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RESERVOIR FISHERIES

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Edaphic Indicators of Reservoir Production Potentiality

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Correlative Impact of Factors Regulating Production

Potentiality of Reservoirs

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Chemical Stratification in Reservoirs: Vertical

distribution of some reliable constituents in water gives an

index of productivity

Trophogenic (Euphotic) zone characterized by increase

in O2 and decrease in CO2 and bicarbonates.

Tropholytic (Aphotic) zone characterized by sharp

decline in O2 coupled with PH and increase ofcarbonates.

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Model representation of factors affectingfertility, production potentiality and fishproduction of reservors

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Assessment of Production Potentiality of Reservoirs

A first approximation of the fish yield potential is essential

to have an idea of the expected harvest before largescale management measures are taken up. Some of themethods are given below-

Ryder (1965) Model: Y= KXa, where, Y = fish, X = MEI and K= a constant that represents a coefficient for climatic factors

and a an exponent approximating 0.5.Jenkins (1967) Model: calculated a regression between

standing crop of fish and MEI in US reservoirs which has thefollowing form: Y = 2.07 + 0.164 X, where, Y = standing cropof fish & X = log MEI.

Jenkins and Morais (1971) Model: Incorporated someenvironmental variables and being represented as follows-Y = 0.2775 - 0.2401 X1 + 1.0201 X2 - 0.2756 X3, where, Y =total harvest in kg/ha, X1 = log area, X2 = log growingseason, and X3 = log age of the reservoir.

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Gulland (1971) Model: Calculated an equation relatingpotential yield to virgin ichthyomass which has the followingform: Y = kMB, where Y = total fish yield, k = a constantwhich lies between 0.3 and 0.5, M = natural mortalitycoefficient and B = biomass prior to fishing.

Trophodynamic model of Mellack (1976): Calculated aregression between fish yield and gross photosynthesis for15 Indiana lakes which has the form: log FY = 0.122 PG +0.95, where, FY = fish yield PG = gross photosynthesis.

Oglesby (1977) Model: Studied the relationship between thestanding crop of summer phytoplankton and fish yield: log Y= 1.98 + log Chlorophyll

Ramakrishniah (1986) Model: Considered the importance ofcatchment in the loading of nutrients and detritus into the

reservoir and proposed a model using DI value for 21reservoirs selected from different drainage systems byregression concept: Y = 0.8613 + 0.577 X, Where Y =log fish yield / ha and X = log DI.

It was found to be superior to MEI when applied to Indianreservoirs.

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Distribution

of

Reservoirs

-based-

onRiver Systems

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Distribution of Reservoirs-

Hirakud dam on the Mahanadi river in

Sambalpur district of Orissa is longest dam inthe world with a length of 4,803 meter and area

74,592ha with a length of 4,803 meter and

74,592

Gandhi Sagar reservoir on Chambal river(Mandsaur distt of M.P. is second in India by

area 64,750 ha

Ukai (Gujarat) reservoir with area 51,282 ha is

3rd

Rihand reservoir (Rend river, a tributary of Sone

river, Mirzapur distt (U.P.) with area 46,620 ha is

4th

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THE GANGA RIVER SYSTEM UTTAR PRADESH: Rihand (Sone / Mirzapur)

UTTARAKHAND: Nanaksagar, Beagul, Dhaura, Haripura, Baur &

Tumaria (U.S. Nagar)*Saradasagar(Chukasand / U.S. Nagar Pilibhit)

BIHAR: Tilaiya (Barakar / Hazaribagh), Maithan (Barakar / SanthalPergana), Konar (Konar / Santhal Pergana), Panchet (Domodar / SanthalPergana)

MADHYA PRADESH: Gandhisagar (Chambal /M

andsaur) WEST BENGAL: Kangsabati

Dominant Fish Species-

In reservoirs of upper stretch: Mahseer sps. (T. putitora / mosal / tor),katli/copper mahseer (A. hexagonolepis), snow trout (Schizothorax sps)& Labeo sps (dero / pangusia / dyocheilus / gonius).

In reservoirs of middle & lower stretches: IMC; Labeo (bata/ gonius/baga/ boggut), Puntius sarana, Changunius changunio and many largecatfishes and also small catfishes like- Clupisoma garua, Eutropichthyesvacha, Ompak bimaculatus...

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2. The Brahmaputra River System: As suchhas no reservoirs.

3. The Indus River System: Govindsagarreservoir (Satluj) / partly under jurisdiction ofHP & Punjab.

Dominant Fish Species-

In Upper Part: Schizothorax plagiostomus,Crossocheilus latius latius, Gara gotyla,Clupisoma montona, Mastecembelus

armatus, Mystus bleekeri. In Middle & Lower Parts: C. carpio

specularis (mirror carp), L. bata, M.seenghala

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4. The Mahanadi River System: Hirakud

reservoir (Mahanadi/ Sambhalpur distt.);

length 4803m & area 74592ha.Dominant Fish Species: In addition to

Gangetic carps & catfishes, endemic fish

species found are Tor mosal var.mahanadicus, Peninsular rohu (L. fimbriatus),

Rita chrysea.

5. The Godavari River System: 189km plain

stretch between Dowlaiswaram -

Dummagudema bears characteristics of

lacustrine water body.

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6. The Krishna River System: Having threeimportant reservoirs-

Tungabhadra (Tungabhadra/ Haspet distt [Mysore]ofKarnataka)

Nagarjunsagar(Krishna/ Nalagonda distt. of AP)

Nizamsagar(Mowgina/ Nizamabad distt. of AP)

Dominant Fish Species: In general in all three reservoirs, Labeo (fimbriatus/

calbasu/ potail), Puntius sps, large & smallcatfishes.

In particular, Puntius kolus (Tungabhadra) andThynichthys sandkhol(Nizamsagar)

Among Mahseer species, Tor khudree in all threebut T. nelili in Tungabhadra

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7. The Cauvery River System: Having four importantreservoirs-

Krishnarajasagar (r- Cauvery/ Mysore

[Karanataka]) Bhawanisagar (r- Bhawani/ Coimbatore [Tamil

nadu])

Mettur/ Stanley (r- Cauvery/ Salem [Tamil Nadu])

Poondi (r- Koraliyar/ Chinglepet [Tamil Nadu])

Dominant Fish Species:

Several species of Puntius (dubius/ carnaticus/

micropogan), Labeo (calbasu/ kontius/ potail/porcellus), Cirrhinus (reba/ cirrhosa), Tor(khudree/ mussullah), Mystus punctatus etc

Transplanted fish species are IMC, C. carpio sps,Osphronemus goramy, Eutroplus suratensis.

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8. The Peninsular West Coast River System:

As such both Narmada & Tapti do not have

major reservoirs, never the less, smallreservoirs are developed on their tributaries

as follows-

Ukai in Gujarat, Konya, Shivajisagar & Powailake in Maharasthra and Neyyar, Periyar &

Malapuzha reservoirs in Kerala.

Economically Important Peninsular Fish

Fauna: Labeo nigrescens, Puntius (thomassi/

curmuca/ filamentous/ pulchellus), Ompak

malabaricusetc.

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Definition and classification5The word "tank", for example, is loosely defined and often used in

common parlance to refer to some of the small irrigationreservoirs.

5Tanks in Andhra Pradesh are further classified as perennial andlong seasonal. In the Srikakulam, East Godavari and Krishnadistricts, 1804 of the 4604 perennial tanks, with an average sizeless than 10 ha, are not considered reservoirs. The remaining2800 tanks, which cover a total area of 177749 ha, are regardedas reservoirs.

5In Tamil Nadu, the tanks are further classified as short seasonal andlong seasonal. A total of 8837 major irrigation tanks of TamilNadu, with a combined water surface area of 300278 ha, have

been classified as small reservoirs.

5Similarly, 4605 large perennial water bodies in Karnataka listed as

major irrigation tanks are considered reservoirs.

According to the records of the Government of India,reservoirs are generally classified as small (5000 ha).

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Reservoir Resources of the Country

State Small Medium Large Total

Tamil Nadu 315 941 19 577 23 222 358 740

Karnataka 228 657 29 078 179 556 437 291

Madhya Pradesh 172 575 169 502 118 307 460 384

Andhra Pradesh 201 927 66 429 190 151 458 507

Maharashtra 119 515 39 181 115 054 273 750

Gujarat 84 124 57 748 144 358 286 230

Bihar 12 461 12 523 71 711 96 695

Orissa 66 047 12 748 119 403 198 198

Kerala 7 975 15 500 6 160 29 635

Uttar Pradesh 218 651 44 993 71 196 334 840

Rajasthan 54 231 49 827 49 386 153 444H.P. 200 - 41 364 41 564

Northeast 2 239 5 835 - 8 074

Haryana 282 - - 282

West Bengal 732 4 600 10 400 15 732

Total 1 485 557 527 541 1 140 268 3 153366

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According to present grouping system-5India has 19134 small reservoirs with a total water surface area of

1485557 ha.

5Similarly, 180 medium and 56 large reservoirs of the country have

an area of 527541 and 1140268ha respectively. Thus, thecountry has 19370 reservoirs covering 3153366ha.

5The State of Tamil Nadu has the greatest surface area of smallreservoirs in the country (315941ha), followed by Karnataka(228657 ha) and Uttar Pradesh (218 651 ha).

5Medium reservoirs constitute less than 1% of the total number of

reservoirs and 17% of the total surface area. Andhra Pradesh,Rajasthan, and Gujarat have more medium reservoirs thanMadhya Pradesh, though the water surface area in these statesis much less.

5Karnataka has a preponderance in number (12) of large reservoirs.

5Nevertheless, the seven large reservoirs in Andhra Pradesh aremuch larger and have a total surface area of 190151 ha.

The concentration of reservoirs in the peninsular states, i.e. TamilNadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Orissa andMaharashtra, in these six states of the country, out of the 19134small reservoirs, 17989 (94%) are located there, contributing63% of the total water surface area. Similarly, 34% of themedium reservoirs are distributed in these states.

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Fish production from reservoirsA reliable estimate of fish production from Indian reservoirs is not available. Following are the mainreasons for this deficiency-complications in the collection of data in some states because of the multiplicity of agencies owning fishing rights;widely dispersed and unorganized market channels, mostly controlled by unauthorized money lenders;an ineffective cooperative setup;diverse licensing/royalty/crop sharing systems practised by different state governments; and

inadequate and poorly trained workforce at the disposal of the states to collect catch data by following statisticallysound sampling procedures.

Fish production in various types of reservoirs in India

(based on data from 9 states)

Category Area Production Yield

(ha) (t) (kg/ha)

Small 1 485 557 74 129 49.90

Medium 527 541 6 488 12.30

Large 1 140 268 13 033 11.43

Total 3 153 366 93 65020.13

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National average of actual yield and

production potential of Indian reservoirs

Category Actual yield

(Kg/ha/year)

Production potential

(Kg/ha/year)

Small(

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Fish Production Trend of the Countrys Reservoirs-

Fish production data from 291 small reservoirs, based onthe records available from various state

governments, are presented as above.Fish production figures of Andhra Pradesh as given bythe State Department of Fisheries are the highest inthe group, followed by Kerala, Tamil Nadu, MadhyaPradesh, Rajasthan and others ranging from 3.91kg/ha (Bihar) to 188.0 kg/ha (Andhra Pradesh). On

average, the 291 small reservoirs of India yield fishat the rate of49.9 kg/ha.

The average estimated yields of small, medium and largereservoirs are 49.9, 12.30 and 11.43kg/harespectively.

By applying the average yield of small reservoirs to theirtotal surface area of 1485557 ha, their currentproduction rate can be estimated at 74129 t. In thesame way the production of medium and largereservoirs is estimated at 6488 and 13033trespectively.

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Management Strategy of Reservoir Fisheries

Stocking(Culture-based-capture Fisheries)

High Fish Yield

Natural Recruitment

Judicious Fishing

&

Habitat Restoration

Small

LargeMedium

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Norms, guidelines and strategies ofreservoir fisheriesmanagement

Habitat Restoration Supportive Measures.

Fish Resource Exploitation Supportive

Measures.

Fishing folk supportive measures.

Policy Supportive Measures.

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Habitat Restoration Supportive Measures

To take initiative to minimize siltation by adopting aforestation in the catchment areas.

To take initiative to check unauthorized encroachmentwithin the peripheral zone of reservoirs.

Restoration of small water pools situated in the peripheral

zones of reservoir by desilting their connecting channel tomain reservoir body as to serve as Bundh BreedingPools/ cover page photos.

Realistic coordination between manager (irrigationdepartment) and user (Fisheries Department) toexecute judicious and rational release of water to avoid thecomplete dryness of main reservoir, as it happens toDhaura and Tumaria, and Haripura is the resultantcatastrophe.

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In-situ ConservationPlan

Natural breeding pool in peripheral zone of Dhaura Reservoirhaving connection with main reservoir impoundment area

Natural breeding (Dry Bundh) pool in peripheral zone of Dhaura Reservoirhaving no connection with main reservoir body

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Fish Resource Exploitation Supportive Measures Indiscriminate non-judicious fishing of resources should be avoided by

involving full proof planning and effective regulatory measures.

Seasonal basis of mesh size regulation of fishing gears may be enforcedby all means.

Necessary precautionary measures may be taken against over fishing ofa special species having population density less than the carrying

capacity of the system.

Niche-based stocking strategy may be adopted. As all the reservoirshave good enough detritus load and more benthos, hence,preferentially stocking of omnivorous fishes may be advocated.

Rational exploitation of predatory-cum- catfish population may beregulated for the establishment of carps fisheries.

Uneconomical weed fish population should be kept under control andthe exploited stock of these group of fishes may be utilized for fish feedproduction.

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Fishing folk supportivemeasures

To conduct on site training-cum-groupdiscussion programme with participation of

fishermen to make them aware about

correlative importance of natural fishery

resource conservation and expected catchprospects.

To conduct training programme pertainingto preparation, maintenance and

preservation of gears.

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PolicySupportive Measures

Fishery experts may be involved in planning process of reservoirs toassess prospects of fisheries management with sound scientificinputs.

The fishers organization/societies should be preferred for leasing outreservoirs for fisheries whereas individual contract system may bediscouraged.

The fisheries management activities should be entrusted to differentagencies, depending upon their expertise and labor availability.

For instance, State Fisheries department should manage fish

stocking and stock situation whereas fishers cooperative societiesmay perform fishing operations, and fish marketing may be in thepurview of some other type of fisheries organization havingexpertise in area of preservation, product development, packing,transportation of processed food products and marketing of such aperishable food commodity.

The fishing fishers community should be provided with inputs (gearand crafts) through soft term institutional loans sponsored by thestate fisheries departments.

System of minimum support procurement price may be adopted foreach grade of fish for different seasons. It will provide betterremuneration to fishers and incentive for high fishing effort and fishcatch.

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Synchronized water holding

of Dhaura reservoir

Showing irrational

release (out-flux) of

water by irrigation

department causing

loss of biodiversity

leading to resultant

decrease of natural

recruitment and stock

depletion.

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Synchronized water holding and extreme siltation condition

in Tumaria (Top) reservoir as like Haripura (below) reservoir

Showing the developmentof islands as a result of

extreme siltationresulting synchronizewater holding of reservoirinto contributing riverchannel leading to

complete exploitation offish resources.

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Haripura reservoir basin&

Contributing river channel of reservoir

Showing the wasting

situation of Haripura

reservoir due to siltation

as a result of which the

complete reservoir basin

has been transformed

into island (barren land).

Consequently reservoirswater holding capacity is

synchronized merely in

the form of contributing

river channel.

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Hydrobiological sampling&

a local fisherman engaged in fish catchin main river channel of Haripura reservoir

Extreme water synchronization

in Haripura reservoir during

month of June. Water merely

present in main basin of

contributing river and a

fisherman & a womanengaged in subsistence fish

catch posing complete

exploitation of existing fish

fauna.

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Fish Stockingas

One of the MeasureofProduction Enhancement

of

Reservoirs

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Stocking Policies-The policies hitherto adopted in Indian reservoirs emphasize mainly

stocking fingerlings of a species or a combination of species withouttaking into consideration density levels or ratios based on the biogenic

capacity of the reservoir. Species used and the rate of stocking are oftendetermined by availability.

The existing pathways of energy transfer in reservoirs can be animportant criterion for guiding stocking requirements.

Indian reservoirs, by and large, have a wide spectrum of phytoplanktoncomprising Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Dinophyceae and

Bacillariophyceae which dominate the zooplankton such as copepods,cladocerans, rotifers and protozoan.

Benthos is represented by insect larvae and nymphs, oligochaetes,nematodes and molluscs. There is a rich growth of periphyton onsubmerged objects.

The ecosystem-oriented management policy places due emphasis on

trophic strata in terms of shared, unshared and vacant niches.

Two main pathways, through which primary energy finds its way to fishflesh, are the grazing chain and the detritus chain. The contribution ofboth pathways to the total availability of energy needs to be assessed inorder to determine the species combination most suited to theecosystem. A large number of Indian reservoirs exhibit the detritus chain

of energy transfer.

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Species diversification vs indigenous / exotic species performance-

Diversification of stocking material is essential forestablishing multi-species fish stock which utilizes all food

niches of the ecosystem. Indian major carps are indispensable in reservoir

management, by virtue of their feeding habits and fastgrowth rate. However, they are ill-suited for the utilization ofphytoplankton, the most dominant fraction of plankton.

The remarkable ability of silver carp in efficiently convertingphytoplankton into fish flesh has been demonstrated inGovindsagar, Kulagarhi and Getalsud reservoirs. Theintroduction of exotic fish to open waters is still a subject ofcontroversy because of the potentially deleterious effects on

indigenous populations. Development of endemic species as stocking material has

not made much progress in the country although some ofthem have a proven track record in ensuring an efficientenergy transformation rate. The opinion of Indian experts on

the subject runs along the following lines

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Potential Species-

P. pangasius, subsisting on a molluscan diet, is a species to be

considered in the detritus-based, mollusc-rich reservoirs of the

country. Puntius pulchellus, a peninsular species, is a well-known

macrophyte feeder and Thynnichthys sandkhol consumes

Microcystis, the common alga in Indian waters.

In reservoirs, where annual drawdown is not pronounced and water

level fluctuations are not steep, phytobenthos and

macrovegetation develop in various degrees. Grass carp

Common carp is being stocked in many reservoirs. Being a prolific

feeder it could establish a niche for itself in the reservoirs of the

northeast, in Gobindsagar and in some of the peninsular reservoirs

such as Krishnarajasagar. The fish, being a mud-stirrer, is

considered to be unsuitable for waters which are already turbid.

T. putitora, L. dero, and exotic species such as mirror carp, silver

carp, grass carp Tinca tinca and Carassius carassius are

sometimes promoted for high altitude reservoirs

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Catch of siver carp in relation to total fish

ctch in Gobindsagar reservoir-

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RATE OF STOCKING

For large & Medium Reservoirs-

N= {(S1- S0) / G + M}N= Number of fish/ unit area/ unit time

S1= Fish biomass/ unit area at the end of unit time

S0= Fish biomass/ unit area at the beginning of unit time

G= Fish

Growth rate

For Small Reservoirs-

= Total fish production/ Individual fish growth rate + Loss

Tip-points:

5Stocking material of finger ling size.5 Stocking materials genetic performance be evaluated.

5Trickling strategy of fish seed stocking be adopted or

5Development of cove fisheries for raising stocking material.

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Impact of reservoir formation on the native ichthyo-fauna:

The formation of reservoirs has particularly affected the

following indigenous fish stocks:

the mahseer, snow trout and Labeo dero, and L. dyocheilusof the Himalayan streams;

the anadromous hilsa, catadromous eel, and freshwater

prawn of all major river systems;

P. sarana, T. tor mahanadicus, T. mosal, L. fimbriatus, L.

calbasu, and Rhinomugil corsula of the Mahanadi river;

P. dobsoni, P. dubius, P. carnaticus, C. cirrhosa and Labeo

kontius of the Cauvery basin;

P. kolus, P. dubius, P. sarana, P. porcellus, L. fimbriatus, L.

calbasu, L. pangusia and Tor kudree of the Krishna river

system; and

the mahseer, eel and Osteobrama belangiri of the northeast