Foreign Cultures 70: Islam & Contemporary Muslim Societies

Final Exam Study Guide

PART I - IDS

Usman dan Fodio (d. 1817)ճ Member of nomadic Fulani tribe in West Aftica, born in Hausa city-state of Gobir.ճ In Gobir, there was:

1. Tension between the ulama and local rulers who seemed to tolerate syncretistic practices: belief in spirits, fetish worship; they also lived a luxuriant lifestyle.

2. Tension between nomads/merchants and rulers over heavy taxationճ Dan Fodio believes that tolerating mixed practices is worse than disbelief. Hausa rulers

had failed to rule in accordance with Sharia. He battled the paganism/animism of the region and called for reforms of existing Islam as a part of the conservative movement. Stresses Maliki madhab, or strict adherence to Sharia as interpreted by the Maliki school of law.

ճ Proselytized among common people—extend Islam as a religion of the people, not just of ulama. Created amirs (general-governors) who are both spiritual and temporal rulers.

ճ He was persecuted in Gobir, escaped, and in 1807 launches a jihad against King of Gobir. He draws support from oppressed peasant class, calls for new social order.

ճ Took over several city states, founds the Sokoto Caliphate.ճ Inspired similar religion-based jihads in other parts of West Africa in the 19th century,

some against French colonialists.

Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938)ճ Indian Muslim poet-philosopher, wrote in Urdu and Persian

o Intellectual father of Pakistan – the official national poeto Influenced by European thinkers, esp. Nietzsche

ճ Pan-Islamist as well as anti-colonial Indian patrioto Critic of nationalism and of secularism (believed that it was not just a religion but

a political and legal philosophical as well)o Proposed the idea of a Muslim state separate from India – heavily influenced

Jinnahճ Envisaged a new, intellectually and spiritually invigorated Muslim individualճ His work “The Message of the East” said that the West was becoming overly

materialistic – and the answer would come from the spirituality of the East. ճ Criticized for emphasizing that Muslim communities were incompatible with other

religious communities.

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk (1881-1938)(Ataturk means “Father of the Turks”)I Powerful military leader who opposed Turkish Caliphate

ճ Member of Young Turk—a group of army officers who demanded that constitutional rule be restored in Turkey.

II Founder and first president of the Republic of Turkey.ճ Strong nationalistճ Iconic figure in Turkish nationalist identity

III Heavily influential in his idea of what Turkey should be is Ziya Gokalp (1876-1924)ճ Three key ideas

TurkificationԶ exaltation of Turkish CultureԶ Reidentification of what it means to be Turkish is strongly based on ethnic lines

IslamizationԶ Return to pristine intellectual freedom of early Islam;Զ Taqlid to be rejected—reject control of interpretation by ulama. Զ Islam to be de-Arabized and become religion of Turks in Turkish forms.

ModernizationԶ Wholesale Westernization of Turkey. Զ Turkey should use Western models because paradigms are in West. Nothing

wrong with using Western models. IV Ataturk exiled Abdul Majid II, last Caliph d. 1944 in ParisV His religious schools and courts swept away, replaced by courts enforcing legal code, state

training of Ulama, sufi orders and shrines abolished and turned into Museums. Arabic script changed to roman letters. Arabic calendar changed to Gregorian calendar. Constitutional changes were made to laicize Turkish state. Secularism. Religious is not political; it is personal. All religious symbols banned from public life.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1875-1948)I Indian politician, educated in England. Non-practicing Shia MuslimII Believed British rule was important for India in many ways (education, modernization, etc),

he wanted more political freedom (but not necessarily outright freedom).III His downfall began with the ascension of Gandhi. They were very different – Gandhi did not

wear European dress, he was very spiritual, and tried to speak only Indian languages. Jinnah left India for a while after he became disillusioned with Indian Muslim politics

IV In 1934 he returned to India to lead the re-united Muslim League. He became intrigued with the idea of “Pakistan” – a separate, Muslim state. He was worried that Muslims, a minority in India, would lose their rights.

V In 1947 Pakistan was formed. Jinnah became the first Governor-general. He saw Pakistan as “Muslim” nation – Muslim in cultural terms not religious. Tried to form a largely secular state - called Kafir-I Azam – “The Great Infidel” by his detractors. Attempted to follow a westernized style of democracy.

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792)I 18th century ultraconservative evangelist, founded Wahabbi ideology

ճ Puritanical Islamճ Rid Islam of corruptions that had crept into the religion

mysticism, intercession, rationalism, intellectualism Exhibited extreme hostility to all forms of intellectualism, mysticism, and

sectarianism, within Islam => corrupt innovations borne out of un-Islamic influences Considered any form of moral thought that was not entirely dependent on the text as

a form of self-idolatry Treated humanistic fields of knowledge as evil Thought it was necessary to return to a presumed pristine, simple and straightforward

Islam Rejected any attempt to interpret the Divine law from a historical, contextual

perspective and treated most of Islamic history as a corruption or aberration Visitation of tomb shrines Controversial Sufi practices like song and dance Accommodation of non-Islamic practices-compromising monotheism

ճ Resisted indeterminacy of modern age by escaping to a strict literalism in which the text became sole source of legitimacy

ճ declared heretic for unconventional methods of interpreting Quranic texts and his intolerance;

ճ Beliefs Rejects taqlid (the “blind following” of the ulama)

Զ Intolerant of long-established Islamic practice of considering a long variety of schools of thought and attempted to narrow the range of issues upon which Muslims may legitimately disagree

Supremacy of Quran, Զ stressed how first generation of Muslims interpreted it, Զ literal interpretationԶ decontextualize texts

Theological paradigmsԶ Anti-rationalism, rejection of the doctrine of intercession, reliance on isolated

hadith in the deduction of laws, prohibition of music, mechanics of prayers Pedantic doctrines

Զ Permission of prayer beads, whether one may wipe one’s neck during the ablutions before a prayer, female attendance at funerals

Զ Some of his doctrines detailed in “Book of Monotheism”: Kitab al-Tawhid, non-Muslims are those who in practice compromise monotheism: why prophet Muhammad’s (intercessor) birthday not celebrated in Saudi Arabia

Other characteristicsԶ Very patriarchal worldview; no public role for women; strict segregationԶ Rejection of all historical and cultural developments, esp. after the first two

hundred yearsԶ Destruction of important historical monuments (tombs of prophet’s companions,

his wife) of religious significanceճ Emergence of Salafi groupsճ He had an obsessive concern with the doctrine of shirk (sin of polytheism)

Muslims could commit particular acts that would expose the impurity of his belief in God and Islam, such acts betray a willingness to engage in shirk, and result in taking a person out of the fold of Islam

Practice of takfir (accusing Muslims of heresy and of being infidels) Hostility to human practice that would excite the imagination or bolster creativity

Զ Only frivolous people would be fond of arts => constitutes a step toward kufr (becoming an infidel) because it leads to heretical thoughts

ճ He was hostile to non-Muslims (Jews and Christians), believed it was completely immaterial to care about what non-Muslims thought of Islam

ճ He espoused a self-sufficient and closed system of belief that has no reason to engage or interact with the other, except from a position of dominance => universal moral value are irrelevant to the Islamic mission

II Reasons for his reformsճ Internal: corrupt and imperfect practice of Islamճ External: imperial and colonial rule had led to loss of political powerճ Islamic groups like the Taliban and al-Qaeda have been influenced by Wahabbi thought

III RISE of IDEOLOGY ճ Gets in alliance with chief of Saud clan, Muhammad ib Saud, and allowed for them to get

political power, rose in rebellion against Ottoman Empire

ճ Late 19th, early 20th: Treaties and recognition with British and Americans based on need of excess oil; oil revenue provided financial resources to gain legitimacy among non-Wahhabi ulama, esp. those who had questioned the basis of Wahhabi theology and non-conventional methods of interpretation: previously marginal, trying to become the mainstream

ճ Harnessed and cultivated by Western powers as an ideology to combat communism and Middle East and elsewhere: defense and arms treaties

ճ Saudi Rulers as “Custodians of the Two Sanctuaries (Mecca and Medina”) legitimized role as leading Muslim rulers

ճ Ideology as much a product of political and economic considerations as of religious dogma: not purely religious.

ճ Petrodollars also used to spread influence among Muslim communities in poverty-stricken regions: built new schools, scholarships, and mosques

ճ Word Muslim League: based in Mecca, Saudi-founded to promote this visionճ Four main factors for Wahhabism’s survival in contemporary Islamճ By rebelling against Ottomans, Wahhabism appealed to emerging ideologies of Arab

nationalism in the 18th c. By saying they were an occupying power, they set a precedent for notion of Arab self-determination and autonomy

ճ Rejected the cumulative weight of historical baggage, insisted on a return to the precedents of rightly-guided early generations, intuitively liberating for Muslim reformers since it meant rebirth of itijihad, the return to the de novo examination and determination of legal issues unencumbered by accretions of precedents and inherited doctrines

ճ Saudi Arabia’s unique position as the guardian of the two holy sites of Mecca and Medina (regulation of orthodoxy at pilgrimage)

ճ Discovery and exploitation of oil provided Saudi Arabia with high liquidity

Ayatullah Ruhollah Khomeini (1902-1989)

I BACKGROUNDճ traditional education in Qom; taught in seminaries there until exiled to Najaf (Iraq) in

1964ճ Iran in 1960-1970s perceived as heading towards a Western style secular nationalism =>

fears that Iran was losing its religious identityճ Shah perceived as threat to Islamic identity by Ulama; to Iranian nation and culture by

lay intellectuals and socialists (worried about distribution of oil wealth, Westernized elite)

ճ Shah’s White Revolution: attended to implement a wide-ranging modernization programճ Growing autocratic rule and uncritical pace of modernizationճ Primarily benefited urban areas and new modern middle class, did not include political

reformsճ Nixon doctrine of 1972: Iranian as guardian of Gulf =>Americanization of Iranճ Shah of Iran perceived as latter-day Ataturk: dragging his people into modernity

IV Politicalճ Conservative reformist of Iran and religious leader. ճ Symbol and guide of the revolutionճ Early outspoken critic of Shah, remained outspoken even in exile (began in1960s),

solidified his role as conscience of Islam and the Iranian peopleճ Lived in exile until return from France in 1979

ճ Speeches and writings were smuggled and widely distributed through the mullah-mosque network

ճ Books Kash al-Asrar (1941): criticizes the Pahlavi (Shah) state Hukumat al-Islam (1969, while still in exile): exposition of the doctrine of velayat-i

faqih: “rule by the jurisprudent” => political rule by the religious scholar New development in Shia thought. Until this point, the Shia ulama had never seen

their role as a political one => used to being the opposition of whomever was in power

ճ Stated that in the absence of the hidden Imam, ulama could hold political authorityճ He appealed to traditional Shia history: he compared the Shah toYazid, who was

responsible for killing Hussein: appealed to struggle between good vs. evil; symbolism of Shiism exploited

ճ He condemned Western imperialism, Westernization of Muslim societies, and Israel (which he regarded as outpost of American neocolonialism)

ճ Conservative in education, worldview, and lifestyleճ His lectures reiterated inseparability of Islam and politicsճ His doctrine of jurist rule asserted that an Islamic govt. is one based upon Islamic law,

most qualified are those learned in Islamic textsV Types of reform

ճ Early 20th century: imitative => attempts to imitate Western models: Islamic institutions perceived as being “backward” and “outdated”

ճ After Iranian Rev. in 1979 => Islamic: interprets Islam as a political ideology, usually for a nation state

ճ Khomeini and the religious clerics by themselves could not have pulled off the Iranian Revolution: Needed wide spectrum of support from secularist, leftists, socialists

ճ Mid 1970s: increasingly repressive measure of Shaw induced a resistance movement organized under umbrella of Islam, calling new political and social order

ճ Movement comprised of secularists, Islamic activists, liberal democrats, Marxistsճ Revolutionary Spectrum

Center movement: Mehdi Bazargan and Liberation Movement of Iran => promoted democratization and liberalization, also strong socialist message

Left: Ali Shariati, socialist in his interpretation of Shiism (Alid Shiism: social justice, looking after poor and needy): appealed to women and youth

Right: Islamic Republican Party: led by Khomeini and his clericsճ Alliance evolved between the religiously oriented classes and modern intellectuals from

shared concerns over political freedom, danger of economic and military dependence on U.S.

ճ Revolution did not start as religious one: deep social, political and economic causesճ Turning point: Islamic scholars become heads of state, role of religion in Middle E. is

rethoughtճ Emergence of theocracy in Iran, redefined Iran in Islamic terms; idealized version of

Islam in attempts to create heaven on earthճ After fall of the Shah, sharp differences among revolutionary factions surfaced

Role of clergy and religious law is questionedճ Khomeini prevailed: consolidated power in govt., parliament, judiciary, military,

Revolutionary Guards, the press and mediaճ Censorship of press, ideological control of university curricula, prohibitions on alcohol,

gambling, drug use, and sexual offenses were enforced

ճ As head of the Islamic Republic, Khomeini defined nature and limits of Iran’s Islamic identity and ideology, oversaw its implementation

ճ He advocated a universal Islamic revolution to liberate all the oppressed, used to justify the incitement of revolts in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Iraq => ultimate goal was to have Islamic nations unify as one power

Malcolm X (1965)I Most famous convert Malcolm Little (converted in prison). Upon joining the Nation called

himself Malcolm X (X symbolized that he was an ex-smoker, ex-drinker, ex-slave, ex-Christian)ճ Gives a speech in which identifies Islam = religion of black people, Christianity = white

people Response to KKK and its association with Christianity to promote white supremacy

II In 1964 breaks with the Nationճ Questions Elijah’s ethical views (Elijah had affairs with many women)ճ Pilgrimage to Mecca challenges racial stereotyping

discovers that races can come together the problem is not race, the problem is American society

III Founded Muslim Mosque Incճ changes name to El-Hajj (indicates he was on the pilgrimage) Malik el-Shabazzճ Starts to preach conservative Sunni Islamճ Redefines what it is to be Muslim, not in racial termsճ Understands his own group is one within a larger Islamic family

Moves to multiracial, multicultural ideologyIV Assassinated in 1965; 2 members of Nation of Islam (probably against the shift of the Nation

and understanding of races coming together) were convicted of crime

Eljah Muhammadճ 1934 - Elijah Muhammad (Elijah Poole before) takes over leadership of Nation of Islam

after founder disappears Considers Black nation to be a nation of Islam Was thought to be last messenger of God, not Muhammad, in Nation

ճ Elijah Muhammad identifies himself as a prophet and Fard to be Allah Interpreting symbols differently than traditional sense

ճ Temple of Islam, schools, Fruit of Islam, paramilitary force: strict behavior/dress code Strong social network Dress code: western 3-piece suit, bowtie, no alcohol, no drugs

II His organization: Nation of Islamճ Preached that blacks weren’t Americans and had no loyalty to state (blacks were Muslims

first and foremost)ճ Race based ideology of nationalism; anti-whiteճ African Americans separate nation; demanded separate piece of land for their nationճ Principal objective to restore dignity and self-confidence via equality, justice, freedom,

etcIII Has affairs which drives away famous convert of his group, Malcolm XIV Son takes over Nation of Islam, but views it in different way than father

Muhummad Abduh: I Egyptian religious scholar, reformer, and Islamic rationalist

ճ Studied at the Al-Azhar University in Cairo

II Founder of Islamic modernism and nationalismճ Wanted to liberate Muslims from colonialismճ Led 19th century movement to modernize Muslim institutions.

III Strongly influenced by Sufism and his mentor al-AfghaniIV Advocated Pan-Islamism to resist European colonialismV Studied under Jamal al-din al-Afghani

ճ In 1884, he moved to Paris to help al-Afghani publish The Firmest Bond, which advocated Muslim unity against Western imperialism

VI He argued that humans can in principle know good and evil by reason alone (Itjihad- independent thinking), but most failed to do so.

VII Promoted the idea of salafiyya (pious forefathers). ճ Salafism asserts that the Islam of the forefathers was rational and practical; sought

inspiration in the example of virtuous early Muslims.VIII Called for a return of early Islam and reinterpretation of the Qur’an and Sunna to adapt to

modern times.ճ Laws should be updated and serve interest of common good.

IX Believed that borrowing some western ideas was okayճ Advocated the integration of Western sciences with local sciences at the University

X Returned to Egypt in 1888 and became a judge on the National Courts ճ Eleven years later he became Grand Muftiճ Used his position to champion liberal reforms in Islamic law, administration and

education.XI His followers, mostly consisting of teachers and lawyers, continued with stronger anti-

Western ideasճ They set the tone for Egypt’s strong liberal nationalism until the revolt

XII His work, Risalat al-Tauhid (The Theology of Unity), is the most important portrayal of his thinking

Aga Khan IV: I The current Imam of the Ismaili Nizari sect of IslamII He is the 49th Imam, bypassed his father and uncle who were next in succession after his

grandfather died. It was in the grandfather’s will that he wanted a young man who had grown up in this new age of science and who could bring a new outlook to the title/office.

III Aga Khan, “Present Imam,” is a direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad through the Prophet’s daughter, Fatima.

IV Ismailisճ Second largest part of the Shia community, after Twelversճ Disagreement with the Twelvers arose over succession of sixth Imam

Ismailis believed it should be eldest son of the sixth Imam and Twelvers chose to follow a younger son

Twelvers emphasize exoteric aspects of religion, and the esoteric goes with Isamilismճ Usually speaking about the Nizari Ismaili community

Always have a living Imam The Nizari are a very westernized sect of Muslims Nizari today have a strong emphasis on education, self-reliance, and philanthropy

V He is founder and chairman of Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN)ճ Operates in social and economic development, focusing on Third World countries;

especially those with large Ismaili populations Agencies do not discriminate against who they serve

ճ Build orphanages, hospitals, and educational institutions; tries to improve living conditions and opportunities

ճ Try to help poor become self-reliantճ Also have a Cultural Trust giving out awards for achievements in Islamic architectureճ Try to give Islam social conscience through institutional action.

Jamal al-Din al-AfghaniI Modernist Muslim reformer, anti-colonial activist, at times pan-Islamic, at times nationalistII Spent early years in India; much influenced by the modernist views of Sayyid Ahmad KhanIII Co-founded “Salafi” movement with Egyptian Muhammad Abduh; derives from the phrase

“the pious ancestors” ճ seeks to reform Islam by referring to the lives and teachings of the Prophet and his

companionsճ did not mean recreating that period literally but making use of the vigor and spirit of the

reformist timesճ criticized the Ulama of responding to challenge of Western supremacy either passively or

by retreating into greater conservatismճ blamed the decline of Islam on fatalism, passivity and decadenceճ criticized Sufism for its “other-worldly” attitudeճ Strong critic of taqlid; “blind imitation” of the ulama; Islam is religion of reasonճ saw a European threat to Islamic identity, believed that only a united and morally revived

Muslim community would be able to rise above the threatIV Reforms

ճ Religious Claimed the problem was the “gates of ijtihad had been closed and this allowed the

Western world to overtake the Muslim world” Ijtihad—independent interpretation of legal sources, Quran, and Sunnah.

ճ Social Advocated social activism Modernization was necessary and compatible with Islam Emphasize science and reason, but from an Islamic position

Զ science not a European phenomenon but had older roots in IslamԶ Western secularization and materialism erode religion, but the contemporary

Islamic world had developed an anti-scientific attitude—not from religion but from political despotism

V Timelineճ 1866-8: tried to persuade the Afghan rule to ally with Russia against Britainճ 1868: went to Istanbul and joined reformers but his lectures were so controversial that he

was thrown outճ 1871: went to Cairo, collaborate with Muhammad Abduhճ 1879-1882: Refutation of the Materialists: ճ 1882-5: lived in Paris, publishing Arabic periodical The Strongest Link which attacked

the British and promoted reformist attitudesճ 1885: traveled to Iran and Russia to persuade the Shah of Iran to ally with the Russians

against the Britishճ Called for deposition of Shah or Iran

Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817-1898) I Indian Muslim modernist thinker, social reformer, and educationalist.II Beliefs

ճ Religious

Elimination of “taqlid” or blind imitation of medieval Muslim interpretations of the Qur’ran and Sunnah.

Everyone should have their own ijtihad, or independent reasoning. ճ Political

Accepted colonialism He also emphasized the need for Indian Muslims to adapt to colonial rule

ճ Scientific Science and reason are compatible with Islam.

Զ As an insult he was described as a “Nechari” or naturist. ճ Educational

Founded the Muhammaden Anglo-Oriental College in 1875 that was supposed to offer both a traditional Muslim and Western education.

The College ended up being more British and less Islamic but successfully created self-confident young Muslims with values of community and leadership skills.

Sayyid Qutb (d 1966)I Writer, poet, and activist in Muslim BrotherhoodII Religious

ճ Advocates strict a historical approach to Qur’an ճ No need for interpretation and contextualization.

His reading of certain texts regarded as ”reprehensible innovation” by Ulama. Զ He changed meaning of Quranic text that said, “If any fail to judge by (the light

of) what God has revealed, they are unbelievers” to “if any fail to RULE…” because he root of judge and rule are the same in Arabic.

Զ His interpretation sanctioned collective action to dismiss a ruler who failed to apply God’s revelation; people are authorized to rise in rebellion and replace leaders who fail them.

ճ Qur’an contains all the solutions for the problems of human society. It is a comprehensive guide to all aspects of life.

III Radicalizationճ Use of violence

After stint in prison where witnessed torture of Muslim Brotherhood inmates, came to believe in using violence against government if it was used against his organization.

IV Politicalճ Western leaders and their supporters live in a state of jahiliya (ignorance) which pervades

contemporary life of Muslim societies. ճ The West is spiritually bankrupt

Amina Wadud MuhsinI African American Muslim feminist scholar II Challenges male patriarchal readings of the Qur’an

ճ Women have suffered at the hands of male interpretations of religionճ The Qur’an does not discriminateճ How does gender socialization affect text interpretation

III Caused controversy when she led a Friday prayer for a group of Muslims in New York City; controversial because mixed-gender prayers are usually done by men

IV We read a chapter from her book, page 302 in sourcebook; her primary point is that certain phrases and terms have been misinterpreted to imply that men are superior to women. She explains several Arabic words and how they are used and interpreted etc.

ճ The Arabic word faddala in 4:34; faddala is Allah’s preference of certain creations over others

ճ This verse has typically been used to show male superiorityճ However, closer analysis shows that this particular passage only refers to the males

material wealth superiority, meaning that men get more inheritance than women, but this makes sense since men are supposed to support women since women must bear the burden of child birth

ճ There is no evidence that God prefers men over women because of physical or intellectual superiority

V “When the Quran is viewed in its entirety and not atomistically, the concern for the role of woman in society and the potential she has, would necessarily by broadened from the demeaning and meaningless existence which renders her no greater than a procreating animal able to function only as a domestic servant.”

VI She strongly discourages the decontexualization of specific Arabic words when reading the Quran. It must be read holistically.

PART II – PASSAGES

1) "The prayer was in two halves like a kola-nut; the first, a plea for salvation, was recited in Arabic, the language consecrated by God. The second was spoken in Malinke, because it dealt with material things: giving thanks for sustenance, for health, for having eluded the bad luck and evil spells that scorch the black man blacker under the suns of Independence; asking for a mind and hear free of cares and temptations, and filled with peace today, tomorrow and always."

The Sons of Independence, by Ahmadou Dourouma. Page 16.

This passage is in the middle of a passage where the main character, Fama, had just gone to the Julas’ mosque to pray. He was in charge of calling the faithful to prayer, and he had just done so in the minaret. This passage describes the way that he prays. His prayers were for health and sustenance, but mainly for his wife Salimata. The couple had problems conceiving – a problem because Fama was the last in a line of African royalty. There is a stark contrast, however, between the prayers of Fama and Salimata. Fama seems to be a “pure” Muslim, but Salimata combines the prayers of Islam with Sufism and local practices. She followed all of the Islam – praying five times a day, giving alms, fasting during Ramadan. She also tried “magic spells, marabouts (equivalent to a Suffi Sheikh), medicines, sacrificial offerings.” She would tie amulets to the bed, smear ointments on herself, burn incenses, and drink brews designed to make her pregnant. Fama viewed some this as sacrilegious. The book describes later her friendship with the Marabout Hadji Abdullahi. He tried spells to help her – spells to raise the dead, invoke spirits, and invoke God. The marabout had her sacrifice a cock to call upon their ancestors, spirits, and God.

The book describes throughout the “Malinke duplicity” (72) – “Everyone publicly proclaims himself a devout Muslim, but everyone privately fears the fetish.” When Fama returned to his home village, he had to spend the night in the familial hut, accompanied by objects that were supposed to dispel the old inhabitant’s spirit (while the Koran said that, once dead, a spirit left forever, custom said that sacrifices were needed to ward off “spirits and shades”). In Fama’s old village, there was a man (Balla) who was the local Fetish priest – when Islam failed the local inhabitants, they would go to Balla to cast evil spells on others. Another example is Salimata - she had experienced female circumcision – not an Islamic tradition, but an ancient tradition designed to ward off the spirits.

This book shows how Islam is integrated into local areas – it is changed to match the local culture.

2) "'The Western materialists hate us,' Ali said. 'Papa, how could you love something which hates you?'

'What is the answer then?' Parvez said miserably, 'According to you.'

Ali didn't need to think. He addressed his father fluently, as if Parvez were a rowdy crowd that had to be quelled and convinced. The Law of Islam would rule the world: the skin of the infidel would burn off again and again; the Jews and Christers would be routed. The West was a sink of hypocrites, adulterers, homosexuals, drug-takers and prostitutes."

Hanif Kureishi’s “My Son the Fanatic” is a short story replete with implications and contradictions. In the depictions of a Muslim father and son who call England home, it presents two opposing sides of the experiences of immigrants or individuals who do not share the same cultural background as the rest of society. Simultaneously, it offers two distinct personal reactions to the many difficulties and challenges posed by Western values. Balking at narrative conventions, Kureishi refuses to present yet another story in which a rebellious youth resists the conservative values and principles of his parents. Instead, Parvez, the father, leads the life of a younger man, exhibits a juvenile and carefree temperament, and disobeys the basic tenets of his religion. Ali, the humorless son, ascribes to a severely conservative branch of Islam and condemns the actions and moral transgressions of his father. In the personalities and lifestyles of the two characters, the writer implies that both modes of being are the direct results of the cultural challenges inflicted upon the characters by Western society. Their lifestyles are the ways in which they confront the difficulties of a land that is not truly their home. “They preferred to work at night, the roads were clearer and the money better. They slept during the day, avoiding their wives,” the reader is informed of Parvez and his fellow taxi drivers. English society is obviously not a welcoming one. The father’s preference to work under the cover of the night and to ignore the daily realities of the day paints him as someone who prefers to deny or ignore his life’s problems. His alcoholic tendencies are in accordance with this view of the character. Parvez is a man who constantly attempts to mask the insecurities that have resulted from his marginalized state in Western society. “His dreams of doing well in England would have come true. Where had he gone wrong?” the writer describes the father’s constant preoccupation with staying afloat in a foreign world. The incessant questioning of his mistakes evinces his deep insecurities. He keeps close a close vigil of a son who he fears is being corrupted by English society. Parvez’s personal answer to the struggles of living in a foreign land is the rejection of the religion of his parents and his attempt to assimilate. His predilection for vices, his close acquaintances with prostitutes, and his consumption of pork are all inclinations that violate the laws of his parents’ religion. His efforts to assimilate by conforming to stereotypically Western activities and vices provide comfort and solace in an unwelcoming land.

Diametrically opposed to his father’s dealing with Western society, Ali’s proposes a defiant response to the unkindness of a society that treats him as a foreigner despite not being one Although not explicitly stated, Ali appears to have been born in England and yet fervently condemns his fathers attempts at integration. “Papa, how can you love something which hates you?” he asks and at the same time indicates that his experiences as a young Muslim and non-white man growing up in Western society have been marked by intolerance and misunderstandings. His affirmation that “Western education cultivates an anti-religious attitude” makes clear that his newly found religious and conservative convictions are reactionary. His views are the products of his dealings with a narrow-minded English society. Whereas his father has chosen to assimilate, Ali instead attacks the society that rejects him. “The West was a sink of

hypocrites, adulterers, homosexuals, drug-takers and prostitutes,” is his repudiation of English society. In the characters of Parvez and Ali, the damages resulting from prejudiced societies are apparent. Although their worldviews might differ, they are both highly insecure men without a nation to call home. Their exiled state compels one to reject his origins and causes the other to become as bigoted as the society he denounces.

3) “The tensions between the pragmatic and ethical perspectives, both forming part of Islam, can be detected even in the Quran, and both perspectives have left their mark on some of the formal rulings on women and marriage made in the ensuing period. Thus some Quranic verses regarding marriage and women appear to qualify and undercut others that seemingly establish marriage as a hierarchical institution unequivocally privileging men. Among the former are the verses that read: 'Wives have rights corresponding to those which husband have, in equitable reciprocity' (Sura 2:229). Similarly, verses such as those that admonish men, if polygamous, to treat their wives equally and that go on to declare that husbands would not be able to do so--using a form of the Arabic negative connoting permanent impossibility--are open to being read to mean that men should not be polygamous."

o Context: One tension within Islam is equality between the genderso Does wearing a veil or being a house-wife mean the woman is below her husband?o Quran was interpreted by men who lived in societies which had innate inequality

between the genders Therefore, Islam doesn’t oppress women; the fact that the interpreters of the

past = men oppressed womeno Meaning: Now to erase that interpretation the Quran is being reinterpreted by modern society

o The quote that wives have equal rights as men has been focused on -- this allows women to use the word of God (which Muslim men might use to oppress women) in their favor to fight oppression/inequality

o Interpretation against Polygamy The use of the Arabic negative: Men cannot treat their wives equally and thus

shouldn’t be polygamous This is the modern ethical view

Old pragmatic view: Have several wives to provide them with financial support, or so man can have children if wife= infertile by marrying another

o These understandings seem to go against other verses that were interpreted to show that marriage privileged men

o Theme: Interpretation results in the practice of the religion; however, this interpretation is based on context: time, location, by whom; an interpretation resulting from a certain context does not mirror all of Islam

4) “When God commanded Satan: Bow down before Adam, Satan answered: I will not bow down before any other than Thee. Of all the dwellers in Heaven there was no champion of God’s Unity so strict as Satan. Moses met Satan on the side of Sinai, and asked of him: “Satan, why wouldst thou not bow down?” “Because I believed that only One is to be adored,” said Satan. “Disregarding God’s command?” “That was Trial.” Satan said, “and not Command.”

Sufismo Different way to express view religiono Makes things in religion beautiful, expresses zeal for religiono Ultimate goal is to reach divine unity

o Compared to forms of mysticism Seek personal experience with God Believe in Itjihad-individual interpretation- of Islam

o Poetry is very symbolic Wine=divine love Drunkenness=mystical intoxication

o Sufism seek a more spiritual connection with Godo Selfless love of godo Practices are closely associated to arts, dance, music, poetryo Some claim it is not intrinsically Islamic and are borrowed from other religionso Some see it as the essence of Islam

It’s the “good” Islam the one that should be promoted; instead of Wahhabi Islam

o Written by al-Hallaj-- Muhammad’s People Al-Hallaj’s was obsessed with martyrdom and killed himself to show his

love for Godo Al-Hallaj describes Satan as the fallen lover of Godo Satan’s “love for Him is pure love” (pg. 238 coursepack)o Describes Satan’s love for God as the ultimate love

Satan would endure banishment, pain, and suffering for the pure love he has for God

Would not bow down to Adam because only the Divine deserves to be bowed down to

Satan was God’s most devoted servant

5) "At last his mother was able to talk. Invoking God's help she said: 'May God protect you, my son! May he keep you sane! This is something other than medicine. This is the blessing of Umm Hashim.' Like an angry bull before which a red cloth was being waved, Ismail thundered, 'It's your Umm Hashim here who will rob the girl of her sight. You will see how I shall treat her, and how at my hands she will get the cure she sought in vain from Umm Hashim.' [She replied] 'There is many a person, my son, who believes in the power and blessing of the oil of Umm Hashim, the protecteress of the weak and the disabled. They tried it and God cured them. We have all our life relied upon God and her. We have always believed in her miracles.'"

Excerpt from The Saint’s Lamp by Yahya Haqqi

Ismail is a young Egyptian man who was raised by his conservative, very religious family around the temple of Umm Hashim. His parents send him to England to study medicine for seven years; when he returns, his faith has been replaced by a complete trust in Western science.

In this excerpt, Ismail has just returned and he views his homeland with a Western eye. His mother treats his fiancé and cousin, Fatima’s diseased eyes with holy oil from the lamp of Umm Hashim. Ismail, who recognizes the disease and knows that hot oil will make the disease worse rather than better. In this scene, he and his mother fight over who has the right cure—traditional faith or Western science.

This question of faith versus science is at the core of anti-colonial nationalist and revival movements. Egypt saw a rise of Islamist revival movements by leaders such as Hassan al-Banna,

who founded the Muslim Brotherhood. Al-Banna’s approach is to reject Western ideas and to use Islam as a political ideology for reform. Western ideas corrupt the morality of Egyptian society.

Haqqi takes a more moderate approach. He believes that religion is at the root of the Egyptian identity. Unlike al-Banna, he believes that the West does not have a monopoly on reason and science. Egypt should embrace science. Science without faith will not survive in Egypt. However, science fortified by faith will heal Egypt, as it did Fatima.

PART III1. "To say 'and Muhammad is the Messenger of God' is to commit oneself to a belief, not about the person of Muhammad, but about the validity of what he brought. The personality of Muhammad is essentially irrelevant." Discuss why and how you feel this to be an accurate or inaccurate generalization in view of the role of the Prophet Muhammad in varied aspects of the Islamic tradition (e.g. Islamic jurisprudence, Shi'i Islam, Sufism, modern reform movements, popular and/or folk practices, personal piety). Be specific, supporting your discussion with examples.

SALAFI – The original Muslims, the first followers of Muhammad. Salafism is a reform movement trying to get Islam back to what it was in the first two centuries – they reject everything since as “foreign invasions.” This emphasizes the importance of Muhammad, as they follow those who knew Muhammad (thus, it is not just what he said that was important, but his personality as well). Important figure - Ibn al-Taimiyya (1328) (20 NOV lecture)

Prophet Muhammad’s roles – (04 OCT lecture)-As exemplar, role model, the ideal-“You have indeed in the Messenger of God a beautiful model (uswatun hasana) for any

who hopes in God and the hereafter and remembers Allah much (Qur’an 33:21). -Object of adoration and veneration, an emotional attachment-Figure of Muhammad internalized into the psyche-Belief in Muhammad’s prophethood becomes central to Muslim identity – those who

contend Muhammad’s prophethood are “out of the circle”-The prophet’s birthday is celebrated with songs, sweet meats, or recalling the 99 names

of God. It is a big celebration

SUNNAH –-“The ways of the prophet” –written in Hadith-In Sunni Islam – the Ulama, or religious authority, use sunnah (through Hadith) to

determine Shari’ah, or Islamic law. Some examples are in Islamic hygiene rules – nothing is written in the Qu’ran about these rules, but they are derived from Hadith (what the prophet did). Some go so far as to try to brush their teeth like the prophet did. Sunnis use Hadith from the prophet’s companions rather than from his family.

-In Sh’ia Islam – Shi’ites follow the family of Muhammad, rather than his companions. One could probably argue that, in this respect, the personality of Muhammad is transmitted through his family.

Qu’ran-Verses in the Qu’ran emphasize that Muhammad is not important in and of himself, but

only in transmitting the message of God.

Poetry(URDU)

-Professing love for Muhammad-Trying to please Muhammad

(SINDHI)-Image of bride-to-be and marriage with Muhammad (romance as allegory)

SUFFISM-Suffism is the mystical side of Islam – trying to obtain a direct connection with God, not

through the Qur’an or Hadith. Many forms are used – song, dance, recitation, etc.-In this sense, Muhammad’s personality is irrelevant – they are not trying to connect to

God through Muhammad, but are trying to obtain a direct connection.

In a nutshell – you can argue either way. Muhammad is often important in folk culture, and Hadith is certainly important for Islamic jurisprudence. At the same time, the Qur’an is not of Muhammad, but of God – thus he is not important, and in many religious practices Muhammad is nothing but a messenger. As the Prof Asani has tried to stress – Islam is not one thing, it changes in political/cultural/historical context, and the personality of Muhammad changes with it.

3. What has been called 'sharia-minded’ piety has often been held up by most Muslim ‘ulama – both Sunni and Shi’i alike – as normative for Muslims, in contrast to Sufi and/or popular forms of piety. They have equated the Islam of Sunni and Shi’i theological and legal interpretations with “true” Islam. Correspondingly, they have treated Sufi piety on the one hand, and popular practices (saint veneration, tomb visitation, the incorporation of elements from local culture) on the other, as aberrations from "true Islam." What is the basis of this debate? How does each group formulate its arguments in support of its positions on what constitutes "true Islam"? Discuss as specifically as you can citing material you have studied during the semester.

Sufism arose as an ascetic movement dismayed at the luxurious lifestyle of the Umayyad courts, which emphasized worldly enjoyment. It was also a response to the increasing formalism and religious legalism in the 8th and 9th centuries. Islam was increasingly becoming a set of laws and regulations determined by a class of religious scholars, the ulama. Sufism rose in contrast to “sharia-minded” piety.

Sufi masters challenged the ulama and political authorities. After reconciliation of Sufism with Sunni and Shia islam, Sufi practices spread like wildfire, especially at popular level. By the 18th century, most expressions of Muslim life influenced by Sufism.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, revival movements blame incorrect practice for the political and socio-economic weakness in modern Muslim countries. They draw up stricter standards for what is correct practice and try define what is and what is not Islam.

As we saw in the Wedding of Zein, Sufism can be seen as the purest form of Islam, where people focus on spirituality and not the routine of Islam. Sufism has been used as a reactive force against the existing religious institutions.

Wahhabis in Saudi Arabia (Sunnis…sort of)Campaign for purification of Muslim practice, and questioned the authority of the ulama. He rooted for literal and decontextualized readings of the Quran, rather than using reason. They also strongly used the doctrine of takfir (declaring a Muslim to be an infidel if they do not follow

correct practice). Shia and Sufi practice heretical. Sufi practices compromise monotheism, and reinterpret core Islamic ideas. (Please see controversies below.)

EgyptHassan Al-Banna, Egyptian social reformer and founder of the Muslim Brotherhood. Was a Sufi master, and incorporated Sufi hierarchy in the Brotherhood (forbade dissent, had complete authority over followers). Believed that Egyptian ulama had strayed from the straight path and proselytized in coffeehouses to reach the masses. Islam is an integrated and comprehensive system to be understood exclusively from religious texts (Quran and Sunnah). He aimed to reinforce Islamic knowledge and culture, rebuild the Muslim community, and redress the balance of power between Muslim countries and the West.

Iran (Shia)In Iran, the nation-state tries to control its religious institutions. It tries to define “Islam”

and the one correct interpretation of religious texts. It also invents a historical, “pure” form of Islam implemented at a perfect time (golden age) in the past.

The state formulates Shari’ah as “Islamic Law.” Pre-modern conceptions of shariah recognized its fluid nature; plurality associated with a variety of communities of interpretations. However, faced with encroaching westernization and secularization and the advent of modernity, Muslim reformers and administrators sought to cast Shariah into a Western constitution-like mold. Contemporary concept of shariah as a divinely ordained, monolithic, rigid, unchanging and immutable body of laws encompassing lives and actions of Muslims is by and large a creation of the 19th century.

The state does not recognize Sufi sources of authority, nor the Sufi approach to religion.

How it can be viewed as aberrations from “true” Islam.Controversy: unity with God. For example, Al-Hallaj, Sufi master, said “Ana’l Haqq”, or “I am the reality.” He reinterpreted tawid, “unity of God” as “oneness with God.” He sought to be unified with God by eliminating the human ego. Once the human ego is gone, there is only God so you are united with God. The same divine essence permeates everything in the material world. Critics say that he is deliberately misinterpreting tawhid, the concept of monotheism, or “oneness of God” as “oneness with God.”

Controversy: compromise of monotheism. Sufi saints or “God-friends” are people who can intercede on behalf of devotees. He or she conveys barakah, or “spiritual blessing, power.” Thus, people build shrines around the tombs of saints. According to popular practice, praying by the tombs of these God-friends can strengthen your appeal go God. They do not lose their power after death because they have been united with God. This raises questions of monotheism—if you pray to God-friends for intercession, are you worshipping false idols?

Controversy: popular shrines. In Pakistan, Hindu women visiting shrine. Is Sufism Islamic? Critics say: Mostly women who visit tomb-shrines. They are uneducated and are not practicing Islam correctly.

Controversy: music and dance. Although the Quran does not explicitly forbid music, by qiyas, anything that has an intoxicating effect and takes away rationality, the ability to distinguish between right and wrong, should be banned. Thus, music is dangerous and ought to be banned. In Sufism, music is spiritual and allows us to access the world of the spirit or soul. In fact, some say that music has a strong impact on people because it reminds the soul of the time before birth when it was united with God. Example: contemporary Pakistan Sufi rock band, Junoon.

4. Is self-identification as a Muslim in the United States and Europe a declaration that one is an outsider to American or European societies? Answer this question by comparing and contrasting at least three individual Muslims and/or Muslim communities discussed in the secondary and primary source readings as well as in lectures.

Introductiono Question of identity and the race of religion / Question of integration vs

assimilationo Declaring oneself Muslim is not necessarily a self-declaration of not being an

American or European Some Muslims don’t identify themselves as Muslim first For some it is: e.g. Malcolm X because they see themselves as

Muslim first For others, it is not, but society sees them as outsiders via this

declarationo America is diverse by nature and has a lot of immigrants, so we’re more

accepting than Europe of Muslims 9/11, though, caused some to see Muslims as outsiders that hurt the

US Europe is a pluralist in make-up but not in spirit.

Europe doesn’t have history of diff. religious groups living side by side

No tradition of immigration Idea of being something (e.g. German) via ethnic

background integration vs. assimilation into European society while being Muslim –difficult

o Youth trying to be accepted since many don’t feel they have a country 2 ways to go about this of religion vs. culture

o a) Islam needs to be reinterpreted within European context distinction between religion and cultural identity

o b) Islam is perceived as being wedded to historical jurisprudential framework (shariah)

Cultural expressions are important to “Islamic” identity Cannot participate in western/European culture and be truly

MuslimExamples

Malcolm Xo By declaring himself a Muslim within the Nation of Islam he basically

declared that he did not belong to America The followers of the initial Nation saw themselves as Black

Muslims, not Americans To him, American passport “signifies the exact opposite of

what Islam stands for” (autobio) However, they did not follow the typical Islamic patterns of prayer,

the five pillars, knowing Arabic, etco After Malcolm X’s pilgrimage, he realized that all races could be Muslim

and decided that separatism away from the white man was not necessary

o His following of Islam as those at Mecca (w/ the 5 pillars and prayer, and promotion of Islamic brotherhood) actually became a declaration that he was not an American outsider because he did not hate on the white man anymore, just on the structure of American society itself

Muslims in Franceo Overall: Islam = foreign religion that is a threat to French culture

Many suggest acculturation (vs. multicultural approach as in US), but some others do argue they should develop a distinct French Muslim identity

Regardless, Muslim citizens are seen as Muslim first, then French (if even)

o France has largest Muslim population in Europeo Muslims declaring themselves so is not a declaration of being an outsider

However, without integrating, the French system sees it so (because they see Islam as a threat to their own identity)

Outlawed the wearing of headscarf by Muslim female students

o Said it violated secular constitution/tradition Also, there’s antiforeign rhetoric

Accusations of stealing French jobs Support increase for idea to force the expulsion of 3 million

immigrants, and priority for native French in jobs, housing, welfare benefits

Gov. crushed Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) parliamentary and municipal sweep, saying Islamists were using elections to “hijack democracy”

Ali (son) in “My Son the Fanatic”o Overall Idea: By declaring himself Muslim, Ali sees himself as an outsider of

his oppressive country Similar to Malcolm X who saw himself as Muslim against

oppressive white supremacyo After he finds Islam, he begins to give up his possessions and the secular way

of life He loses understanding that others may believe otherwise

Father drinks, but says to father: “Drinking is forbidden.” Becomes an outsider; quote directed toward Parvez, father: “You are

too implicated in Western civilzation.” Parvez’s response: “But we live here.” emphasizes how

Parvez feels about Islam (read below) Sees Muslims vs. West

“The Western materialists hate us…how can you love them?”

Refers to “us” and “our people” = Muslims Ali: “Western education cultivates an anti-religious attitude”

o Parvez (father) Is not Muslim and therefore believes he is part of the culture (has

assimilated) Believes that he is enjoying life his way Orders wife to cook pork: “You’re not in the village now,

this is England. We have to fit in!”

Belief: Because he did not follow Islam, because one does not need to follow Islam in England, he had integrated

Britain – Hanif Kureishio In “The Rainbow Sign”: “The British complained incessantly that the

Pakistanis wouldn’t assimilate. This meant they wanted the Pakistanis to be exactly like them.” (76)

Question: Can one be Muslim without the implication of being an outsider?

Must the declaration follow society’s direction (so if they don’t believe, can’t declare Muslim to be part of society), or must it only be self-justified?

o Felt that he had to give up Muslim identity to fit in European mainstream culture

Faced an inability to integrate and didn’t want to assimilate Therefore, separatism seemed good

o Going against the world that doesn’t accept you Similar to Malcolm X and Ali

o Ultimately rejects this because could still identify with England

Part IV: Essay

Cultural Studies Approach: religion as a phenomenon depending on historical context; is dynamic and constantly changing-Historical, political, economic, social, literary, artistic, etc-Conceptions are dynamic; as contexts evolve and change, religious ideas and institutions change-One context you’re forced to wear hijad (Afghanistan) and in others you’re forbidden (Turkey)-Religion cannot be used in isolation as a factor of explanation; it must be used carefully in the context of its complex interaction with socio-political, historical and cultural factors-Barbara’s Kitchen: in a kitchen you put in different ingredients-Person will cook ingredients on their own tastes, their cultural backgrounds (French chef, French dish)-Point is: you can think about religious traditions that have common ingredients; the ways in which these common ideas are interpreted vary tremendously

1. WAHHABI REFORM MOVEMENT!Factors leading to the rise of renewal/reform Movements-Internal to Muslim societies

-Corrupt and improper practice of Islam rampant-Visitation of tomb-shrines-Controversial Sufi practices involving music and dance, accommodation of non-Islamic

practices—compromising monotheism (tawhid)-Issue of gender: visiting tomb-shrines is popular among women (not educated and

therefore not practicing Islam correctly-External Factors

-Imperial/colonial rule (loss of political power and whole ideology where every aspect of society is being transformed; transform colonial subject into its own society)

-Secularism-Christian missionaries-Western Popular culture

-The impact of industrialization/modernization (industrialization of Europe had great consequences socially with women and them needing to work)

-Nationalism-Cold War: fight against communism, the West, and the Soviet union played a part in

determining some of these movements

-Back to the Fundamentals Reform Movement: seek reinterpretation of the Quran and Sunnah using a variety of interpretative tools; spectrum of movements can range from being ultra conservative to liberal/progressive; old ways are inappropriate for modern times (the ulama of past times can’t be used); depending on the tools used, you can come up with either very liberal interpretations or ultra conservative viewpoints

“Back to the Fundamentals” Reform-Muwahhidun “monotheists” of Arabia-Popularly known as the Wahhabi after their founder Muhammad ibn al Wahhab (1703-1792)-Campaign for “purification” of Muslim practice in Najd, Arabia-Alliance with chief of Saud clan, Muhammad ibn Saud (1752); rose in rebellion against Ottoman Empire-Saud-Wahhabi alliance results in the emergence of Saudi Arabia in the 20th century-Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab: family of learned religious scholars; first studies under his father, a renowned qadi (judge)-Questioned authority of ulama; declared “heretic” for his unconventional methods of interpreting texts and his intolerance-Literal and decontextualized readings of the Quran-Inspired by writings of Ibn Taimiyya (1328)-Ibn al-Taimiyya: supremacy of Quran, sunnah and the teachings of the salaf; early Muslims of the first generation; emergence of Salafi groups-Literalism in reading text; scope of reason strictly limited-Against notion of taqlid “blind following” of ulama-Doctrine of takfir-declaring a Muslim to be an infidel; distinguishing Islam from non-Islam-Issued fatwa that Mongol rulers were infidels, Muslims in name only-Invoked by various Islamist groups to declare rules, regimes to be unIslamic and/or apostate-Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab: Declared Shia to be heretics (tomb of Ali in Najaf and Husain at Karbala)-Sufi practices also heretical -Kitab al-Tawhid “Book of Monotheism”-Declared jihad on all those who by word or act violated doctrine of monotheism (belief in intercession “unIslamic”); any Muslim who violated monotheism can be excommunicated (takfir)-Destruction of tombs and shrines-Christians and Jews infidels (in contrast to traditional Islamic teaching as “people of the book”-Patriarchal world-view: no public role for women; strict segretation-Music banned; customary Egyptian band during pilgrmage stopped-Religious police-Rejection of all cultural and historical development after the first two hundred years as being “unIslamic”-Destruction of important historical monuments -Rise of Wahhabi ideology: legitimized by control over oil wealth; treaties and recognition with British and Americans

-Harnessed and cultivated by Western powers as an ideology to combat communism in Middle East and elsewhere; defense and arms treaties-Saudi rules as “custodians of the Two Sanctuaries (Mecca and Medina)”-Oil revenue provided financial resources to gain legit among non-Wahhabi ulama, especially those who had questions the basis of Wahhabi theology and non-traditional methods of interpretation-Petrodillars also used to spread influence among Muslim communities in poverty stricken regions; scholarships, schools, mosques, etc-World Muslim League

EUROPE! (Historical Context)-Spain: 1492 Ferdinand and Isabel brought much of Spain under their rule (conquest from Arab rule)—Muslims forced to convert or driven out (period of Inquisition)-1992: similar type of phenomenon taking place in another part of Europe—indigenous group of Muslims declared non-European and being threatened-Attempt to ethnically cleanse: Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Croatia (ethnically the same people, yet they have differing religions)-Muslims: cultural terms-> cultural and political identity-Muslims: practicing Islam-Another example of a European society unable to come to terms with differences-What does it mean to be European? What role does religion have? -Historically, Europe does not have traditions of integrating different ethnic and religious groups-No longstanding traditions of immigration-Citizenship defined in cultural/racial terms; “you have become like us” Turkish second/third generation immigrants could not become citizens until recently-Must have cultural aspect as well as racial aspect-Europe is pluralist in make-up but not in spirit-Does being American mean following a particular cultural expression or dose it just mean being loyal to the state but being able to practice whatever religion and whatever culture you may please?

Ethnic Make-up of dominant immigrant Muslims-France: North Africans (Moroccans, Algerians, Tunisians) and West Africans (Senegalese)-Muslim experiences marked by echoes of racism, fundamentalism, fears of terrorism-Beginning in 1980s period of intense socio-economic marginalization; Muslim immigrants often hardest hit economically; among N African neighborhoods in France, Bangladeshi ghettos in London, Pakistanis in Bradford 40-50% unemployment-Disillusioned and disenfranchised younger generation; struggling to be accepted-Sense of alienation accentuated by perception that state is strongly prejudiced against Muslims-Rearticulation of identity in transnational terms rather than national terms

Being Muslim in Europe-Two difference articulations of what it means to be Muslim specifically the relation between religion and culturea) Attempts to critically historicize Islam, fiqh, shariah etc as being conditioned by political and economic contingencies; Islam needs to be reinterpreted within European context; calls for the distinction between…

Prof Tariq Ramadan, grandson of Hassan al-Banna, founder of Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt-Binary vision has to be replaced by unversalism

-Europe as dar al-Shahadah (where one is allowed to practice one’s fath)-Muslims cannot define identity through “otherness”-Islam not tied to any particular culture; has to be defined from within spiritual/moral attitudes towards God, not against the other-Cultural baggage has to be abandoned, allowing distinctive European forms to emerge

b)Islam is perceived as being wedded to historical jurisprudential framework (shariah)-Cultural expressions are important to “Islamic” identity-Cannot participate in Western/European culture and be truly Muslim-Hizb ul Tahrir—strong recruiting efforts on campuses; appeal to marginalized-Calls for the re-establishment of the caliphate and “Islamic” state-Alternate Muslim Parliament in Britain

America is the land of Immigrants: Muslim Presence in America not much different from the presence of other religious communities-Why come to America?

-Jobs: upward socio-economic mobility-Forced migration: slavery-Political, religious, social persecution-Aesthetic Reasons

-Muslim Cultures in the U.S.-African American traditions-Immigrant traditions (early 20th century, very strong after 1965 when there’s a change in

U.S. immigration law; race removed as a factor in determining immigration quota in the U.S.)-Muslims came over during the time of Spanish Colonial Rule in America: 1543 Spanish crown issued an edith; Muslims who came over from Spain had to be expelled (wanted them expelled from the colonies because they were being expelled from Spain)-As many as at least ten percent of the African slaves came from Muslim backgrounds-Many of these Muslim slaves were highly literate. Their literacy clearly set them apart from the rest of the slaves (and most of their owners)-Most of these Muslims remain anonymous or are little more than names in slave-property lists. But much evidence of the Muslim presence has survived-Omar ibn Said (1770-1864): slave who was fluent in reading and writing Arabic-Born in Western African in the Muslim state of Futa Toro; enslaved in South Carolina-1819 a white Protestant NC wrote to Francis Scott Key to request an Arabic translation of the Bible for Omar

Factors Contributing to the Growth of Islam among African American communities-Social and political climate in the early 20th century especially with regard to race relations; 1891-1911 1831-2500 lynchings; Atlanta riots 1906-Social and political climate among African American communities; high unemployment; lack of civil rights-“Islamic” retentions passed on through generations (storytelling, naming, churches on Georgia’s Sapelo island facing east)-Immigration by Muslims to the U.S.

Muslims in America: The Quest for a New Medinah-America is the land of Immigrants: Muslim-Big change in immigration patterns become more global after World War II

-This is where you start seeing more influx (after 1965 change in immigration law: race-based quotas changed); opened up other parts of the world -Changes in immigration laws in 1965 resulted in a radical tranformation of racial make-up immigration to the US-Muslim communities in US most culturally and religiously diverse than in any other nation-More than 1200 mosques; ½ founded in the last 20 years-12-30% of American Muslims are “converts”-5-7 Million Muslims living in the US

Barbara’s Kitchen. Same ingredients, put in different places, come up with completely different dishes.

Issue of political and spiritual authoritySplit between Sunnis and Shias. Sunnis, compromising the majority, often have the political authority. They believe that God favors the strong. Shias, minority, and often persecuted, have a strong culture of worldly suffering that brings salvation in the afterlife. For example, they point to Karbala and Imam Husayn as the Shias, whose religion is based on leadership from the descendents of Ali, have had to come up with reasons for the disappearance of their Imams, to escape persecution.

Who rules? Khomeini introduces rule by the religious scholar to legitimize his political office.