
He told me that he would not come to the evening.
Win/defeat
Win作及物动词时意为“赢得（什么东西）”，作不及物动词时意为“获胜”
In that game, we won.
We won that game (a prize…).
Defeat为及物动词，意为“击败……”
We defeated/beat them in that game.
第八讲 时态Tense
8.0 Brief Introduction
Tens表示动作发生时间（Time）和体态（Aspect）（动作发生的方式或事物所处的状态），共16种
Time有4种：现在、过去、将来和过去将来
Aspect有4种：一般、进行、完成和完成进行
时态动词形式表
体态
一般
进行
完成
完成进行
时间
be+现在分词
have+过去分词
have been+现在分词
现在
works
work
is
am working
are
has
worked
have
has
been working
have
过去
worked
was
working
were
had worked
had been working
将来
will
work
shall
will
be working
shall
will
have worked
shall
will
have been working
shall
过去
将来
would
work
should
would
be working
should
would
have worked
should
would
have been working
should
*Time≠Tense
He will leave tomorrow.单纯表示将来
He is going to leave tomorrow.强调打算
He is leaving tomorrow.强调安排
He leaves tomorrow.强调计划
8.1 Present Indefinite Tense
1 表示习惯性动作，讲话时，人或事物的特性或状态，以及客观真理等
谓语动词，除第三人称单数要在动词后加-s外，其余用原形（be, have随人称有不同形式），该时态常含有频度或现在概念的状语
We get up at six every morning.
Everyone is in high spirits.
Light travels more quickly than sound.
2 用于时间和条件状语从句中，代替一般将来时
If it is fine tomorrow, we will go on a picnic.
When you come next time, bring me some magazines.
3 与某些具有“出发，到达”含义动词连接，表示按计划将要发生的动作
The delegation arrives in Beijing this afternoon.
There is a new film tonight.
4 用于报刊的新闻标题中
Algerian Troops Fire on Anti-government Rioters.
Wildlife Flourishes in Jilin Reserves.
8.2 Past Indefinite Tense
表示过去某时间的动作或状态。谓语动词用过去式。常跟一个表示过去时间的状语
The children went out just now.
She died ten years ago.
8.3 Future Indefinite Tense
表示相对于讲话时间将要发生的动作或情况。谓语形式是shall / will加动词原形。（英国第一人称用shall，美国全用will）常跟一个表示将来的时间状语
Next month, my sister will be nineteen.
I will / shall return you the book as soon as possible.
*表示将来时间的其他形式
1）be going to do表示最近打算要做的事情，有时也可用于天气情况
It is going to rain.
be going to还可用于条件句表示将来时间，而will / shall则不能
If you are going to play tennis this afternoon, you had better get your shoes prepared now.
2）be to do表示按计划要发生的事情
We are to meet at the school gate.
3）be about to do表示即将/正要做某事
Autumn harvest is about to start.
4）一般现在时表示根据规定、时间表要发生的动作
5）现在进行时表示按计划、安排即将发生的动作
8.4 Past Future Indefinite Tense
表示在过去某一时刻之后将要发生的动作或情况。多用于主句谓语动词是一般过去时的宾语从句中，其形式由would或should加原形动词构成
He said that he would get married soon.
I asked him when he would come here again.
*类似一般将来时，一般过去将来时也有其他相应表达形式
He said that he was going to try again.
8.5 Present Continuous Tense
由be的适当形式+现在分词
1 表示说话时，或现阶段正在进行的动作或发生的情况
2 表示一个按计划即将发生的动作
但仅使用少数动词而且常跟一个时间状语，go, come, leave, arrive
He is coming here next week and is staying here until August.
*1) 不用于进行时态的动词 Verb Not Used In Continuous Tenses
表示感觉、情感、心理状态、所有关系以及特征等状态动词一般不可用于进行时
agree
belong
have
love
remember
want
appear
see
hear
notice
seem
be
feel
know
mind
think
believe
forget
like
realize
wish
但这部分词转化作其他意思使用时，有的就可以用于进行时态了
I am seeing Mary tomorrow.
He is thinking about the problem.
2) be的进行时态+动态形容词（Dynamic Adjective），有时可表示在某一相对短暂时刻人们的活动和行为
I’m just being curious.
Mary is being modest now.
3)习惯进行时 Habitual Continuous
现在/过去进行时有时和always, constantly, forever等连用，含有感情色彩，常常用于表示某种令人不悦的事情
You are always finding fault with me.
John is forever losing things.
8.6 Past Continuous Tense
表示过去某时刻或某阶段正在进行的动作。谓语形式：由was / were加现在分词构成。通常有一个表示过去时间的状语
We were talking about you a moment ago.
I was playing the piano when she came in.
*过去进行时还常常用于对故事中情节的描述
It was a dark night and a strong wind was blowing.
8.7 Future Continuous Tense
谓语形式：shall / will+be+现在分词
１主要表示在将来某一时刻或某一段时间正在进行的动作
２有时也可表示预料不久就要发生或势必要发生的动作
8.8 Present Perfect Tense
谓语形式：have / has+过去分词
１表示过去发生的但对现在有影响的动作。这时，可以不用时间状语，也可和一些表示不定过去的时间状语连用，如already, yet, never, before, recently, just, ever, once…
２表示从过去某时间开始一直延续到现在的动作。常用于含有延续意义的动词，并且一般要跟一个表示一端时间的状语，如since, for two years, so far, in recent years….
*１）含有界限意义的动词Terminative Verb，如begin, end, die, lose, find, fall, go, come, join…，以及含有瞬间意义的动词Momentary Verb,如knock, jump, strike, hit…不能用于完成时的第二种用法
２）It is(has been)…since这一结构也常用于现在完成时
It is (=has been) a long time since they last met each other.
３）在This is the first / second time that…句型中，从句常用完成时态
Is this the first time that you have visited Hong Kong?
This is the second time that I have broken a cup this year.
４）在when, where引导的疑问句中，一般不用现在完成时（Where have you been?例外），因为这类句子询问的要点就是事情发生的具体时间和场合
8.9 Past Perfect Tense
谓语形式：had+过去分词，表示在过去某一时刻以前已经完成的动作，常用一个由by, before等介词或连词引导的、表示到过去某一时间为止的时间状语。这一时态，常用语宾语或定语从句中
John had learned some Chinese before he came to China.
By the end of last year, I had worked in this college for ten years.
He found the book that he had lost.
也常用于no sooner… than和hardly…when/before等句型的主句中，从句一般用一般过去时
We had no sooner reached home than it began to rain. = No sooner had we reached home than it began to rain.
He had hardly entered the office when / before the phone rang.=Hardly had he entered the office when / before the phone rang.
8.10 Present Perfect Continuous Tense
现在完成进行时由have/has+been+现在分词构成，表示动作从过去某一时间开始，一直延续到现在，可能还要继续下去，通常与表示一段时间的状语连用
They have been watching television for two hours.
He has been working on this essay since this morning.
*1)现在完成进行时和现在完成时的区别
(1)两者常常互换，但区别在于：现在完成进行时比现在完成时更强调动作的延续性，前者可以说是后者的强调形式
(2)在不用时间状语的情况下，现在完成进行时表示动作仍在进行，而现在完成时则表示动作在过去已经结束
(3)现在完成进行时一般不适用于状态动词Stative Verb，要表示状态动词的延续，只可用现在完成时
They’ve known each other since 1970.
He has hoped that he has an opportunity to have college education.
2)现在完成进行时在过去场合中的变化形式是过去完成进行时the Past Perfect Continuous Tense。其形式为：had+been+现在分词
She asked me what I had been doing these years.
They were sweating all over because they had been playing basketball.
8.11 Sequence of Tenses
从句谓语动词的时态时常受主句谓语动词时态的制约，通常叫“时态的一致／呼应“
１一般规则
1） 若主句谓语动词是现在时态或将来时态，从句可根据意思需要，选用任何时态
2） 若主句谓语动词是过去时态，从句中一般要用过去时态
（1） 如果从句动作与主句动作同时发生，从句用一般过去时或过去进行时
（2） 当从句动作发生在主句动作之前，从句用过去完成时
（3） 若从句动作发生在主句动作之后，从句用过去将来时
· 有些形容词后面也可跟一个从句，这种从句通常也被看作宾语从句，其谓语也应与主句谓语的时态保持一致
I’m confident that I’ll pass the exam.
She was afraid that the dog would bite.
He was not sure whether his application had been accepted.
２特殊规则
1） 当从句表示客观事实或真理时，其时态可不受主句谓语的影响，而用一般现在时
2） 事态呼应多见于宾语从句、主语从句、表语从句和同位语从句，状语从句和定语从句中可根据意义的需要来选用任何时态
I didn’t go to the ball because I am not fond of dancing.
He spoke much more fluently at the meeting than he usually does.
The car which often breaks down was bought 10 years ago.
8.12 Simplification of Tenses
在if, unless等引导的条件状语从句中和when, as, after, before和until等引导的时间状语从句中，要用一般现在时表示一般将来时，用一般过去时表示过去将来时。本规则也适用于部分其他从句中
1 in case, whether, where等引导的从句
Take an umbrella in case it rains.
Wheter I win or lose, I will have a good time.
I will go where / ever you go.
2部分宾语从句和定语从句
当主句动词是将来时，从句动词表示的动作于主句动词的动作同时发生，这时从句动词要用一般时表示将来时
If the police stop me I will pretend I don’t understand English.
One day the government will really ask people what they want.
I would give him anything he asked for.
The man who marries my daughter will need to be tough and quick thinking.
如果主句动词和从句动词是指将来不同时间，则都用将来时
I’ll tell her that you will ring again later.
第九讲 Voice-Passive Voice
9.0 Brief Introduction
语态也是动词的一种形式，表示主语和谓语之间的关系。英语有两种语态：Active Voice和Passive Voice，主动语态表示主语是谓语动作的执行者；被动语态表示主语是谓语动作的承受者。
9.1 Forms of Passive Voice
被动语态由助动词be+过去分词构成
一般时态
进行时态
完成时态
现在
am
is written
are
am
is being given
are
has
benn written
have
过去
was
written
were
was
being given
were
had been written
将来
shall
be written
will
shall
have been written
will
过去将来
should
be written
would
should
have been written
would
*１）被动语态和不同时态结合的变化形式一概表现在助动词be上
２）被动语态不用于将来进行时态和各种完成进行时态
３）含有情态动词的谓语变成被动语态时，用情态动词＋be+过去分词构成
４）含有be going to, be to等结构的谓语，变成被动语态时，分别用be going+to be+过去分词和be+to be+过去分词
9.2 Passive Voice and Basic Patterns
被动语态的主语，实际是由主动语态的宾语转换而来，不及物动词，不可跟宾语，因此没有被动语态（由不及物动词＋介、副词构成的及物的短语动词除外）英语五种基本句型只有三种用于及物动词的可用于被动语态
1 SVO
People grow rice in the south.Rice is grown in the south.
2 SVOC
We elected him chairman of the club.He was elected chairman of the club.
The teacher asked the students to write a composition.The students were asked to write a composition.
Tom painted the door blue.The door was painted blue by Tom.
*1宾补和主补
当ＳＶＯＣ句型变成被动语态后，Objective Complement就变成了Subjective Complement
2若主动句中的宾补是不带to的不定式，当句子变成被动态以后，作为主补的不定式则应加上to
The manager made his secretary work overtime.The secretary was made to work overtime.
3 SVOiOd