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Page 1: viaetratio.files.wordpress.com€¦ · Erwin Ackerknecht, Medicine at the Paris Hospital, 1794–1848 (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967); Michel Foucault, The Birth

확률과법칙

- 19세기파리의의학연구방법론논쟁 -

연세대학교대학원

인문사회의학협동과정

박 승 만

Page 2: viaetratio.files.wordpress.com€¦ · Erwin Ackerknecht, Medicine at the Paris Hospital, 1794–1848 (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967); Michel Foucault, The Birth

확률과법칙

- 19세기파리의의학연구방법론논쟁 -

지도교수 여 인 석

이논문을석사학위논문으로제출함

2014년 12월 30일

연세대학교대학원

인문사회의학협동과정

박 승 만

Page 3: viaetratio.files.wordpress.com€¦ · Erwin Ackerknecht, Medicine at the Paris Hospital, 1794–1848 (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967); Michel Foucault, The Birth

박승만의석사학위논문을인준함

심사위원 여 인 석 인

심사위원 전 우 택 인

심사위원 한 희 진 인

연세대학교대학원

2014년 12월 30일

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- i -

감사의 글

의과대학학부생시절, 임상실습을돌고있을때였다. 병원의많은과에서는레지던

트와학생을대상으로의학논문을읽는훈련을시키고있었고, 가끔은그결과를아침

이나오후회의시간에검사하곤했다. 주어진논문의문제의식과연구방법론, 결과및

차후논의거리를요약하여발표하고, 회의에참석한사람들이간략한평을다는방식이

었다. 그러나이른바족보나요약본에의존하여한해한해를연명해온학생들이이러

한과제를제대로수행할리만무했다. 발표전날이면어김없이펠로우선생님이나레지

던트고년차선생님의호출이있었고, 학생들이만들어놓은허접스러운발표문은그들

의수정을거쳐서야비로소남들에게보일수있는수준을갖추게되었다.

아마순환기내과였을것이다. 좁은방에는펠로우선생님과나이렇게둘뿐이었고,

내가제출한파워포인트파일은어김없이난도질을당하고있었다. 몇십분의검사가끝

난후, 선생님은내게질문을요구했다. 한참을고민하던나는이렇게운을떼었다. ‘선생

님, p 값이얼마나작아져야확실하다고이야기할수있습니까?’ 질문을좀더명확히하

라는핀잔이돌아왔다. 나는다시말했다. ‘p 값이얼마나작아지면, 예외가없을수있습

니까?’ 선생님은대답했다. ‘그런건없어. 절대적인지식같은건없다는말이야. 지금

할수있는최선을다하는게중요하지.’ 더여쭈어보고싶은것이많았지만, 피곤했던나

는감사하다는인사와함께서둘러방을빠져나왔다.

의학지식은어느정도의확실성을가질수있는가? 이글은이질문에대한답의실마

리를 19세기파리에서찾는다. 의학이갖는확실성의정도를의학지식의탐구대상과

연관지어생각했던그곳의의사들은각주제에대한입장에따라크게두편으로나뉘

어논쟁을벌였으며, 글의말미에서언급하듯이러한대립구도는오늘날에도계속되어

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- ii -

반복되고있다. 다시말해, 이글은의과대학을다니며가지게되었던질문에대한나름

의역사적탐구이다.

공부를도와주신많은분이계신다. 언제나늑장을부리는게으른학생을끝까지지도

해주신여인석교수님과공부가무엇인지도모르는철없는학부생에게처음으로배우

는이의자세를가르쳐주셨던강유원선생님, 어린제자의치기를엄하게다스려주셨던

박대철선생님, 그리고어려움에부딪힐때마다여러도움을주셨던많은분께이자리

를빌려감사의말씀을드린다. 마지막으로자식이사회적통념과조금은다른길을걸

어감에도불구하고, 묵묵히그행보를지켜봐주신어머니께이글을바친다.

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- iii -

감사의글 i

국문요약 iv

제1장 들어가는말 1

제2장 논쟁의배경: 의학의변화와환자의탄생 6

제3장 확률: 의학의대상과확실성에대한엄격한제한 12

제4장 법칙: 원인에관한탐구를통한보편성의추구 18

제5장 나가는말: 또다른반복 24

참고문헌 30

영문요약 43

차례

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- iv -

국문 요약

확률과 법칙: 19세기 파리의 의학 연구 방법론 논쟁

이글은연구방법론에대한논쟁을중심으로 19세기파리의의학을재조명한다. 논쟁

의근저에는의학의합당한탐구대상과그로부터얻어낸지식의확실성에대한의문이

놓여있었으며, 이러한문제는경험론에입각한새로운의학이시작되던 19세기파리라

는시공간속에서형성된것이었다. 이논쟁은크게두가지입장으로전개되었다. 먼저

카바니스(Pierre-Jean-George Cabanis, 1757–1808)나 루이(Pierre- Charles-Alexandre

Louis, 1787–1872)와같은일군의의사들은질병의발생기전등에대한탐구는불가능

하며, 오로지증상과병명, 그리고치료법간의관계만이의학의대상이라고주장하였

다. 이들은의학이가지는확실성에대해서도회의적인태도를견지했다. 다양성을갖는

인간개체를대상으로하기에, 의학은예외없는법칙이아닌개연적지식에한정될수밖

에 없다는 의견이었다. 한편, 그들과 대척점에 서 있던 브루세(François-Joseph-Victor

Broussais, 1772–1838)나 베르나르(Claude Bernard, 1813–1878)와 같은 이들은 의학이

예외를어쩔수없는것으로인정하고 ‘확률’의수준에머물러있는것은인과관계를살

펴보지않기때문이라주장했다. 발병(發病)과치료의원인에대한지식을통해의학은

보편성을띠는 ‘법칙’으로고양될수있을것이라는전망이었다. 한마디로이논쟁은 ‘확

률’과 ‘법칙’의충돌이었다.

——————————

핵심되는말: 19세기, 파리, 확률, 법칙, 카바니스, 루이, 브루세, 베르나르, 의학방법론

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- 1 -

1. 들어가는 말

이글은연구방법론에대한논쟁을중심으로 19세기파리의의학을재조명한다. 논쟁

의근저에는의학의합당한탐구대상과그로부터얻어낸지식의확실성에대한의문이

놓여있었으며, 이러한문제는근대의학의중심이었던 19세기파리라는시공간속에서

형성된것이었다. 경험론의영향을받았던당대파리의의사들은몇가지공리(公理)로부

터의학전반을연역하는합리론적전통을거부하고환자에대한관찰에의학의출발점

을두고자하였고, 이를위해환자를체계적으로분류하고관찰할수있는장소인병원

을의학의중심에위치시키려했다.1) 이러한상황에서합리론적전통의연쇄적논리에

1) 의학사(醫學史)에서19세기파리가갖는위상에대해서는크게두가지의견이대립하고있다. 이른바 ‘고전

적서술’이라불리는아커크네히트와푸코의저작에서그것은근대의학의이념과제도를모두실현한 ‘임상

의학의 요람’으로 평가받는다. Erwin Ackerknecht, Medicine at the Paris Hospital, 1794–1848 (Baltimore,

Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967); Michel Foucault, The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical

Perception, trans. by Alan Sheridan (London: Routledge, 2003). 그러나후대의학자들은이와같은해석이 19

세기파리에지나친 ‘특권’을부여하는일이라평한다. 킬은임상에서의경험을중요시하는풍토가18세기전

반에이미빈과런던, 파비아등지에서실시되고있었음을, 그리고브로크리스는파리의의과대학역시 17세

기후반부터일정기간이상의임상경험을강제하였음을강조한다. 이들에따르면근대의학은19세기파리에

서발흥한것이아니라, 그이전시기부터여러도시에서산발적으로시작된것에가깝다. Othmar Keel, ‘The

Politics of Health and the Institutionalisation of Clinical Practices in Europe in the Second Half of the Eighteenth

Century’, in William Hunter and the Eighteenth-Century Medical World, ed. by William Bynum and Roy Porter

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 207–258; ‘Was Anatomical and Tissue Pathology a Product

of the Paris Clinical School or Not?’, in Constructing Paris Medicine, ed. by Caroline Hannaway and Ann La

Berge (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1998), pp. 71–115; Laurence Brockliss, ‘Before the Clinic: French Medical

Teaching in the Eighteenth Century’, in Constructing Paris Medicine, pp. 71–115. 한편, 길리스피는이러한움

직임을 ‘수정주의’라평하고다시고전적서술로돌아갈것을요청한다. 그는이념과제도의변화가각각다른

시공간에서선취되었다고할지라도, 그러한사실이이념과제도의결합을통해 ‘혁명적변화’를보여준 19세

기파리의역사적의의를위협하지는않는다고주장한다. Charles Gillispie, Science and Polity in France: The

Revolutionary and Napoleonic Years (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), pp. 546–550.

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서는제기될수없었던새로운문제들이수면위로떠올랐다. 의사는환자라는새로운

지식의근원으로부터무엇을관찰할수있으며, 또그로부터얻은지식은어느정도의

신뢰성을가지는가?

의학지식의범위와그것이갖는확실성의정도라는두가지주제가얽힌이논쟁은

크게 두 가지 입장으로 전개되었다. 먼저 카바니스(Pierre-Jean-George Cabanis, 1757–

1808)나루이(Pierre-Charles-Alexandre Louis, 1787–1872)와같은일군의의사들은질병

의발생기전(機轉; mechanism) 등에대한탐구는불가능하며, 오로지증상과병명, 그리

고치료법간의관계만이의학의대상이라고주장하였다. 이들은의학이가지는확실성

에 대해서도회의적인 태도를견지했다. 다양성을 갖는인간 개체를대상으로 하기에,

의학은 예외없는법칙이 아닌개연적 지식에한정될 수밖에없다는 의견이었다. 한편,

그들과대척점에서있던브루세(François-Joseph-Victor Broussais, 1772–1838)나베르

나르(Claude Bernard, 1813–1878)와같은이들은의학이예외를어쩔수없는것으로인

정하고 ‘확률’의수준에머물러있는것은인과관계를살펴보지않기때문이라주장했

다. 발병(發病)과치료의원인에대한지식을통해의학은보편성을띠는 ‘법칙’으로고양

될수있을것이라는전망이었다.2) 한마디로이논쟁은 ‘확률’과 ‘법칙’의충돌이었다.

의학사의다른주제들과달리이주제는오래도록이렇다할관심을받지못했으며,

이러한무관심은상당부분 19세기파리의학에대한아커크네히트의 ‘고전적서술’에

서비롯했다.3) 당대의사들의사상적동질성을강조하는그의서술속에논쟁이자리할

2) ‘확률’과 ‘법칙’이라는말은베르나르로부터빌려온것이다. 그에따르면, 어떠한지식을 ‘법칙’이라부르기

위해서는예외없는확실성과원인에대한파악모두가필수적이며, 이러한조건이갖추지못한지식은 ‘확률’

의수준에머무르게된다. 이에대해서는이글의 4장과다음을참고하라. Claude Bernard, An Introduction to

the Study of Experimental Medicine (이하 Introduction), trans. by Henry Greene (New York: Henry Schuman,

Inc., 1949), p. 136; Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 150

–159; 『우연을길들이다』, 정혜경옮김 (서울: 바다출판사, 2012), 298–318쪽.

3) 이는 ‘질병의개념’에대한여러학자들의오랜관심과대조적이다. ‘질병의개념’에대한대표적인연구로

는다음을생각할수있다. Henry Cohen, “The Evolution of the Concept of Disease”, Proceedings of the Royal

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곳은없었기때문이었다. 확률진영을대표하는카바니스와루이의의학으로부터시대

를초월하는의학의전범(典範)을발견할수있다고생각했던아커크네히트는, 그들을파

리의학의전형(典型)으로추어올리는동시에, 한편으로그들과대척점에서있었던브루

세와베르나르의의학에대해서는의학의발전을가로막은예외적사례혹은논외의대

상일뿐이라는평을내렸다. 다시말해, 아커크네히트는자신이설정한의학의규범을

기준으로논쟁의양진영가운데하나를소거함으로써, 이견(異見)이불가능한균일한시

대상을제시했다.4) 이러한극단적인평가의바탕에는, 아커크네히트의지적이력이놓

여있었다. 그의의학관에큰영향을주었던엘리샤바틀렛(Elisha Bartlett, 1804–1855)

과같은이들은다름아닌루이의직・간접적제자들이었던것이다.5) 아커크네히트는루

Society of Medicine, 48-3 (1955), 155–160; Owsei Temkin, ‘The Scientific Approach to Disease: Specific Entity

and Individual Sickness’, in Scientific Change: Historical Studies in the Intellectual, Social and Technical

Conditions for Scientific Discovery and Technical Invention from Antiquity to the Present, ed. by Alistair C.

Crombie (New York: Basic Books, 1963), pp. 629–647; George Canguilhem, The Normal and the Pathological,

introduction by Michel Foucault, trans. by Carolyn R. Fawcett (New York: Zone Books, 1991); 『정상적인것과

병리적인것』, 여인석옮김 (서울: 인간사랑, 1996).

4) Erwin Ackerknecht, Medicine at the Paris Hospital, 1794–1848; “Broussais or a Forgotten Medical

Revolution”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 27 (1953), 320–343; “Elisha Bartlett and the Philosophy of the

Paris Clinical School”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 24 (1950), 43–60; “Recurrent Themes in Medical

Thought”, The Scientific Monthly, 69 (1949), 80–83.

5) 아커크네히트에대한엘리샤바틀렛의직접적인영향은다음의글에서확인된다. Ackerknecht, “Elisha

Bartlett and the Philosophy of the Paris Clinical School”. 미국인의사들에대한루이의영향력에대해서는다음

을참고할수있다. William Osler, ‘Elisha Bartlett, a Rhode Island Philosopher’ and ‘The Influence of Louis on

American Medicine’, in An Alabama Student and Other Biographical Essays (New York: Oxford University

Press American Branch, 1908); Henry Bowditch, Brief Memories of Louis and Some of His Contemporaries in

the Parisian School of Medicine of Forty Years Ago (Boston: Press of John Wilson and Son, 1872); Oliver

Wendell Homles, ‘Some of My Early Teachers’, in Medical Essays 1842–1882, The Writings of Oliver Wendell

Holmes, 13 vols (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1891), IX, pp. 420–440; Elisha Bartlett, An Essay on

the Philosophy of Medical Science (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1844). 엘리샤바틀렛의이저작은윌리엄

스템지의 해설과 함께 다시 편집되어 출간되었다. Elisha Bartlett and William Stempsey, Elisha Bartlett’s

Philosophy of Medicine, ed. by William Stempsey (Dordrecht: Springer, 2005). 연구논저로는다음을참고하라.

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이의시야를통해 19세기파리를이해함으로써균형잡힌구도를제시하는데실패했지

만, 그럼에도그의의견은오랫동안 ‘고전적해석’으로서의영향력을행사했다.6)

이주제가다시수면위로떠오른것은이른바 ‘확률혁명’에대한관심이고조된이후

였다. 확률적사고와통계의성장이멀게는 17세기중반, 가깝게는 18세기말부터사회

를근본적으로바꾸어놓았다는문제의식아래여러연구가진행되면서, 의학사의영역

에서도마찬가지의흐름을포착하려는시도들이등장했기때문이다.7) 대표적으로머피

와아미티지는카바니스에서루이에이르는확률적사고의발전과그것에대한반대주

장들을살펴봄으로써대략의틀을제공하는데성공했으며, 매튜와와이즈는조금더후

대의일에초점을맞추어루이에서베르나르, 그리고현대의임상시험에이르는일련의

John Harley Warner, Against the Spirit of System: The French Impulse in Nineteenth-Century American

Medicine (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998); ‘Paradigm Lost or Paradise Declining? American

Physicians and the “Dead End” of the Pars Clinical School’, in Constructing Paris Medicine, pp. 337–383.

6) 아커크네히트의 ‘고전적해석’이가지는위치와, 19세기파리의학을다룬서술의변천에대해서는다음을

참고할수있다. Ann La Berge and Caroline Hannaway, ‘Paris Medicine: Perspectives Past and Present’, in

Constructing Paris Medicine, pp. 1–69.

7) 출판된연도순으로나열하면다음과같다. Ian Hacking, The Emergence of Probability: A Philosophical

Study of Early Ideas about Probability, Induction, and Statistical Inference (Cambridge: Cabridge University

Press, 1975); Theodore Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking 1820–1900 (Princeton: Princeton University

Press, 1986); The Probabilistic Revolution, ed. by Lorenz Krüger and others, 2 vols (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,

1987); Lorraine Daston, Classical Probability in the Enlightenment (Princeton: Princeton University Press,

1988); Gerd Gigerenzer and others, The Empire of Chance: How Probability Changed Science and Everyday Life

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Hacking, The Taming of Chance. 의학사에서는다음의연구들

이대표적이다. Terence Murphy, “Medical Knowledge and Statistical Methods in Early Nineteenth-Century

France”, Medical History, 25 (1981), 301–319; Peter Armitage, “Trials and Errors: The Emergence of Clinical

Statistics”, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 146-4 (1983), pp. 321–334; John Rosser Matthews,

Quantification and the Quest for Medical Certainty (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995); Ann La Berge,

‘Medical Statistics at the Paris School: What Was at Stake?’ and George Weisz, ‘From Clinical Counting to

Evidence-Based Medicine’ in Body Counts: Medical Quantification in Historical and Sociological Perspective,

ed. by Gérard Jorland and others (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2005), pp. 89–108, 377–393.

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사태에대한서술을통해의학의영역에서통계가주된방법론으로자리잡아가는과정

을보여주었다. 마지막으로버지의연구는루이의통계적연구를둘러싸고진행된 1836

년과 1837년의논쟁을제시하고, 그것에대한사회경제적배경을분석함으로써지금까

지의연구가다루지못했던사회사적요소를보충하였다.

그러나이연구들은그풍부한연구성과에도불구하고, 몇가지의한계를보였다. 먼

저, 아커크네히트가보였던구도의비대칭성은여전히해결되지않은채로남아있었다.

고전적서술에서와같이, 논의의중심에는확률진영을대표하는카바니스와루이가놓

여있었고, 그들과대치되는입장을보였던브루세와베르나르는확률적사고의성장에

저항했던단편적인사례로만다루어지고있었기때문이었다. 19세기파리에대한새로

운조망이 ‘확률혁명’에대한관심에의해진행되었음을고려한다면, 이러한한계는어

쩌면태생적일것이었다. 다음으로는, 확률적사고의성장에대한논의대부분이통계를

통한치료법의평가라는한정된주제만을다루고있다는점을지적할수있다. 후술할

바와같이, 카바니스와루이는치료뿐아니라질병의개념과진단의과정등의학전반

에확률적사고를적용하였으며, 통계기법은이러한과정에서확률을정교화하기위한

도구로등장한것이었다.

19세기파리의의학연구방법론논쟁에대한대안적인이해를목표로하는이글은,

카바니스와루이의확률진영과브루세와베르나르의법칙진영을등가의수준을가진

독립적인사고방식으로설정하고, 두진영의대립을의학의대상과확실성이라는주제

를중심으로재구성한다. 즉, 이글은지금까지예외적인존재로여겨지거나산발적으로

다루어져왔던브루세와베르나르를확률진영에대립하는하나의동등한세력으로파

악하고, 의학방법론을둘러싼논쟁을통해각진영의주장을다시조망한다.8)

8) 확률과의학, 혹은통계와의학이라는주제에는통계와공중보건이라는주제역시포함될것이나, 이글은

그에대해서는다루지않는다. 공중보건에서의통계는집단을대상으로한다는점에서환자의개별성에서비

롯하는여러가지문제를처음부터비켜가기때문이다. 근대프랑스의공중보건과통계에대해서는다음의연

구를참고할수있다. William Coleman, Death is a Social Disease: Public Health and Political Economy in

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2. 논쟁의 배경: 의학의 변화와 환자의 탄생

의학사의맥락에서, 17세기부터 18세기초에이르는기간은이른바 ‘체계형성의시

대’로불린다. 아리스토텔레스와갈레노스의이론이지적권위를잃어가는가운데, 지적

공백을메우기위해여러가지이론이난립했기때문이었다.9) 한편에서는당대에눈부

신발전을보이던물리학과화학의성과를의학에적용하려는의물리학파(醫物理學派)와

의화학파(醫化學派)가 등장했으며, 다른 한편에서는 브라운(John Brown, 1735–1788)과

같이무생물과구분되는생명만의고유한특징으로부터의학전반을연역하려는움직

임이나타나기도했다.10) 그러나이러한움직임들은그다양성에도불구하고, 모두보편

적공리에서시작해서개별의사례로나아간다는공통점을갖고있었다. 다시말해, 이

시기의의학은 “다양한종류의형이상학적체계혹은자연과학의법칙들과방법들”에서

출발하여, “이확실성의빛을파생적존재와파생적지식에비추어”보는 ‘체계정신’에

의해지배되었다.11) 브라운이환자의증상이나부검결과를질병본질의부차적인결과

Early Industrial France (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982); Joshua Cole, The Power of Large

Numbers: Population, Politics, and Gender in Nineteenth-Century France (Ithaca: Cornell University Press,

2000); Andrea Rusnock, Vital Accounts: Quantifying Health and Population in Eighteenth-Century England and

France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

9) Lester King, “The Debt of Modern Medicine to the 18th Century”, Journal of the American Medical

Association, 190-9 (1964), 829–832 (pp. 831–832).

10) Andrew Wear, ‘Medicine in Early Modern Europe, 1500–1700’, in The Western Medical Tradition: 800 BC

to AD 1800, ed. by Lawrence Conrad and others (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 215–361;

Lester King, The Philosophy of Medicine: The Early Eighteenth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University

Press, 1978), pp. 64–124; 로이포터, 조르주비가렐로, ‘몸, 건강과질병’, 『몸의역사1: 르네상스부터계몽주의

시대까지』, 다니엘아라스, 로이포터외엮음, 주명철옮김 (서울: 길, 2014), 377–417쪽.

11) 에른스트캇시러, 『계몽주의철학』, 박완규옮김 (서울: 민음사, 1995), 17–57쪽 (21쪽); Sergio Moravia,

“Introduction: Cabanis and His Contemporaries” in Pierre-Jean-George Cabanis, On the Relations between the

Physical and Moral Aspects of Man, ed. by George Mora, trans. by Margaret Duggan Saidi (Baltimore: Johns

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로평가절하하고, 의사로하여금그에대해오히려무관심할것을주문하였다는사실은

현상에대한원리의우위를보여주는단적인예였다.12)

그러나한시대를풍미하던기존의의학은 ‘체계정신’의몰락과함께새로운의학에

자리를내어놓게되었다. 합리론에대한경험주의자들의공격은이러한변화를예고하

는것이었다. 로크(John Locke, 1632–1704)는자명한진리로부터의연역을통해지식을

얻으려는 이들을 ‘낡아빠진 스콜라주의의 추종자’로 몰아세웠고, 콩디야크(Étienne

Bonnot de Condillac, 1715–1780)는개념을사실보다우선하는태도에모든오류의근원

이 놓여있음을 주장하였다.13) 의학에서도 마찬가지의 움직임이 나타났다. 브라운주의

를위시한 ‘체계의학’은 ‘헛되이제일원인을탐구하는형이상학’으로비난받았으며, 그

것을담은 ‘낡은’ 의학서적의출판은전면적으로금지되었다.14) 지식의방향은전환되

었다. 종래의 의학이보편적 원리를개별의 환자에게적용하는 데초점을 맞추었다면,

새로운 의학은 환자에 대한 의사의 관찰에 지식의 기반을 두고자 했다. 피넬(Philippe

Pinel, 1745–1826)의 선언은이러한변화를 압축적으로드러냈다. “고통받는 인류로부

터등을돌리지않으려면, 그리고다가올미래에돌이킬수없는오류를남기고싶지않

다면, 의사는관찰과경험이라는확실한길에서벗어나서는안될것이다.”15)

Hopkins University Press, 1981), pp. vii–xliv (p. xiv).

12) Guenter Risse, “The Quest for Certainty in Medicine: John Brown’s System of Medicine in France”, Bulletin

of the History of Medicine, 45 (1971), 1–12 (pp. 5–7). 브라운주의(Brunonianism)와그것이미친영향에대해서

는다음의책을참고할수있다. Brunonianism in Britain and Europe, ed. by William Bynum and Roy Porter

(Supplement to the Medical History, 8: London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1988).

13) 이사야벌린, 『계몽시대의철학』, 정병훈옮김 (서울: 서광사, 1992), 35–131, 313–315쪽; 캇시러, 『계몽주

의철학』, 17–57쪽.

14) Cabanis, On the Relations between the Physical and Moral Aspects of Man, pp. 20, 36; 브라운주의에대한

반발에대해서는다음을참고할수있다. Risse, “The Quest for Certainty in Medicine”, pp. 7–10.

15) Philippe Pinel, The Clinical Training of Doctors: An Essay of 1793, ed. and trans. by Dora Weiner

(Supplement to the Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 3: Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), p.

87. 피넬의이에세이는1793년, “병원에서의임상의학교육방법”을주제로주최된공모전에제출된것이다.

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새로운이념으로무장한의학은이제그것이실현될수있는제도적기반을필요로했

다. 무엇보다중요한것은관찰의대상으로서의환자를마련하는일이었다. 구체제의계

서제속에는연구의객체로서의환자가존재하지않았기때문이었다. 엄격한신분제는

의료의영역에도그대로적용되었으며, 외과의와약제상이평민에대한진료를담당했

다면, 귀족에대한진료는주로대학의의학부를졸업한의사에게맡겨졌다. 다시말해,

귀족의경제적・정치적후원이라는특권을얻기위해서는의학의정점에놓여있었던대

학을졸업해야만했다.16) 그러나이는의사의자유를제한하는요건이기도했다. 권력의

불균형속에서귀족들은의사들을하인처럼대하기도했으며, 의사의말을따르는이는

외려조롱의대상이기도했던것이다. 이러한상황에서귀족을탐구나실험적인치료의

대상으로삼는일은불가능에가까웠다.17)

그러나공모전의주최자인왕립의사협회가수상자를선정하지않고공모를철회한탓에, 이에세이역시그존

재가알려지지않은채서고에보관되어왔고, 1935년이되어서야비로소발견되었다. 에세이전반의의의에

대해서는상기번역본에함께실린위너의개괄을참고할수있다. Weiner, “Introductory Essay” in Pinel, The

Clinical Training of Doctors: An Essay of 1793, pp. 3–22.

16) Lawrence Brockliss, ‘Medical Reform, the Enlightenment and Physician-Power in Late Eighteenth-Century

France’, in Medicine in the Enlightenment, ed. by Roy Porter (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1995), pp. 64–112 (p. 68);

Nicholas Jewson, “The Disappearance of the Sick-Man from Medical Cosmology, 1770–1830”, Sociology, 10-2

(1976), 225–244 (p. 232). 구체제의의학 전반을 조망하기위해서는다음저작을참고할수있다. Charles

Gillispie, Science and Polity in France at the End of the Old Regime (Princeton: Princeton University Press,

1980), pp. 194–256. 초기근대의모습을함께전망하기위해서는다음의저작을참고하라. Lawrence Brockliss

and Colin Jones, The Medical World of Early Modern France (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).

17) Lawrence Brockliss, ‘Consultation by Letter in Early Eighteenth-Century Paris: The Medical Practice of

Etienne-François Geoffroy’, in French Medical Culture in the Nineteenth Century, ed. by Ann La Berge and

Mordechai Feingold (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1994), pp. 79–117 (pp. 103–104). 후원자와의사의불균형한권력관

계는 심지어 혁명 후에도 계속되었다. 청진법으로 이름이 높았던 라에네크(René-Théophile-Hyacinthe

Laennec, 1781–1826)에게도부자는교육이나연구의대상일수없었다. Jacalyn Duffin, ‘Private Practice and

Public Research: The Patients of R. T. H. Laennec’, in French Medical Culture in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 79–

148 (pp. 136–138). 이러한상황은 19세기미국에서도마찬가지였다. Charles Rosenberg, “And Heal the Sick:

The Hospital and the Patient in the 19th Century America”, Journal of Social History, 10-4 (1977), 428–447.

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의학적연구의대상은자선병원에서발견되었다. 혁명이전의프랑스에는많은수의

자선병원이존재했다. 널리지적되어오던바와같이병원이라기보다는구빈소에가까

웠던그곳은트리엔트공의회(Council of Trent, 1545–1563) 이후다시활발해진가톨릭

세력의자선활동에대한열망, 그리고사회불안정을막고자신의사회적신망을두텁

게 함으로써 기존의 질서를 공고하게 하려 했던 지역 엘리트의 의도가 겹쳐진 곳이었

다.18) 그러나이제의사들은그곳에서연구대상으로서의환자를발견하였다. 자선병원

은환자가존재할수있는, 혹은발견될수있는유일한장소였다. 그곳에있는가난하고

힘없는이들이야말로, 의사의적극적관찰과실험적개입모두가가능한존재였기때문

이었다. 의사의시선과함께, 그들은이제빈민이아닌환자로, 다시말해구휼의대상이

아닌의학지식의근원으로서존재하게되었다.19)

18) Colin Jones, “Hospitals in Seventeenth-Century France”, Seventeenth-Century French Studies, 7-1 (1985),

139–152 (pp. 139–145); Timothy McHugh, “Establishing Medical Men at the Paris Hôtel-Dieu, 1500–1715”,

Social History of Medicine, 19-2 (2006), 209–224 (p. 214).

19) Jewson, “The Disappearance of the Sick-Man from Medical Cosmology, 1770–1830”, pp. 232–237. 환자를

의학연구의 ‘대상’ 혹은 ‘객체’로만드는이러한시도로부터, 의학의비인간화를읽어내는이들도있었다. 다

음네가지증언이그예이다. “몇몇병원에서는, 의사의뜻에저항하는환자에게음식을빼앗거나, 독방에가

두는등의처벌이가해졌다. 치료와상관없는요구라도마찬가지였다. [예를들어] 성병병원에서는학생교육

을위해서로다른성별의환자들이 [자신의환부를] 동시에노출해야했으며, 여기에저항할때에는강하게처

벌받았다.” “저기 [브루세를] 따라다니는이들을존중해야할지혹은경멸해야할지판단이서지않는다. 회진

은아침여섯시반에시작한다. 브루세는파리의다른의사들에비하면그나마제시간에오는편이다. 그러나

그가병동에서이백명의환자를살펴보는데에는삼십분이채걸리지않는다. […] 브루세가환자를이름으로

불러주는경우는거의없다. 환자에대해몇마디말을해주는일도드물다.” “오텔디유의병동을보라. 외과

[병동에입원한] 환자주위로한무리[의학생들]이모여들었다. 골절로입원한환자로부터그들모두는저마

다염발음을듣길원했다. 환자는결국고통을참지못해죽고말았다.” “환자는사실이자관찰의대상, 혹은암

호에지나지않으며, 의학의고귀하고도덕적인, 그리고선한모습들은깡그리사라졌다.” Karl Figlio, “The

Historiography of Scientific Medicine: An Invitation to the Human Sciences”, Comparative Studies in Society

and History, 19 (1977), pp. 262-286, (pp. 283–284)에서재인용하였다. 원사료는다음과같다. Dictionnaire des

Sciences Médicales (Paris: Pancoucke, 1818), XXVIII, pp. 107, 112, 120, 144.

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환자의 ‘발견’과함께, 의학적권위의근원을대학으로부터병원으로옮기려는시도

들이나타났다. 의사들은의학연구의새로운원천이된병원을중심으로제도를재편하

고자 했다. 왕립의사협회(Société Royale de Médecine)의 비크 다지르(Félix Vicq

d’Azyr, 1748–1794)가내어놓은 『새로운계획』(Nouveau plan)은이러한움직임을응축

해서나타냈다.20) 대학의의학부는더이상지적권위의원천일수없었다. 이론을중시

하던기존의교육은학교가 ‘속한’ 병원에서의임상교육으로대체될것이었다. 가장극

적인 예는 한지(閑地) 의사 제도에 있었다. 한지 의사 면허의 발급원이 될 도

(département) 단위의실무학교(École pratique)는기초과학과이론교육이아닌, 병원

에서의실습을중심으로운영될예정이기때문이었다. 이는의학의핵심을실제임상행

위에두려는비크다지르의의도를단적으로드러내는예였다.21)

그러나혁명의분위기는비크다지르의계획에그리호의적이지않았다. 1791년 8월,

그의계획안에기초하여만들어진위생위원회(Comité de Salubrité)의개혁안이제헌국

민의회(Assemblée nationale constituante)에 제출되었으나, 시급한 사안이 아니라는 이

유로개혁은보류되고말았다. 오히려상황은갈수록악화되어만갔다. 같은해 3월, 제

헌국민의회는경제적자유주의의명제에따라의료인에대한일체의자격규정을폐지

했고, 이로써누구나의료활동을할수있는상황이만들어졌다. 여기에서더나아가, 국

민공회(Convention nationale)는 1793년에 제출된 롬(Charles-Gilbert Romme, 1750–

1795)의보고서에따라법학부와의학부를특권층의전유물이라는이유로폐지해버렸

20) 왕립의사협회는1776년루이16세의칙령에의해설립된단체로, 기후관찰과역학조사, 의학의진보등을

목적으로조직되었다. 그러나조합을기본으로한기존의의학질서와상대적으로무관했던탓에, 그것은점차

개혁적성향의의사들이집결하는단체로변모해갔다. 개혁을주도한비크다지르역시왕립의사협회의상임

서기(permanent secretary)를맡고있었다. 왕립의사협회의성격에대해서는다음을참고할수있다. Foucault,

The Birth of the Clinic, pp. 22–37; Caroline Hannaway, “The Société Royale de Médecine and Epidemics in the

Ancien Régime”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 46-3 (1972), 257– 273.

21) Brockliss, ‘Medical Reform, the Enlightenment and Physician-Power in Late Eighteenth-Century France’,

pp. 71–77; Gillispie, Science and Polity in France: The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Years, pp. 36–56.

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다. 교육을받은이와그렇지않은이의구분이사라진상황에서, 새로운의료인력의배

출이전적으로민간에맡겨지게된것이었다. 설상가상, 1792년부터는향후 10년간진행

될혁명전쟁(Guerres de la Révolution française, 1792–1802)이시작되었고, 정부의국가

총동원령에 따라 조금이라도 의료를 행할 능력이 있는 이들은 ‘조국의 수호자’(dé-

fenseurs de la patrie)로써징병되었다. 결국, 900여명의의사가군의관으로전사하고말

았고, 프랑스는의료인의공백이라는초유의사태를맞게되었다.22)

대프랑스동맹과무자격의료인이라는안팎의위협이절정에다다르며, 의료체제의

개혁은비로소시작될수있었다. 국가의안정과군대의운용이무너지면서, 의료의중

요성이부각되었기때문이었다. 비크다지르의계획안을저본으로, 푸르크루아(Antoine

François Fourcroy, 1755–1809)에의해일련의의료개혁이단행되었다. 병원을통한교

육과연구라는기본골자는그대로유지되었고, 이는 9년뒤또한번그에의해진행된

통령정부(Consulat)의추가적인개혁에서도마찬가지였다.23) 구체제아래에서단지부

차적인의미만을지니고있었던병원은이제의학의중심이되었고, 이로써새로운의학

은자신의이념에걸맞은제도적기반을갖추게되었다. 그러나이것으로모든것이결

정된것은아니었다. 의학은이제기존의지성이마주하지못했던새로운문제에대한

답을내어놓아야만했다. 환자라는탐구의새로운출발점으로부터의사는무엇을관찰

할수있으며, 또그로부터얻은지식은어느정도의확실성을갖는가?

22) 호워드바너드, 『프랑스혁명과교육개혁』 (서울: 삼지원, 1996), 117쪽; David Vess, Medical Revolution in

France, 1789–1796 (Gainesville, Florida: University of Florida Press, 1975), p. 77; Ackerknecht, Medicine at the

Paris Hospital, 1794–1848, p. 31.

23) Brockliss and Jones, The Medical World of Early Modern France, pp. 819–820; Gillispie, Science and Polity

in France: The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Years, pp. 540–550.

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3. 확률: 의학의 대상과 확실성에 대한 엄격한 제한

이질문에대한최초의대답은카바니스에의해주어졌다. 그는먼저의학의합당한

탐구대상을규정하는것으로논의를시작했다. 카바니스에따르면, 의학이탐구할수

있는것은증상과병명, 치료법과회복간의연결관계뿐이며, 질병의원인이나치료의

기전등에대한지식은의학의영역에서추방되어야했다. 엄격한경험론자였던그가보

기에, 인간은오직사건의시간적연쇄만을인식할수있기때문이었다. 반복되는사건

의 연접으로부터, 선행하는 사건 속에 뒤따르는 사건을 ‘낳거나’(engender) ‘일어나

게’(generate)하는 ‘숨겨진원인’이있을것이라여기고, 이를탐구의대상으로삼는것은

경험의범위를넘어서는바를알려고하는 ‘헛된’ 시도에지나지않았다. 이는또한윤리

적인당위이기도했다. 다른과학과달리의학은인간의생명을다루고있기에, 경험적

내용이없는지식을섣불리환자에게적용해서는안된다는지적이었다. “프톨레마이오

스의체계는분명천문학의발전을저해했다. 그럼에도그것이어떠한악영향을가져다

준것은아니다. […] 의학의경우는다르다. [의학적지식의] 실천은직접적인결과로이

어진다. […] 우리는 [의학이] 생명을다루고있음을명심해야한다. 이론가들의어리석음

탓에얼마나많은이들이헛되이죽어갔던가!”24)

의학의탐구영역에대한엄격한제한을마친카바니스는, 다음으로의학의확실성에

대한논의를이어나갔다. 사건사이의인과관계를파악할수없다면, 연이어발생하는

사건들이서로연결되어있다는사실은어떻게알수있는가? 다시말해, 선행하는사건

24) Cabanis, Sketch of the Revolutions of Medical Science, and Views Relating to Its Reform (이하Revolutions of

Medical Science), trans. by Alexander Henderson (London: Bye and Law, 1806), pp. 10–17, 192–196, 216–228;

An Essay on the Certainty of Medicine (이하Certainty of Medicine), trans. by R. La Roche (Philadelphia: Robert

Desilver, 1823), pp. 55–65; Ackerknecht, Medicine at the Paris Hospital, 1794–1848, pp. 3–8; Martin Staum,

Cabanis: Enlightenment and Medical Philosophy in the French Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University

Press, 1980), pp. 103–109.

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이뒤따르는사건을필연적으로 ‘일으킨다’는사실을알수없다면, 사건의연쇄를어떻

게확신할수있는가? 카바니스의대답은경험의반복과그것에대한성찰이었다. 인간

은지나간경험속에서반복되는요소를발견하고, 그것을되새겨봄으로써일반적패턴

에대한지식을획득할수있으며, 이러한과정에서사건의연쇄에대한지식은점차높

은확실성에도달할수있다는주장이었다. 카바니스는늑막염의예를들었다. 태초의

인간은늑막염의개념을가지고있지않을것이었다. 이단계에서옆구리의통증이나기

침, 객혈, 발열등의증상은서로별개의것으로흩어져존재했다. 그러나오랜기간의경

험속에서인간은이러한일련의증상이자주동반되어나타남을인식하게되었고, 같은

상황에서사혈의시행이나약화제, 하제등의투약이증상의소실과상태의호전으로이

어진다는사실을확신하게되었다. 이처럼의학지식은거듭되는 ‘동일한관계’에대한

경험, 즉현상의 “빈도에대한인식”을통해형성되며, 점차완전해져갈것이었다.25)

그러나카바니스는의학이그본질적인한계로인해절대적인확실성에는도달할수

없으리라전망했다. 사건의반복에집중하는의학지식의생성과정에서, 질병의진행에

영향을미칠수있는환자의특이성이사상(捨象)되는탓이었다. 이는의학이그실제에

있어개연성의수준에제한될것임을, 그리하여필연적으로예외의존재를마주할것임

을의미했다. “질병은다양하며무한한복잡함을보일수있다. 나이와성별, 기후와계

절, 전염병의양상등과때로는인지되지도않은여타의상황이결합하여질병의증상과

진행, 종결을변화시킨다.” 즉, “의학에서의어려움은인간이하나로정해져있지않고

다양하다는데있다.” 이와같은한계를해결하기위해카바니스는 ‘임상적통찰’이라는

25) Cabanis, Certainty of Medicine, pp. 27–54; Revolutions of Medical Science, pp. 178–186; Foucault, The Birth

of the Clinic, pp. 100–101. 카바니스의논의는인과에대한전통적인이해를거부한다는점에서흄을떠올리게

한다. 인과성에대한흄의정의에대해서는다음을참고하라. David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning Human

Understanding, ed. by L. A. Selby-Bigge with revisions by P. H. Nidditch (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1975), p. 51; A Treatise of Human Nature, ed. by L. A. Selby-Bigge with revisions by P. H. Nidditch (Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1978), pp. 167, 172.

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대안을제시했다. 의사로하여금 “습관에의해서완전해진일종의본능”을통해의학적

지식에서배제되어버린환자의개인적특징을직접고려하게함으로써, 확실성의한계

를보충할수있다는주장이었다.26)

의학적지식의대상과확실성에대한제한적인전망은정확히한세대이후의인물인

루이에의해서도공유되었다. 다시말해, 의학은증상으로부터치료로이어지는일련의

연쇄만을탐구의대상으로삼아야하며, 그확실성역시경험의누적에도불구하고언

제까지나개연적인수준에머물수밖에없다고믿는다는점에서, 루이는카바니스와동

일한입장이라할수있었다. 그러나이러한공통점이카바니스로의복귀를의미하는것

은아니었다. 루이에게카바니스의방법론은그정�성에있어여전히만족스럽지못한

것이기때문이었다. 따라서실제임상활동보다는의학의본질적인문제에대한철학적

사색에심혈을기울였던카바니스와달리, 루이는카바니스가제공한방법론을보다정

교하게벼려내고, 그것을실제질병에대한탐구에적용하는데집중했다.27)

26) Cabanis, Certainty of Medicine, pp. 66–76 (p. 66); Revolutions of Medical Science, pp. 178–186, 271–277 (p.

183). 카바니스의 ‘임상적통찰’에대해서는다음을참고할수있다. 한희진, 「피에르–장–조르주카바니스와

임상의학의철학」, 『의철학연구』, 16 (2013), 56–85 (74–78쪽). 한편, 매튜와같이카바니스의임상적통찰에

대한강조로부터확률적사고에대한반대를읽어내는이들도존재한다. 그러나상술한바와같이임상적통찰

의개념은언제까지나확률적지식의느슨함을보충하기위해마련된것이었다. Matthews, Quantification and

the Quest for Medical Certainty, pp. 11–12.

27) 의학의대상과확실성에대해정리된의견을밝혔던카바니스와달리, 루이의입장은장티푸스나결핵등

에대한실제적연구활동을통해간접적으로드러나있을뿐이다. 상술한바와같이, 루이는이론적논의보다

는실제로의학연구를실행하는데초점을맞추었기때문이었다. 의학의탐구범위에대한루이의생각은다

음에서 부분적으로 발견된다. Pierre-Charles-Alexandre Louis, Anatomical Pathological and Therapeutic

Researches upon the Disease Known under the Name of Gastro-Enterite, Putrid, Adynamic, Ataxic, or Typhoid

Fever, etc., Compared with the Most Common Acute Diseases (이하Gastro-Enterite), trans. by Henry Bowditch,

2 vols (Boston: Isaac R. Butts, 1836), I, p. 384; Researches on the Effects of Bloodletting in Some Inflammatory

Diseases, and on the Influence of Tartarized Antimony and Visitation in Pneumonitis (이하 Effects of

Bloodletting), trans. by C. G. Putnam (Boston: Hilliard, Gray and Company, 1836), p. 65. 의학적지식의한계에

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루이가보기에, 카바니스의의학이갖는결정적인한계는지나간경험에대한사색이

나본능과같은모호하고부정확한방법에의존하는데있었다. 엄�함의부재가낳는

폐단은분명했다. 먼저, 그것은확실성의정도를정확하게제시하지못하고, ‘잦다’ 혹은

‘드물다’와같은말만을반복했다. 그러나어떤약은 ‘자주’ 효과를보이고, 또다른약은

‘빈번히’ 그러하다면, 우리는무슨약을선택해야하는가? 또한, 기억이란신뢰할만한것

이아니기도했다. 인간의기억은 ‘특이한증상이나일반적이지않은사례’에집중하는

경향이있기에, 몇가지특이한사례가기억을왜곡할수있기때문이었다. 루이는다음

과같은언급을통해, 의학의현주소를일갈했다. “아주먼옛날부터, 의학은관찰의과

학이라간주되었다. 아니, 정확하게말하자면, 의학은오직관찰에의해서만성립될수

있다고여겨져왔다. […] 그러나 [지금까지의많은의사는] 기록된사실에대한엄�한

분석보다는자신의온전치못한기억에만의존했다. 의학을일컬어관찰의과학이라말

하면서도, 실제로는제대로된관찰을행하지않았던것이다.”28)

이러한 한계를 극복하기 위해 루이가 내어놓은 대안은 ‘수량적 방법’(méthodes nu-

mériques)이었다. 환자에대한기록을정리하고, 증상의빈도와치료법의결과를숫자로

나타내어검토한다면기억과본능에의존한 ‘모호하고무가치한’ 의학을 ‘분명하고참

된과학’으로변화시킬수있다는전망이었다.29) 루이는그가제시한새로운방법을증

상과병명, 치료법의연쇄에이르는의학의모든단계에적용하려했다. 1929년에출간

대해서는다음부분을참고할수있다. Louis, Gastro-Enterite, I, p. 278; II, p. 172; Researches on Phthisis:

Anatomical, Pathological, and Therapeutical (이하 Phthisis), trans. by Walter Hayle Walshe (London:

Sydenham Society, 1844), pp. 26, 47, 154, 447.

28) Louis, ‘Memoir on the Proper Method of Examining a Patient, and of Arriving at Facts of a General Nature’

(이하 ‘Proper Method’), in Medical and Surgical Monographs (Philadelphia: A. Waldie, 1838), pp. 150–157 (pp.

150–151). 루이는그스스로기록되지않은사례를분석의대상에서배제하였다. “나는모든부검례에서십이

지장을관찰했으나, 오직 22례에서만기록을남겼다. 그러한탓에나의분석은그것에한정될수밖에없다.”

Louis, Gastro-Enterite, I, p. 162, footnote.

29) Louis, Effects of Bloodletting, pp. x, 68–69.

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된장티푸스(typhoid fever)에대한연구는이러한면을압축적으로드러내는예였다. 루

이는장티푸스를비롯한이런저런열병으로진단된환자의기록으로부터설사, 복통, 상

복부통증, 그리고오심과구토등의빈도를조사하였고, 이를통해일정수준이상의빈

도나특이성을보이는증상들에높은진단적가치를부여하였다.30) 치료의과정역시마

찬가지였다. 사혈이나강장제를처방받은환자와그렇지않은환자의이환기간과사망

률이통계를통해검토되었고, 이를바탕으로각치료법의효과가평가되었다.31)

진단과치료법의선택뿐만이아니었다. ‘임상적통찰’에도동일한방법이적용되었다.

카바니스와같이, 루이는환자의개별적특징이증상의발현에서치료에이르는일련의

과정에영향을미치는 ‘원인’(遠因)으로기능할수있으며, 따라서의사는이러한모든요

30) 루이가내어놓은구체적인수치는다음과같았다. 장티푸스로진단된환자중에서, 설사는증상의유무가

확인된40명의환자중37명으로부터, 그리고복통은모두에게서관찰되었다. 한편, 상복부통증과오심, 구토

는각각28명중15명, 24명중13명, 그리고23명중12명이호소한것으로조사되었다. 그러나루이는이것만

으로는불충분하다고여겼다. 설사와복통은다른질병에서도흔히관찰되는증상이기때문이었다. 예를들어

폐렴의경우에는35명중23명이같은증세를나타내는것으로보고되었다. Louis, Gastro-Enterite, II, pp. 14–

54. 따라서높은빈도로나타나지않더라도특이성이있는증상, 다시말해다른질병에서는관찰되지않지만

오직장티푸스환자에서만발견되는증상이추가적으로조사되었다. 한진(汗疹)과고창(鼓脹), 검고두꺼운설

태, 졸음, 극심한신체쇠약, 천골부위의가피, 발포(發疱) 부위의궤양, 연축수축혹은지속되는근육의수축등

이바로그러한종류의것이었다. Louis, Gastro-Enterite, II, pp. 265–267.

31) 사혈과강장제의결과는다음과같았다. 우선사혈이시행된환자의경우에는81명중39명이사망하였고,

이환기간은사망례에서25.5일, 생존례에서32일이었다. 그리고사혈이시행되지않은경우에는28명중13명

이사망하였으며, 이환기간은사망례, 생존례각각32일, 31일이었다. 루이는이러한결과를바탕으로사혈은

질병의 치사율에는 뚜렷한 영향을 주지 않으나, 질병의 진행은 가속시킨다는 결론을 도출했다. Louis,

Gastro-Enterite, II, pp. 398–412. 한편, 강장제의경우오직이환기간만이제시되어있는데, 사혈이시행된환

자중사망례에서는 34.75일, 생존례에서는 34일이었고, 사혈이시행되지않은환자중에서는사망례와생존

례각각26일과34.5일이었다. 그러나루이는강장제가단독으로투여되기보다는다른치료법과병행되는경

우가많았기때문에유의미한분석이불가능하다고판단했다. Louis, Gastro-Enterite, II, pp.413–436. 장티푸

스가아닌폐렴연구에대한분석이지만, 현대의역학(疫學) 이론을통해루이의결론을재검토한연구로는다

음을 생각할 수 있다. Alfredo Morabia, “In Defense of Pierre Louis who Pioneered the Epidemiological

Approach to Good Medicine”, Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 62 (2009), 1–4.

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인을종합적으로고려해야할것이라주장했다. 그러나 ‘본능적예리함’을통해환자의

구체성을살피려했던카바니스와달리, 루이는이과정역시도 ‘수량적방법’을통해진

행되어야한다고생각했다. ‘환자의나이와성별, 체력, 성격, 감수성, 지능, 습관, 최근몇

년간의변화, 거주지의환경, 의복, 목욕횟수등’과 ‘부모의질병’ 등을기록하고, 각각의

요인과이환기간, 사망률등을비교한다면그영향을보다가시적으로알수있을것이

라는전망이었다.32) 장티푸스에대한연구를정리하며, 루이는나이와거주행태가병의

진행을변화시킬수있으며, 따라서의사는이러한면들을고려함으로써환자의예후롤

보다정확하게예측할수있다고언급하였다.33) 이렇게루이는수량적방법을통해증상

과병명, 치료로이어지는일련의지식과개별의구체성을고려하는임상적통찰의적용

을보다정교하게다듬어내려했다.

경험에대한반추와본능, 그리고수량화된기록에대한분석이라는방법론의차이를

차치(且置)한다면, 카바니스와루이는의학적지식의영역과확실성에대한제한된전망

을공유한다는점에서본질적으로동일했다. 그들에게의학은증상과병명, 그리고치료

와회복이보이는연결관계에대한지식이었고, 그것은개별자의구체성앞에서오로지

개연적인확실성만을가질것이었다. 그렇다면이러한입장은모든이들로부터공감을

얻는 데 성공하였는가? 그렇지 않았다. 어떤 이들은 카바니스와 루이가 불가능하다고

선포하였던원인에대한지식을추구함으로써보편적지식을획득할수있으며, 이를통

해예외의문제를무화(無化)시킬수있다고주장했다.

32) Louis, ‘Proper Method’, pp. 160–163.

33) 나이와성별, 거주행태에따른사망률의차이는다음과같았다. 먼저, 전체환자를나이에따라비교해보

았을때, 25세미만과25세이상의사망률은각각104명중34명과34명중16명이었다. 그리고파리에서의거

주기간에따라비교해보았을때, 파리에살게된지10개월이안되는환자군의사망률은73명중28명이었고,

그이상에서는 56명중16명이었다. 이러한결과를바탕으로루이는, 나이가많고파리의환경에아직적응하

지못한환자일수록사망률이높을것이라는결론을도출해냈다. 성별의영향에대한분석은자료의부족을이

유로보류되었다. Louis, Gastro-Enterite, II, pp. 388–394.

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4. 법칙: 원인에 관한 탐구를 통한 보편성의 추구

확률적설명에대한첫번째반발은브루세에의해제시되었다. 그가보기에확률진

영의가장큰문제는극단적인경험론에경도되어, 질병의원인과치료의기전에대한

탐구가경험의영역에서이루어질수없다고생각하는데있었다. 그러나브루세는지난

시기의체계의학에대한비판이반드시극단적인경험론을의미하지는않으며, 그래서

도안된다고생각했다. 건전한이성을가진의사라면누구나자신의경험을바탕으로

질병의본성에대한이해를능히추구할수있으며, 또한의학이 “특정한증상과치료법

에대한기억을그저쌓아올릴뿐인” ‘단순한경험주의’를넘어과학의수준으로고양되

기위해서는흩어진사실을엮어내는질병의원리에대한지식이필수적이라여겼기때

문이었다. “성공적으로의학을행하기위해서는 […] 각기관이어떻게정상상태에서멀

어지게되었는지, 다시말해병의본성에대한이해가필요하다.”34)

이러한문제의식속에서브루세가내어놓은대안은 ‘생리학적의학’이었다. 먼저 ‘정

상적인것’이 ‘병리적인것’으로진행되는과정, 즉질병의발생기전에대해그의이론

은 다음과 같은 설명을 내어놓았다. 생명은 내부 혹은 외부로부터의 적절한 자극

34) François-Joseph-Victor Broussais, Principles of Physiological Medicine, in the Form of Propositions;

Embracing Physiology, Pathology, and Therapeutics, with Commentaries on Those Relating to Pathology (이하

Principles), trans. by Issac Hays and Eglesfeld Griffith (Philadelphia: Carey and Lea, 1832), §4 ‘Corollaries’,

Prop. CDLX, CDLXI, p. 569; History of Chronic Phlegmasiae or Inflammations, Founded on Clinical

Experience and Pathological Anatomy, Exhibiting a View of the Different Varieties and Complications of These

Diseases, with Their Various Methods of Treatment, trans. by Isaac Hays and Eglesfeld Griffith, 2 vols

(Philadelphia: Carey and Lea, 1831) (이하Chronic Phlegmasiae), I, ‘Preface’, p. xxi. 사실그자체로는과학이

나 지식을 이루어낼 수 없으며, 관찰된 결과를 엮어내는 이론과 체계가 필수적이라는 주장은 부이요

(Jean-Baptiste Bouillaud, 1796–1881)와 같은 브루세의 제자들에게서도 반복되었다. Ann La Berge, ‘The

Rhetoric of Hippocrates at the Paris School’, in Reinventing Hippocrates, ed. by David Cantor (Aldershot:

Ashgate, 2002), pp. 178–199 (pp. 189–190).

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(stimulation)에의해서만유지될수있으며, 이러한자극을바탕으로신체를구성하고,

발달시키며, 보존한다. 그러나이러한자극이과도하여정상상태(normal state, natural

state)을벗어나게될때신체는질병에걸릴소인을갖게된다. 과도한자극을받은조직

에는체액이집중되어저류하게되는생기의곧추섬(vital erection)이일어나는데, 여기

에서자극이 줄어들지않아과민(irritation, super-irritation)의 상태가계속된다면, 그것

은병리적곧추섬(diseased vital erection)으로진행되어조직을염증상태(inflammatory

state)에빠지게하기때문이다. 그렇게되면, 조직은체액, 특히혈액의저류로인해발열

(heat), 발적(redness), 종창(tumefaction), 동통(pain)을나타내며, 이와동시에그구성이

와해되어버린다.35) 질병의발병기전에대한탐구는곧바로 ‘병리적인것’을 ‘정상적인

것’으로되돌리는치료의실제로이어졌다. 과도한자극과이에따른혈액의저류가문

제라면, 문제가되는부분으로향하는혈액을뽑아내면될것이라는논리였다. 그가생

각하기에, 이것은이미신체에의해이용되고있는자연적인방법이기도했다. 예를들

어, 자궁은매달한번씩혈액의과잉을겪지만대개염증으로이어지지않는데, 이는월

경을통해저류된혈액을내보내기때문이었다. 때로특별한이유없이코피나치핵이

발생하는까닭또한여기에있었다. 따라서의사역시과잉한혈액을내보내어건강을

되찾는자연적인과정을본떠, 환부에거머리를붙이거나정맥절개(phlebotomy)를시

행하여 여분의 피를 뽑아냄으로써 환자를 치료할 수 있다는 것이 브루세의 주장이었

다.36)

35) Broussais, On Irritation and Insanity: A Work, Wherein the Relations of the Physical with the Moral

Conditions of Man, are Established on the Basis of Physiological Medicine, trans. by Thomas Cooper (Columbia:

S. J. M. Morris, 1831), p. 25–59, 149–181; Principles, p. 9; A Treatise on Physiology Applied to Pathology (이하

Treatise), trans. by John Bell and R. La Roche (Philadelphia: Carey and Lea, 1832), pp. 41–58, 410–417; Chronic

Phlegmasiae, I, pp. 32–33.

36) Broussais, Treatise, pp. 415–416; Principles, §3 ‘Therapeutics’, Prop. CCLXIV, p. 513. 브루세의이론은의

학을학습하고자하는이들로부터선풍적인지지를받았으며, 이는 “15분만에치료전반을 […] 깨우칠수있

는” 이론의단순성때문이었다. Jean-Louis-Hippolyte Peisse, Sketches of the Character and Writings of Eminent

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브루세는 질병의 원인과 치료로 이어지는 일련의 설명에 ‘생명의 원리’(vital princi-

ples)라는이름을붙이며, 이로써자신의 ‘생리학적의학’에필연적보편성을부여했다.

“생명에대한과학”인탓에, “건강하거나병에걸린식물과동물 [… 그리고] 인간” 모두

를예외없이포괄할것이라는자신감이었다. 현상과그들간의관계에스스로를제한했

던카바니스와루이의의학은개별자의다양함속에서오로지개연적지식만을얻을수

있었으며, 그러한탓에항구적인예외의가능성에시달려야만했다. 그러나카바니스와

루이에의해의학바깥의영역이라선포된곳, 브루세는바로그곳에서 “모든동물에게

적용되는항구적이고규칙적인” 생명의법칙을읽어냈고, 그로부터의학의체계전반을

연역했다.37) 경험에기초했기에진실이며, 생명을관장하는원리에기반했기에보편적

인이이론속에예외가자리잡을곳은없었다. 브루세는이렇게의학의완성을선언했

다.

의학이원인에대한지식을바탕으로보편성에다다를수있다는전망은베르나르에

의해서도공유되었다.38) 그는브루세와마찬가지로, 확률진영에대한비판을통해자신

의견해를정당화했다. 베르나르가보기에, 이른바 ‘경험의학’을따르는의사들의한계

Living Surgeons and Physicians of Paris, trans. by Elisha Bartlett (Boston: Carter, Hendee and Babcock, 1831),

p. 51. 브루세스스로도이러한단순성을자신의이론이가진큰강점이라생각했다. Borussais, Principles, p. iv.

37) Broussais, Treatise, pp. 33–58 (pp. 33, 50). 브루세의제자가쓴것으로추정되는다음의책에서는 ‘생리학

적 의학’이 수의학에도 적용될 수 있음을 이야기한다. Conversations on the Theory and Practice of

Physiological Medicine or Dialogues between a Savant and a Young Physician, a Disciple of Professor

Broussais; Containing a Concise Exposition of the New Medical Doctrine, and a Reputation of Objections

Brought Forward Against It (London: Charles Wodd, 1825), p. 322.

38) 베르나르의생리학은의학에의적용을염두에둔 ‘의학적’ 생리학과그렇지아니한 ‘생물학적’ 생리학으

로나뉜다. 이글은전자에초점을맞춘다. 후자에대해서는다음을참고하라. 한기원, 「클로드베르나르의일

반생리학: 형성과정과배경」, 『의사학』, 19-2 (2010), 507–552; John Lesch, Science and Medicine in France:

The Emergence of Experimental Physiology, 1790-1855 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), pp.

197-226.

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는 “특정한질병에대한치료제의종류와처방법, 그리고적응증을알게되면, 의학의한

계에도달하였다고생각하고그것에만족”한채, 원인에대한지식을포기해버린데에

있었다. 예외가발생하는이유를탐색하지않고, 그것을어쩔수없는것으로받아들이

는태도역시여기에서비롯할것이었다. 그러나베르나르의생각은달랐다. 그는의학

이발전하기위해서는, ‘현상을절대적으로결정하는’ 원인을탐구해야하며, 이를통해

예외없는확실한지식을얻을수있다고판단했다.39)

“어떤훌륭한외과의가하나의방법으로결석수술을시행하고, 회복례와사망례에대한

통계를작성했다. 그리고이로부터이수술법의사망률이다섯명중두명이라는결론을얻

었다. 이러한비율은사실아무런의미가없다. 다음수술이사망례에속할지혹은회복례에

속할지가르쳐주지않기때문이다. 중요한것은경험적으로사실을모으는것이아니라, 각

각의증례를결정론(determinism)에따라더욱면�히탐구하는것이다. 우리는사망례로부

터사망의원인을파악하고, 그리하여다음부터는이를피하도록해야한다. 이렇게회복과

사망의원인을알게된다면, 우리는일정한조건에놓인환자를언제나회복으로이끌수있

다.”40)

39) Bernard, Introduction, pp. 67–71, 205–218; Principes de médecine expérimentale (이하 Principes) (Paris:

Presses Universitaires de France, 1987), pp. 44–75.

40) Bernard, Introduction, p. 137. 결석치료에대한베르나르의언급은시비알레(Jean Civiale, 1792–1867)의

통계보고서와그에대한프와송(Siméon-Denis Poisson, 1781–1840)의비판을반복하는것처럼보인다. 루이

의방법을따라쇄석술(lithotripsy)과방광절개술(cystotomy; lithotomy)의결과를수량화하여비교하고, 이를

바탕으로전자의우월함을주장했던시비알레의보고서에대해, 프와송은정확히다음과같은반응을보였던

것이다. “주된문제는방광절개술에대한쇄석술의우위여부가아니다. […] 문제는명백하다. 쇄석술이우위

를보이는병리적조건은무엇인가, 혹은반대로방광절개술에의존해야만하는상황은무엇인가. 다시말해,

쇄석술과방광절개술각각의적응증을정의하는것이문제이다. [… 그러나] 사실에대한수량적접근을시도

하는통계의영역에서, 개별성은모두사라진다. [… 따라서] 계산은지극히복잡한세부적사항들을담아내지

못한다. 모르가니는빛나는통찰과함께다음과같이이야기했다. 사실을계산의대상으로삼아서는안되며,

오로지그경중을따져야만한다.” Jean Civiale, Parallèle des divers moyens de traiter les calculeux, contenant

l’examen comparatif de la lithotritie et de la cystotomie, sous le rapport de leurs divers procédés, de leurs modes

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그러나확률진영에대한비판이브루세로의회귀를의미하는것은아니었다. 베르나

르가보기에, 브루세는다음의두가지지점에서치명적인오류를범하고있었기때문이

었다. 먼저브루세는존재할수없는허상을탐구의목표로설정하고있다는점에서퇴

행적이었다. 의학은하나의원리를통해전체를설명할수있는종류의학문이아니며,

따라서의학전반을관통하는 ‘생명의원리’와같은것은존재할수없을것이라는지적

이었다. 베르나르에게, 브루세의이론은 오히려브라운주의와 같은 ‘체계의학’으로의

회귀를의미했다. 두번째로, 브루세는부박(浮薄)하게의학의완성을선언함으로써의학

의발전을가로막고말았다. 모든질병을염증으로설명할수있다면, 그리고모든질병

을사혈로써치료할수있다면, 이제의학은더이상의탐구를필요로하지않기때문이

었다. 브루세의이론이갖는자기완결성은오히려의학의미래를오늘에묶어둘것이었

다.41)

확률진영과브루세에대한비판을마친베르나르는, ‘실험의학’을해결책으로제시

했다. 의학은원인에대한배제도, 원리에대한추구도아닌, 실험을통해밝혀진개별사

안에대한인과적지식을바탕으로비로소발전할수있을것이라는주장이었다. 이에

따라질병의발생과그에대한치료법각각의작동기전, 더나아가개별환자의신체적

특징과환경적조건모두가탐구의대상으로지목되었으며, 이러한연구를하나씩완성

할수록 ‘질병에대한지배력’이강화되어보다확실한치료를할수있을것이라는전망

이제시되었다. 옴(개선, 疥癬)은이러한가능성을부분적으로보여준하나의예였다. 이

d’application, de leurs avantages ou inconvéniens respectifs (Paris: J. B. Baillière, 1836); Traité de l'affection

calculeuse, ou recherches sur la formation, les caractères physiques et chimiques, les causes, les signes et les

effets pathologiques de la pierre et de la gravelle, suivies d'un essai de statistique sur cette maladie (Paris:

Crochard et comp., 1838); Siméon-Denis Poisson and others, “Statistical Research on Conditions Caused by

Calculi by Doctor Civiale”, trans. by Angela Swaine Verdier, International Journal of Epidemiology, 30 (2001),

pp. 1246–1249. 시비알레가쇄석술을개발한이론적맥락에대해서는다음을참고하라. Joseph Kiefer, “Jean

Civiale (1792–1867), Investigative Urology, 6-1 (1968), pp. 114–117.

41) Bernard, Principes, pp. 79–80, 114–121, 297–302.

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전까지만해도경험적으로목욕이나훈증이처방되었던것과달리, 두가지개별적사

실, 즉옴진드기(Sarcoptes scabiei; Acarus scabiei)가질병의원인이며, 유황으로옴진드

기를살균할수있다는것이밝혀짐으로써, 옴은이제확실히치료할수있는병이되었

기때문이었다. 만약연구가조금더진척되어옴진드기의발생과정이나옴진드기에저

항을보이는이들의신체적특징등이밝혀진다면, 인간은더이상옴에의해고생하지

않으리라는것이베르나르의생각이었다.42)

물론그는이러한전망이경험의학의성과에대한전면적인부정을의미하지는않을

것임을당부했다. 옴의예가보여준바와달리, 의학의많은부분은여전히 ‘암흑’ 속에

있기때문이었다. 의학이개별의사안에대한탐구를통해발전할수밖에없다는사실

은, 각질병에대한이해의수준이균일할수없다는의미이기도했다. 따라서베르나르

는원인에대한탐구가이루어지지않은사안에대해서만큼은경험의학의성과를받아

들일것을주문했다. 환자의치료라는의학의실용적목적을고려할때, 현재로써는이

와같은절충적태도가최선의선택일것이란판단이었다. 다만, 그는경험의학의성과

를이용하면서도, 언제나 “과학으로의도정속에서우리가추구해야할방향성”, 즉원

인의탐구라는실험의학의목표를잊지않을것을, 그리하여오늘에발을딛고있으면

서도시선은언제나내일을향할것을당부했다. “실험의학자는경험의학자와마찬가

지로모든수단을동원하여환자를도울수있어야한다. 그러나그는여기에서더나아

가, 의학이현상태에서벗어나기를열렬히소망하여, 과학적정신의인도아래실험의

학의건설에이바지하여야한다.”43)

카바니스와루이가의학의탐구로부터배제한영역, 바로그곳에서브루세와베르나

르는의학이보편성을획득할수있는실마리를발견했다. 그들은증상과병명, 치료와

42) Bernard, Introduction, pp. 205–218; Principes, pp. 71–75.

43) Bernard, Introduction, pp. 196–218 (pp. 198, 212).

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회복의연쇄에만족하지않고, 그연결에필연성을부여하는원인을탐구하고자했으며,

이를통해개별자의다양성이의학에부과한확실성의한계를극복하려했다. 다시말

해, 브루세와베르나르는원인에대한탐구를통하여모든개체에적용되는보편적인지

식을얻을수있다고주장했다. 다만, ‘생명의원리’에대한발견을통해무지의상태를

단번에벗어나는브루세의의학과달리, 베르나르의그것은낱낱의지식을통해점진적

으로발전할것이었다.

5. 나가는 말: 또 다른 반복

인간과그가나타내는제증상에대한경험을바탕으로의학지식을구성하려한 19세

기파리의학의시도는, 이전의지성이마주할필요가없었던새로운문제에맞닥뜨렸

다. 그곳의의사들은크게두진영으로나뉘어저마다흩어진경험을묶어내는나름의

방법을내어놓았고, 이에따라논쟁은꼬리에꼬리를물고진행되었다. 양진영의핵심

적인차이는서로가상정하는지식의영역과그것이제공하는확실성에대한입장에있

었다. ‘확률’ 진영의카바니스와루이는의학이오로지증상과병명, 치료법간의관계

만을탐구할수있음을, 그리고그것이갖는확실성이인간의다양성에의해불가피하게

개연성의수준으로제한될것임을주장하였다. 한편, ‘법칙’ 진영의브루세와베르나르

는원인에대한지식이필수불가결하며, 그것을바탕으로모든이에게적용되는보편적

의학을건설할수있음을강조하였다.

확률과법칙의충돌은그이후에도계속되었다. 19세기후반과 20세기전반의의학은

베르나르가제시한희망적인전망을실현하는듯보였다. ‘실험실혁명’이의학을혁신

할것이라는, 혹은혁신하고있다는믿음이모두를사로잡았다.44) “병리학과치료학, 그

44) 이른바 ‘실험실혁명’의의의에대해서는다음을참고하라. The Laboratory Revolution in Medicine, ed. by

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리고임상 의학의미래는 생물학의근본 원리를이해한이들에게 달려있다”는 토머스

헉슬리(Thomas Huxley, 1825–1895)의말은수많은이들에의해되풀이되었다.45) 생존

을위협하던당뇨병케톤산증(diabetic ketoacidosis)이나악성빈혈(pernicious anemia) 등

의발생기전과그에근거한치료법이밝혀졌으며, 미생물학과기생충학의발전으로여

러감염병의원인이하나씩알려졌다.46) 믿음과발견의선순환은의학의장밋빛미래를

약속했다.

그러나법칙진영의승리가영원한것은아니었다. 질병의원인에대한지식으로부터

연역된치료법이때로예상과다른결과를낳았기때문이었다. 심장부정맥억제시험

(CAST: Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial)은그대표적인예였다. 논리적으로볼때,

시험의설계는완벽했다. 심근경색증생존자중상당수가부정맥에의해급사하기때문

에, 부정맥을차단한다면생존율을높일수있다는것이많은이들의예상이었다. 현실

Andrew Cunningham and Perry Williams (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

45) Thomas Henry Huxley, Science and Education, Collected Essays, 9 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 1893; repr. 2011), III, p. 373. 헉슬리의이말은다음과같은글에서인용된다. Frederic T. Lewis, “The

Preparation for the Study of Medicine”, Popular Science Monthly, 75 (1909), 65–74 (p. 66); Abraham Flexner,

Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement

of Teaching (New York: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1910), p. 25.

46) George Minot and William Murphy, “Treatment of Pernicious Anemia by a Special Diet”, Journal of the

American Medical Association, 87-7 (1926), 470–476; William Castle and others, “Observations on the Etiologic

Relationship of Achylia Gastrica to Pernicious Anemia: III. The Nature of the Reaction between Normal Human

Gastric Juice and Beef Muscle Leading to Clinical Improvement and Increased Blood Formation Similar to the

Effect of Liver Feeding.”, American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 180-3 (1930), 305–335; Frederick Banting

and others, “Pancreatic Extracts in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus: Preliminary Report”, Canadian Medical

Association Jounal, 12-3 (1922), 141–146. 악성빈혈과당뇨병케토산증의원인과치료법의발견에대한역사

적고찰로는다음을참고할수있다. Israel Chanarin, “A History of Pernicious Anaemia”, British Journal of

Haematology, 111-2 (2000), 407–415; Leonard Sinclair, “Recognizing, Treating and Understanding Pernicious

Anaemia”, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 101-5 (2008), 262–264; Charilaos Stylianou and

Christopher Kelnar, “The Introduction of Successful Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus with Insulin”, Journal of the

Royal Society of Medicine, 102-7 (2008), 298–303.

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은달랐다. 항부정맥제인엔케이나이드(encainide), 플레카이니드(flecainide), 모리시진

(moricizine) 등의투약이오히려시험대상자의사망률을높인다는사실이발표되었고,

임상시험이중도중단되는사태가벌어졌던것이다.47) 현실이논리를배반하는예는이

뿐만이아니었다. 그외에도장기부전(organ failure) 환자에대한산소치료나유방암환

자에게서의근치유방절제술(radical mastectomy)의효과등이의문에오르며, 법칙진영

의지적권위는계속해서흔들려갔다.48)

‘근거중심의학’(Evidence-Based Medicine)의등장은이러한상황을압축적으로드러

내는사건이었다. 1992년, 맥마스터의과대학(McMaster Medical School)에소속된일군

의의학자들은새로운개념을통해의학이 “직관과체계적이지않은임상경험, 그리고

병태생리학적근거대신에, 임상연구로부터얻은근거에대한검토”, 즉 “인구집단을

대상으로한양질의연구를통해밝혀진이익과부작용에대한수학적추정”에근거해

야함을주장하였다.49) 실험실에서발견된법칙은직관의수준으로강등되었고, 통계를

이용한확률적사고가다시합리성의유력한기준이되었다. 맥마스터의과대학의의학

47) The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) Investigators, “Preliminary Report: Effect of Encainide

and Flecainide on Mortality in a Randomized Trial of Arrhythmia Suppression after Myocardial Infarction”, New

England Journal of Medicine, 321-6 (1989), 406–412; The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial II

Investigators, “Effect of the Antiarrhythmic Agent Moricizine on Survival after Myocardial Infarction”, New

England Journal of Medicine, 327-4 (1992), 227–233.

48) Cordella Bland, “The Halsted Mastectomy: Present Illness and Past History”, Western Journal of Medicine,

134 (1981), 549–555; Kevin Wedgwood and Edward Benson, “Non-Tumour Morbidity and Mortality after

Modified Radical Mastectomy”, Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, 74 (1992), 314–317;

Michelle Hayes, “Elevation of Systemic Oxygen Delivery in the Treatment of Critically Ill Patients”, New

England Journal of Medicine, 330-24 (1994), 1717–1722.

49) Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group, “Evidence-Based Medicine: A New Approach to Teaching the

Practice of Medicine”, Journal of the American Medical Association, 268-17 (1992), 2420–2425; Trischa

Greenhalgh, How to Read a Paper: The Basics of Evidence-Based Medicine, 4th edn (Chichester:

Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), p. 1.

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자들과뜻을같이하는이들의발표가이어졌다. 질병의원인이나치료의기전에대한이

해는이번에도 ‘배경’ 지식혹은검토할가치가없는것으로격하되었다.50) 주창자들에

의해 “패러다임의전환”이라고치켜세워진근거중심의학은 「뉴욕타임스」에의해 ‘올

해의아이디어’에선정되기도했다.51)

문제의핵심은여전히인식의영역에놓여있었다. 근거중심의학의옹호자들은원인

에대한지식을통해보편적지식을얻을수있다는법칙진영의주장을교묘하게공격

했다. 이들은원인에대한탐구의가능성을부정하지않는대신, 병의진행에영향을미

칠수있는요인들이무한할수있으며, 따라서모든원인에대한탐구는결과적으로불

가능할것임을지적했다. 법칙진영이주장하는 ‘과학적’ 지식은자연의복잡성에의해

필연적으로어떠한한계에부딪힐수밖에없고, 결국사태에대한설명과예측모두에서

충분한수준에도달하지못할것이라는주장이었다. 의학의미래는수정되어야했다. 베

르나르의꿈이실현될수없다면, 다시말해인간의눈에비친세계가오직개연성으로

가득차있을뿐이라면, 의학은확률의계산을정교화하는데힘써야할것이었다.52)

법칙진영의반발은필연적이었다. 어떤이들은근거중심의학이불러올 ‘반지성주의’

적태도를걱정했다. 질병의발생과치료의기전을탐구하던 20세기의빛나는성취를뒤

50) GRADE Working Group, “Grading Quality of Evidence and Strength of Recommendations”, British

Medical Journal, 328 (2004), 1490–1494; OCEBM Levels of Evidence Working Group, ‘The Oxford 2011

Levels of Evidence’ <http://www.cebm.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/CEBM-Levels-of-Evidence-2.1.pdf>

[accessed 28 Dec 2014]; Sharon Straus and others, Evidence-Based Medicine: How to Practice and Teach It, 4th

edn (Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 2011), pp. 13–27.

51) Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group, “Evidence-Based Medicine: A New Approach to Teaching the

Practice of Medicine”, p. 2420; Jack Hitt, ‘The Year in Ideas: A TO Z; Evidence-Based Medicine’, The New York

Times, 9 December 2001, section 68.

52) R Brian Haynes, “What Kind of Evidence is it that Evidence-Based Medicine Advocates Want Health Care

Providers and Consumers to Pay Attention to?”, BMC Health Services Research, 2-3 (2002)

<http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6963/2/3> [accessed 28 Dec 2014]; Jeremy Howick, The Philosophy of

Evidence-Based Medicine (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), pp. 136–143.

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로한채, 다시밖으로드러난결과에만몰두하는태도는의학을 ‘요리책’의수준으로떨

어뜨릴것이라는한탄이었다. 이들은 ‘근거’에서배제된원인에대한지식을다시의학

의중심으로복권시키고, ‘비판적지성’을가진 ‘의학자-과학자’를양성할것을주장했

다.53) 또다른지적은의학의확실성에대한것이었다. 개연성을의학의본질적특징으

로인정하게된다면, 의학은불가피하게예외의문제를마주할것이라는주장이었다.54)

이와 같은 그들의 반발은 ‘19세기의학사를 연구하는 역사가에게 낯설지 않은 것이었

다.’55) 그러나낯익은것은이뿐만이아니었다.

스스로의작업에 “캐나다라벨이붙은오래된프랑스산와인”이라는별명을붙이기

도했던확률진영은, 예외의가능성이라는오래된문제에대해서도과거와마찬가지의

대응을보여주었다.56) 이번에는 ‘임상적통찰’이었다. 카바니스와같이, 그들은통계적

지식이언제까지나참조할만한하나의 ‘근거’일뿐이며, 따라서의사는 ‘임상적상황’과

‘환자의선호’ 등을종합적으로고려해야한다고주장하였다.57) “근거중심의학은개인

53) Mark Tonelli, “The Philosophical Limits of Evidence-Based Medicine”, Academic Medicine, 73-12 (1998),

1234–1240; Burton Sobel and Mark Levine, “Medical Education, Evidence-Based Medicine, and the

Disqualification of Physician-Scientists”, Experimental Biology and Medicine, 226-8 (2001), 713–716.

54) C David Naylor, “Grey Zones of Clinical Practice: Some Limits to Evidence-Based Medicine”, Lancet, 345

(1995), 840–842; Sandra Tanenbaum, “What Physicians Know”, New England Journal of Medicine, 329-17

(1993), 1268–1271; Roy Carr-Hill, “Welcome? To the Brave New World of Evidence Based Medicine”, Social

Science & Medicine, 41-11 (1995), 1467–1468; “Evidence-Based Healthcare: Flaws in the Paradigm?”, Journal

of the Royal Society of Medicine, 91 Supplement 35 (1998), 12–14; Tonelli, “The Philosophical Limits of

Evidence-Based Medicine”.

55) Weisz, ‘From Clinical Counting to Evidence-Based Medicine’, in Body Counts: Medical Quantification in

Historical and Sociological Perspective, pp. 377–393 (pp. 383–384).

56) Patangi K. Rangachari, “Evidence-Based Medicine: Old French Wine with a New Canadian Label?”, Journal

of the Royal Society of Medicine, 90 (1997), 280–284. 루이와근거중심의학을이어내려는시도는다음에서도

발견된다. Han P. Vandendroucke, “Evidence-Based Medicine and ‘Médecine d’Observation’”, Journal of

Clinical Epidemiology, 49 (1996), 1335–1338.

57) Haynes, “What Kind of Evidence is it that Evidence-Based Medicine Advocates Want Health Care Providers

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의임상경험과체계적인연구에따른근거의통합을의미한다. […] 어느하나만으로는

충분치않다. […] 외부의근거를개별환자에게적용할지여부는언제나전문가에의해

결정될것이며 [… 그들은] 자신의임상경험과함께환자의상태와문제, 선호, 적용가

능성을결정한다.”58) 이처럼의학의범위와확실성에대한 19세기파리의논쟁은오늘

날에도변주되어반복되고있다.

and Consumers to Pay Attention to?”.

58) David Sackett and others, “Evidence Based Medicine: What It Is and What It Isn’t”, British Medical Journal,

312 (1996), 71–72. 근거중심의학이확률적지식의한계를보완하는보조적도구로써직관을요청한다면, 오

히려직관을중심으로의학전반을재구성하려는흐름또한존재한다. Tim Thornton, “Tacit Knowledge as the

Unifying Factor in Evidence-Based Medicine and Clinical Judgement”, Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in

Medicine, 1-1 (2006) <http://www.peh-med.com/content/1/1/2> [accessed 28 Dec 2014]; Stephen Henry,

“Recognizing Tacit Knowledge in Medical Epistemology”, Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics, 27-3 (2006),

187–213; Stephen Henry, Richard Zaner, and Robert Dittus, “Moving Beyond Evidence-Based Medicine”,

Academic Medicine, 82-3 (2007), 292–297; Hillel Braude, “Clinical Intuition versus Statistics: Different Modes

of Tacit Knowledge in Clinical Epidemiology and Evidence-Based Medicine”, Theoretical Medicine and

Bioethics, 30-3 (2009), 181–198; Intuition in Medicine: A Philosophical Defence of Clinical Reasoning

(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012). 영국버킹엄대학과학술지 Journal of Evaluation in Clinical

Practice를중심으로활동하는일군의학자들은이와같은움직임에윤리적정당성을부여하려한다. 통계를

직관의우위에두는근거중심의학이본질적으로 ‘환원주의적’이며 ‘비인간적’이라면, 직관을통계위에두는

새로운의학은환자를 ‘전인적인격체’로대하는 ‘인간적’ 태도를갖고있다는주장이다. 이들은또한영국의

대체의학운동과�접하게결부되어있기도하다. Andrew Miles, Michael Loughlin, and Andreas Polychronis,

“Medicine and Evidence: Knowledge and Action in Clinical Practice”, Journal of Evaluation in Clinical

Practice, 13-4 (2007), 481–403; “Evidence-based Healthcare, Clinical Knowledge and the Rise of Personalised

medicine”, Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 14-5 (2008), 621–649; Andrew Miles, “On a Medicine of

the Whole Person: Away from Scientistic Reductionism and Towards the Embrace of the Complex in Clinical

Practice”, Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 15-6 (2009), 941–949. 이러한움직임에대한비판은다음

을 참고하라. David Smith, “Envisioning the Successful Integration of EBM and Humanism in the Clinical

Encounter: Fantasy or Fallacy?”, Academic Medicine, 83-3 (2008), 268–273.

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- 30 -

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ABSTRACT

Probability and Law: Debates on Methodology of Medicine

in the Nineteenth-Century Paris

Park, Seung Mann

Medical Humanities and Social Sciences

The Graduate School

Yonsei University

Focusing on debates about the methodology of medicine, this study specifically reviews

Paris medicine in the nineteenth century. As a basis of these debates, questions about the

proper objects and certainty of medicine emerged in the intellectual background of the rise

of empirical medicine. The debates developed between two stances. First, physicians like

Pierre-Jean-George Cabanis (1757–1808) and Pierre-Charles-Alexandre Louis (1787–

1872) argued that research on the mechanisms of disease and therapeutics was impossible,

and therefore relationships among symptoms, disease entities and therapeutic modalities

should be medicine’s only objects. Cabanis and Louis also maintained a sceptical view

about the certainty of medicine. In their opinion, medicine could not obtain absolute cer-

tainty without exceptions, which was due to the diversity of individuals. Second, doctors

such as François-Joseph-Victor Broussais (1772–1838) and Claude Bernard (1813–1878)

contented that medicine did not have to remain at the level of probability. They insisted

that medical knowledge with an understanding of its mechanisms would be promoted to

the level of universal law. In short, the debates were the conflict between stances of ‘law’

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and ‘probability’.

——————————

Key words: Nineteenth Century, Paris, Probability, Law, Cabanis, Louis, Broussais,

Bernard, Methodology of Medicine