em waves and its propagation...

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EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島 Electromagnetic or radio waves are electric E and magnetic H force fields that propagate through space at the speed of light and interact with matter along their paths. • These interactions cause the scattering, diffraction, and refraction also common to visible light. 散射、繞射、折射

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Page 1: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島

• Electromagnetic or radio waves are electric E and magnetic H force fields that propagate through space at the speed of light and interact with matter along their paths. • These interactions cause the scattering, diffraction, and refraction also common to visible light. 散射、繞射、折射

Page 2: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

EM Waves and Propagation

Wave propagation speed, wavelength, and frequency

c = λf = 3.0 x 108 m s-1

1Hz (Hertz) = 1 cycle s-1, frequency unit in Hz,

3 cm wavelength radar, the frequency is 10 GHz.

Page 3: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

簡易雷達硬體內容示意圖

電磁能量、震盪器、脈衝調波器、放大發射器、射收轉換開關、波導管、天線、大氣目標物反散射、接收器、濾波器、訊號處理和資料顯示器

雷達接收資料的內容:振幅、相位、頻率、以及極化。

大氣主要的反散射目標物(為雷達發射電磁波波長的函數)

:空氣分子、懸浮粒子、水相粒子、以及不連續之折射指數。

Page 4: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

Pulses, pulse repetition frequency, pulse repetition time, pulse duration, pulse width

脈衝,脈衝重複頻率(PRF),脈衝重複時間(PRT),脈衝延時(τ),脈衝寬度(h);

最大可辨識距離(rmax)

Page 5: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

Electric field E (r, θ, φ, t) = A (θ, φ)/r cos[2πf(t-r/c)+ ψ] = A(θ, φ)/r exp[j2πf (t-r/c) + jψ] V m-1, A(θ, φ)/r is the amplitude and 2πf(t-r/c)+ψ is the phase of the periodic electric field, r is the wave propagating distance, and ψ is the transmitter phase angle.

何謂極化 (Polarization)

If we place a dielectric in an electric field, induced surface charges appear which tend to weaken the original field within the dielectric.

水平與垂直極化,線性極化 (linear polarization)

二次(橢圓)極化(elliptical polarization)

Page 6: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

Polarization

Page 7: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

Circular-polarized electric field

Page 8: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

Electric field E (r, θ, φ, t) = A (θ, φ)/r exp[j2πf(t-r/c)+ jψ]

The time rate of change of β [=2πf(t-r/c)+ψ] is frequency, and it can be seen that frequency is composed of two items: ω = 2πƒ is the transmitted or carrier frequency ( radians s-1 ), and (2πƒ/c) dr/dt is a Doppler shift that would be experienced by an observer at r moving at velocity dr/dt. The time dependence of the phase is important in understanding the principles of Doppler radar.

Page 9: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

(magnitude of the complex Poynting vector S = E x H*/2 波印亭向量顯示電磁能流的方向)

S (r, θ, φ) = ½ E • E* / η0

= ½ A2 (θ, φ) / [η0 r2] W m-2 η0 is the wave impedance電磁波傳播時的阻抗,是電場振幅和磁場振幅比值,在地球大氣為常數 = 377 ohms.

Time averages are averages of power over a cycle or period ƒ-1 of the wave;but if power is pulsed, then A and S are functions of time and, moreover, the average of power over a cycle of ƒ can change during the pulse.

Products of S with areas represent the power that is received, absorbed, scattered, and so on.

Time-averaged power(energy flow)density 電場強度S

Page 10: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

The angular resolution is well approximated by (Bean and Duton 1968) : ∆θ ≅ 104 λ / D deg , where D is the diameter of the antenna system. 雷達的天線大小與所發射電磁波長決定該雷達系統可解析之最小角度。

人類眼睛的角解析度∆θ大約是 ~ 0.020, 人眼瞳孔的直徑 D~2mm, 依據繞射理論, 人眼的角解析度 ∆θ(繞射限制)~ λ/D ~ 5.5x10-5cm / 0.2cm ~ 1/4000.

一個λ=5cm微波雷達要具有和人類眼睛相同之角解析度, 其天線直徑大小必須為 D ~ 104x0.05/0.02 = 260 meter 超大天線.

天氣雷達選擇使用微波波段作為發射電磁波段最主要原因是此一波長電磁波可以穿透雲和降雨系統。可見光波段幾乎是全部被衰減 ( extinction消光 )。

The angular resolution (角解析度) of scatterers is dependent on the

wavelength of the remote sensor and the antenna size.

Page 11: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

在真空狀態, 電磁波的傳播速度為常數(光速), 路徑為一直線 c = ( µ0ε0)-½ , 其中µ0 dielectric permittivity 介電常數, ε0 magnetic permittivity 磁介電常數。在地球大氣µr =µ/µ0 =1, 而εr =ε/ε0 >1(相對介電常數), 而且是垂直成層, 因此實際電磁波傳播波速 ν < c, 且路徑成一曲線。

雷達訊號的路徑和地球大氣折射指數 n: refractive index 在大氣中的結構有關, n ≡ c/ν = εr

½, 折射指數是大氣溫度, 氣壓, 及水氣的函數。(也可寫成複數形式 m = n - iκ, 其中虛數部分為吸收係數absorption表示波動傳播時, 一邊折射一邊吸收的物理過程)

氣體的介電性與分子密度和極化程度有關, 其關係可以寫成

(εr -1)/(εr +2) = Nv αT / 3, (Lorenz-Lorenz formula )

其中為Nv 分子密度,αT為分子極化程度, 因為εr 趨近於1, 所以

可以改寫為 εr = n2 ≅ 1+ NvαT (εr ≅ 1.000300非常接近於1)

Page 12: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

折射指數 refractive index 考慮混合氣體 n2 ≅ 1 + Nv

(1)αT (1) + Nv

(2)αT (2) + Nv

(3)αT (3)

n2 = 1+273/1013( Nv0/T) [P1αT(1)

+ (P2αT(2) + ….],

其中Nv0為亞佛加厥常數2.6873 x 1025 m-3, Pi為混合氣體分壓單位mb, T為溫度單位為0K。{Nv=ρ/M, ρ= ρ0(273/T)(P/1013)}

折射指數大小與分子密度和極化程度有關, 在不受外來電場影響下, 有些分子本身就呈現帶極結構(polar molecule), 具有偶極電場, 電場所及範圍遠較分子內原子作用力來的大, 水氣分子就是一個典型範例. 乾空氣並非帶極分子, 但在外來電場的作用下會被極化產生內部電場. 考慮濕空氣之折射指數可寫成

n2 = 1 + CdPd/T + Cw1e/T + Cw2e/T2

最後一項表示水氣分子之永久偶極電場效應.(常數已加入C中, e為水氣壓) , 電磁波因大氣之氣壓,溫度,和水氣不規則分布, 產生不規則折射指數分布所造成的散射現象,為晴空觀測的原理. Cd=77.6 mb-1; Cw1=71.6 K mb-1; Cw2=3.7x105 K2 mb-1.

Page 13: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

n = n ( P,T, e )折射指數refractive index

定義:Refractivity N 折射率

N = ( n –1) x 106;

N = ( 77.6 / T ) ( P + 4810e / T )

P : dry air pressure; e: moist air pressure; T temperature.

RH = 60%, T = 270C at sea level

e ≅ 10 mbar, P ≅ 1000 mbar, T ≅ 300K

N ≅ 0.26 x ( 103 + 1.6 x 102 ) ≅ 300

n = 1 + N x 10-6 = 1.000300

雖然折射指數差異不大。但是折射指數有效數字的第五位和第六位數字的差別就足以造成電磁波傳播和路徑顯著差異。

Page 14: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

在一般情形下,對流層氣壓和溫度都隨高度增加而下降,而且氣壓下降速率較溫度遞減率為大,因此折射率N一般隨高度增加而變小。當N隨高度遞減率超過一臨界值時 (dN/dh ≤ -157km-1,通常發生於逆溫層存在時),電磁波會朝地表彎曲,稱之陷波(trapped wave)。

Page 15: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

電磁波傳播路徑與相當地球模型

球形成層大氣模式電磁波路徑方程

s(h) = ∫0h a C dh / R [R2 n2(h) - C2]½ ,

C = a n(0) cosθe 雷達波束路徑曲率

其中s(h) 為沿著地表之大圓距離, h為波束所在高度, a為地球半徑, R= a+h, θe 雷達波束之仰角, n(0) 是雷達所在位置之折射指數. 上式假設 n(h) 隨高度線性改變且很緩和.

上式為描述ray path 方程式的解

d2h/ds2-(2/R+1/n dn/dh)(dh/ds)2-(R/a)2(1/R+1/n dn/dh) = 0

Page 16: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

一平面上任一曲線(波束路徑)的曲率可以寫成 Co = [R2 + 2(dR/dϕ)2-R d2R/dϕ2]/[R2 + (dR/dϕ)2]3/2 其中ϕ為極角, R=a+h. 考慮波束低於20公里高度, h<<a, 將R以a

取代, dR以dh取代, 代入 s = a ϕ Co ≈ [1 + 2(dh/ds)2- a d2h/ds2]/a[1 + (dh/ds)2]3/2 由於n趨近於1, 可將Ray path方程簡化為 d2h/ds2 - 2/a (dh/ds)2 - 1/a - dn/dh [(dh/ds)2 +1] = 0 將d2h/ds2 代入改寫Co Co ≈ - [dn/dh] / [1 + (dh/ds)2]1/2

由於一般天氣雷達僅使用低仰角h<<a, (dh/ds) <<1 Co = - dn/dh 若雷達波束所在環境 n 為高度的線性函數,則其路徑曲率為常

數. 在此條件下, 所有近地面雷達波束的路徑為一圓,其曲率半徑為rc = 1/Co, 此圓圓心偏離雷達和地心直線θe角度.

Page 17: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

相當地球模型 (Equivalent Earth Model)

考慮一個均質大氣, 若波束所走路徑為一直線之相當地球半徑為ae= kea=a/[1+ a(dn/dh)]. 在此一相當地球上, 直線波束離地表之高度和原地球彎曲波束路徑離地表高度相同。研究人員發現在近地面一至二公里高度-dn/dh ≈ -1/4 a (n隨高度變化為線性關係) ,且dh/ds<<1(低仰角) 狀況時,有效地球半徑為 ae= a /{1+ a[dn/dh]} = 4/3a, 在此模型下

h = [r2 + (kea)2 +2rke a sinθe ] ½ - kea , s = ke a sin-1 [r cosθe / (ke a+h)]

利用正弦定律, 彎曲之雷達波束離地表高度可以下式表示 h = rc[sinψr / sin ψ] – a

若是 – (dn/dh)-1 = rc= a, 則 h =0, 表示雷達波束仰角 θe = 0 的路徑將留在地表亦即所謂陷波狀態.

Page 18: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

Ray paths for an ae = 4a/3 model (dn/dh = -1/4a, linear dependent, -40 N km-1) and reference standard atmosphere with exponentially dependent refractive index {N(h) = Ns exp (-0.1439h)}, Ns=313.

Note there is large difference of N between these two models above 2 km height. That is because of the assumption of dh/ds<<1. However, the differences of ray paths are not large at all. So, use of effective radius ae=4a/3 model predicts beam height with sufficient accuracy.

Page 19: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

大氣導管與反射高度 Atmospheric ducts and

reflection height

考慮較極端的例子, 折射指數在近地面為dN/dh= -300km-1 之後為dN/dh=-40km-1的情形.當h<<a (set h1=.1km), 線性化後的路徑方程可寫成s(h)=[(cosθe) / (1+β0a)] {[a2sin2θe + 2a(1+β0a)/h] 1/2 -a sinθe}, 其中 β0 = -300 km-1 is the gradient of n at the surface. 注意s(h)會變成複數, 當[a2sin2θe + 2a(1+β0a)/h]<0時, 定義侵入角(penetration angle) θp = sin-1[-2h1(1+β0a)/a]1/2 , (此個案之θp=0.310),當仰角小於侵入角時雷達波將被陷住。此時

hr = (-a sin2θe)/2(β0a+1),

s(hr) = (-a cosθe sinθe)/(β0a+1).

Page 20: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

Anomalous Propagation(AP) caused by strong ground-based temperature inversion

Page 21: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

海面大氣之折射效應

四種不同大氣條件下的折射情形(a)次折射:暖空氣跑到冷洋面之上的情形,回波值非常弱;(b)標準折射:均勻混合大氣情形,平均回波值約-36dB;(c)部分陷波折射:近海面100ft逆溫現象,訊號穩定且回波值要較標準情形大約30dB;(d)超折射:深厚逆溫或是高空逆溫情形,訊號呈震盪,平均回波值較標準高約40dB。

在海面上標準折射情形甚少見,因為水面含有豐富水氣,很容易產生較大水氣不連續情形。

Page 22: EM waves and its propagation 雷達氣象學講義-台大周仲島jou-p3.as.ntu.edu.tw/P3/file/teaching/c1386322959.pdf · EM Waves and Propagation Wave propagation speed, wavelength,

Some weather radar specification RCLT RCTP RCWF 頻率範圍 5.628GHz 5.6~5.65GHz 2.7~3.0GHz 波長 5.33cm 5.31cm 10 cm 來復頻 200-250/300-1180Hz 250/900-1200Hz 318-452/318-1304Hz 脈衝波寬 1.94/0.68μs 2.0/0.5μs 1.57/4.5μs 天線轉速 6 rpm 2,4,6 rpm 6rpm 天線增益 44.5 dB 43 dB 45.6 dB 波束寬 1.02° 0.857° 0.95° 天線直徑 3.7 m 4.2 m 8.5 m 天線極化 水平線性 水平線性 水平線性 涵蓋範圍 240/120km 240/120km 460/230km 仰角範圍 -2~90 ° -1~90 ° -1~45 ° 瞬間功率 250kW 250kW 750kW 最小可測訊號 -108 dBm -109/-114 dBm -133 dBm