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The Saxons(Latin: Saxones, OldEnglish: Seaxe, Old

Saxon: Sahson, LowGerman: Sassen, German: Sachsen, Dutch: Saksen) were a groupof Germanic tribesfirst mentionedas living near the North Seacoastof what is now Germany(OldSaxony), in late Roman times.They were soon mentioned asraiding and settling in many North

Sea areas, as well as pushingsouth inland towards the Franks.Significant numbers settled in largeparts of Great Britainin theearly Middle Agesand formed part

of the merged group of Anglo-Saxonswho eventually organisedthe first united Kingdom ofEngland.[1]Many Saxons however
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remained in Germania, where theyresisted the expanding Frankish

Empirethrough the leadership ofthe semi-legendary Saxonhero, Widukind.The Saxons' earliest area ofsettlement is believed to havebeen Northern Albingia, an areaapproximately that ofmodern Holstein. This general areaalso included the probable

homeland of the Angles. Saxons,along with the Angles and othercontinental Germanic tribes,participated in the Anglo-Saxonsettlement of Britainduring and

after the 5th century. The British-Celtic inhabitants of the islestended to refer to all these groupscollectively as Saxons.[2]It is
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unknown how many Saxonsmigrated from the continent to

Britain, though estimates for thetotal number of Anglo-Saxonsettlers are around200,000.[3]During the Middle Ages,because of

international Hanseatictradingroutes and contingent migration,Saxons mixed with and had stronginfluences upon the languages andcultures of the NorthGermanic, Baltic peoples, Finnicpeoples, PolabianSlavsandPomeranianWestSlavicpeople.

Contents[hide]

1Etymology
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o 1.1Saxon as a demonym 1.1.1Celtic languages 1.1.2Romance languages 1.1.3Non-Indo-European

languageso 1.2Related surnameso 1.3Saxony as a toponym

2Historyo 2.1Early historyo 2.2Continental Saxons

2.2.1Saxony

2.2.2Netherlands 2.2.3Italy and Provence 2.2.4Gaul

o 2.3Saxons in Britain 3Culture

o 3.1Social structureo 3.2Religion

3.2.1Paganism
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3.2.2Christianity 3.2.2.1Christian literature

4See also 5Notes 6References 7External links

Etymology[edit]
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Possible locations of the Angles,Saxons and Jutes before their

migration to Britain.The Saxons may have derived theirname from seax, a kind of knife forwhich they were known. The seaxhas a lasting symbolic impact inthe Englishcountiesof Essexand Middlesex, both ofwhich feature three seaxes in theirceremonial emblem. Their names,

along with thoseof Sussexand Wessex, contain aremnant of the word "Saxon".The Elizabethan eraplay EdmundIronsidesuggests the Saxon name

derives from theLatin saxa(stone):[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seaxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middlesexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sussexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wessexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabethan_erahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Ironside_(play)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Ironside_(play)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Ironside_(play)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Ironside_(play)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabethan_erahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wessexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sussexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middlesexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essexhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seax


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Their names discover what theirnatures are, More hard than

stones, and yet not stones indeed.I.i.181-2

Saxon as a demonym[edit]Celtic languages[edit]

In the Celtic languages, the wordsdesignating English nationalityderive from the Latinword Saxones. The mostprominent example, a loanwordin

English, is the ScottishGaelicSassenach (Saxon), oftenused disparagingly in ScottishEnglish/Scots. It derives fromthe ScottishGaelicSasunnachmeaning,originally, "Saxon", from the Latin"Saxones". Scots- or Scottish
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English-speakers in the 21stcentury usually use it in jest, as a

(friendly) term of abuse.The Oxford EnglishDictionary(OED) gives 1771 as thedate of the earliest written use ofthe word in English.Sasanach, the Irishword for anEnglishman, has the samederivation, as do the words usedin Welshto describe the English

people (Saeson, sing. Sais) andthe language and things English ingeneral: SaesnegandSeisnig.Cornishterms theEnglish Sawsnek,from the same

derivation. In the 16th centuryCornish-speakers used thephrase Meea navidna cowza
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sawzneckto feign ignorance of theEnglish language.[5]

"England" in Scottish Gaelic,is Sasainn(Saxony). Otherexamples includethe WelshSaesneg(the Englishlanguage), IrishSasana(England),Bretonsaoz(on)(English, saozneg"the English language", Bro-saoz"England"),and CornishSowson(English

people), Sowsnek(Englishlanguage), and Pow Sowsfor 'Land[Pays] of Saxons'.Romance languages[edit]The label "Saxons"(in RomanianSai) was alsoapplied to German settlerswhomigrated during the 13th century to
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southeastern Transylvania. FromTransylvania, some Saxons

migrated to theneighbouring Moldavia, as thename of the town, Sas-cut,shows. Sascutis located in the partof Moldavia that is today part

of Romania.During Georg FriederichHndel'svisit to Italy, much wasmade of his being from Saxony; in

particular, the Venetiansgreetedthe 1709 performance of hisoperaAgrippinawith the cry Viva ilcaro Sassone, "Cheers for thebeloved Saxon!"[6]

Non-Indo-Europeanlanguages[edit]
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The Finnsand Estonianshavechanged their usage of the

term Saxonyover the centuries todenote now the whole countryof Germany(Saksaand Saksamaarespectively) andthe Germans(saksalaisetand sakslased, respectively). The Finnishword saksetscissorsreflects thename of the old Saxon single-edged sword Seaxfrom which'Saxon' is supposedly derived. InEstonian, saksmeans a noblemanor, colloquially, a wealthy orpowerful person. As a result ofthe Northern Crusadesin the

Middle Ages, Estonia's upper classhad been mostly of Germanoriginuntil well into the 20thcentury.
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Related surnames[edit]The word also survives as the

surnames of Sa/Sass, Sachseand Sachs. The Dutchfemale firstname, Saskia,originally meant "ASaxon woman" (alteration of"Saxia").Saxony as a toponym[edit]Following the downfall of Henry theLion(11291195, Duke of Saxony11421180), and the subsequent

splitting of the Saxon tribal duchyinto several territories, the name ofthe Saxon duchy was transferred tothe lands of the Ascanianfamily.This led to the differentiationbetween Lower Saxony, landssettled by the Saxon tribeand Upper Saxony, the lands
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belonging to the House of Wettin.Gradually, a different region

became known as "Saxony",ultimately usurping the name'soriginal meaning. The areaformerly known as Upper Saxonynow lies in Central Germany.

History[edit]Early history[edit]

Map of the Roman Empire andcontemporary indigenous Europe
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in 125 AD, showing the location ofthe Saxons in Northern Germany

Ptolemy's Geographia,written inthe 2nd century, is sometimesconsidered to contain the firstmentioning of the Saxons. Somecopies of this text mention a tribecalled Saxonesin the area to thenorth of the lower Elbe.[7]However,other versions refer to the sametribe asAxones.This may be a

misspelling of the tribethat Tacitusinhis GermaniacalledAviones.According to this theory, "Saxones"was the result of later scribes trying

to correct a name that meantnothing to them.[8]On the otherhand, Schtte, in his analysis of
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such problems in Ptolemy's Mapsof Northern Europe, believed that

"Saxones" is correct. He notes thatthe loss of first letters occurs innumerous places in various copiesof Ptolemy's work, and also that themanuscripts without "Saxones" are

generally inferior overall.[9]Schtte also remarks that therewas a medieval tradition of callingthis area "Old Saxony".[10]In

contrast, other scholars note thatsources such as Bedewhomention Old Saxony, might beinterpreted as saying it was nearthe Rhine, somewhere to the north

of the river Lippe, and were in anycase not personally familiar withthe area.[11]
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In AD 44142, Saxons arementioned for the first time as

inhabitants of Britain, when anunknown Gaulish historian wrote:"The British provinces...have beenreduced to Saxon rule".[12]The first undisputed mention of theSaxon name in its modern form isfrom AD 356, when Julian, laterthe Roman Emperor, mentionedthem in a speech as allies

of Magnentius, a rival emperorin Gaul.Zosimusalso mentions aspecific tribe of Saxons, calledthe Kouadoi, which have beeninterpreted as the Chauci. They

entered the Rhineland anddisplaced the recentlysettled Salian Franksfrom Batavi,whereupon some of the Salians
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began to move into the Belgianterritory of Toxandria, supported by

Julian.[13]In order to defend against Saxonraiders, the Romanscreated amilitary district called the LitusSaxonicum("Saxon Coast") onboth sides of the English Channel.

Europe in the late 5th century.Most names shown are the Latin

names of 5th century peoples, withthe exceptions ofSyagrius(king ofa Gallo-Romanrumpstate), Odoacer(Germanicking of
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxandriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxon_Shorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxon_Shorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Channelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syagriushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo-Romanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odoacerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peopleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_and_the_Near_East_at_476_AD.pnghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peopleshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odoacerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo-Romanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syagriushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Channelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxon_Shorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxon_Shorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Romehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxandria


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Italy), and (Julius)Nepos(nominally the last Western

Roman emperor, de factorulerof Dalmatia).

Saxons as inhabitants of present-day Northern Germanyare firstmentioned in 555, when theFrankish king Theudebalddied,and the Saxons used theopportunity for an uprising. Theuprising was suppressed

by Chlothar I, Theudebald'ssuccessor. Some of their Frankishsuccessors fought against theSaxons, others were allied withthem; Chlothar IIwon a decisive

victory against the Saxons.TheThuringiansfrequentlyappeared as allies of the Saxons.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Neposhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Neposhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalmatiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theudebaldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlothar_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlothar_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thuringianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thuringianshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlothar_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlothar_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theudebaldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalmatiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Neposhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Nepos


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Continental Saxons[edit]Saxony[edit]

The Continental Saxons living inwhat was known as OldSaxonyappear to have becomeconsolidated by the end of the 8th

century. After subjugation by theEmperor Charlemagne, a politicalentity called the Duchy ofSaxonyappeared.The Saxons long resisted

becoming Christians[14]and beingincorporated into the orbit ofthe Frankish kingdom.[15]In 776 theSaxons promised to convert toChristianity and vow loyalty to the

king, but once Charlemagne wentto Spain, they staged furtherattacks in 778. This was an often
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=10https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=11https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagnehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankish_kingdomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-Lieberman2013-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-Lieberman2013-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankish_kingdomhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagnehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=11https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=10


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repeated pattern whenCharlemagne was distracted by

other matters.[15]DuringCharlemagne's campaignin Hispania(778), the Saxonsadvanced to Deutzonthe Rhineand plundered along the

river.They were decisively conqueredby Charlemagnein a long series ofannual campaigns, the Saxon

Wars(772

804) With defeat cameenforced baptismand conversionas well as the union of the Saxonswith the rest of the Germanic,Frankish empire. Their sacred tree

or pillar, a symbol of Irminsul, wasdestroyed. Charlemagne alsodeported 10,000 of themto Neustriaand gave their now
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-Lieberman2013-15https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne-Deutzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagnehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxon_Warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxon_Warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_conversionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irminsulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neustriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neustriahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irminsulhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious_conversionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baptismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxon_Warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxon_Warshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagnehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cologne-Deutzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispaniahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-Lieberman2013-15


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vacant lands to the loyal king ofthe Abotrites. Einhard,

Charlemagne's biographer, says onthe closing of this grand conflict:The war that had lasted so manyyears was at length ended by theiracceding to the terms offered bythe king; which were renunciationof their national religious customsand the worship of devils,acceptance of the sacraments of

the Christian faith and religion, andunion with the Franks to form onepeople.

Under Carolingian rule, the Saxonswere reduced to tributary status.

There is evidence that the Saxons,as well as Slavic tributaries such asthe Abodritesand the Wends, often
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abotriteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abodriteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abodriteshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abotrites


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provided troops to their Carolingianoverlords. The dukes of Saxony

became kings (Henry I, the Fowler,919) and later the first emperors(Henry's son, Otto I, the Great)of Germanyduring the 10thcentury, but they lost this position

in 1024. The duchy was divided upin 1180 when Duke Henry the Lion,Emperor Otto's grandson, refusedto follow his cousin,Emperor Frederick Barbarossa,into war in Lombardy.During the High Middle Ages,under the Salianemperors and,later, under the Teutonic Knights,

German settlers moved east ofthe Saaleinto the area of awestern Slavic tribe, the Sorbs.The Sorbs were gradually
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_the_Fowlerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_I,_the_Greathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_the_Lionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombardyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Middle_Ageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salian_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teutonic_Knightshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saalehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorbshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saalehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teutonic_Knightshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salian_dynastyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Middle_Ageshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombardyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_the_Lionhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_I,_the_Greathttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_the_Fowler


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Germanised. This regionsubsequently acquired the name

Saxony through politicalcircumstances, though it wasinitially called the March ofMeissen. The rulersof Meissenacquired control of

the Duchy of Saxony(only aremnant of the previous Duchy) in1423; they eventually applied thename Saxonyto the whole of theirkingdom. Since then, this part ofeastern Germany has beenreferred toas Saxony(German: Sachsen), asource of some misunderstanding

about the original homeland of theSaxons, with a central part in thepresent-day German state of LowerSaxony(German: Niedersachsen).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Meissenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Meissenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Saxonyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meissenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Meissenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_of_Meissen


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Netherlands[edit]In the Netherlands, Saxons

occupied the territory south of theFrisians and north of the Franks. Inthe west it reached as far asthe Gooiregion, in the south as faras the Lower Rhine. After theconquest of Charlemagne, thisarea formed the main part oftheBishopric of Utrecht. The Saxonduchy of Hamalandplayed an

important role in the formation ofthe duchy of Guelders.The local language, althoughstrongly influenced bystandard Dutch, is still officially

recognised as Dutch Low Saxon.Italy and Provence[edit]
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=12https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gooihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishopric_of_Utrechthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamalandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gueldershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=13https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=13https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Low_Saxonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gueldershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamalandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishopric_of_Utrechthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gooihttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=12


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In 569, some Saxons accompaniedthe Lombardsinto Italy under the

leadership of Alboinand settledthere.[16]In 572, they raidedsoutheastern Gaul as far as Stablo,now Estoublon. Divided, they wereeasily defeated by the Gallo-

Romangeneral Mummolus. Whenthe Saxons regrouped, a peacetreaty was negotiated whereby theItalian Saxons were allowed tosettle with their familiesin Austrasia.[17]Gathering theirfamilies and belongings in Italy,they returned to Provencein twogroups in 573. One group

proceeded by way of Niceandanother via Embrun, joining upat Avignon. They plundered theterritory and were as a
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombardshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alboinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoublonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo-Romanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo-Romanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mummolushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrasiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embrun,_Hautes-Alpeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embrun,_Hautes-Alpeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provencehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-17https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrasiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mummolushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo-Romanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallo-Romanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoublonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-16https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alboinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombards


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consequence stopped fromcrossing the Rhneby Mummolus.

They were forced to paycompensation for what they hadrobbed before they could enterAustrasia. These people are knownonly by documents, and their

settlement cannot be compared tothe archeological artifacts andremains that attest to Saxonsettlements in northern andwestern Gaul.Gaul[edit]See also: Saxon shore

A Saxon kingnamed Eadwacerconquered Anger

sin 463 only to be dislodgedby Childeric Iand the SalianFranks, allies of the Roman
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B4nehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxon_shorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulf_and_Eadwacerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childeric_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salian_Frankshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salian_Frankshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salian_Frankshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salian_Frankshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childeric_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angershttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wulf_and_Eadwacerhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxon_shorehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=14https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne


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Empire.[18]It is possible that Saxonsettlement of Great Britain began

only in response to expandingFrankish control oftheChannelcoast.[19]Some Saxons already lived alongthe Saxon shore of Gaul. They canbe traced in documents, but also inarcheology and in toponymy.The Notitia Dignitatummentionsthe Tribunus cohortis primae novae

Armoricanae, Grannona in litoreSaxonico. The locationofGrannonais uncertain and wasidentified by the historians andtoponymists at different places,

mainly with the town known todayas Granville(in Normandy) ornearby. The NotitiaDignitatumdoes not explain where
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empirehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Channelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toponymyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granville,_Manchehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granville,_Manchehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toponymyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-19https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Channelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-18https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire


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these "Roman" soldiers came from.Some toponymists have

proposed Graignes(Grania1109 -1113) as the locationfor Grannona/Grannonum. It couldbe the same element *gran, that isrecognised

in Guernsey(Greneroi11thcentury).[20]This location is closerto Bayeux, where Gregory of Toursevokes otherwise the SaxonesBajocassini(BessinSaxons), whichwere ineffective to defeat theBreton Waroch IIin 579.[21]A Saxon unit of laetisettledat Bayeuxthe Saxones

Baiocassenses.[22]These Saxonsbecame subjects of Clovis Ilate inthe 5th century. The Saxons ofBayeux comprised a standing army
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graignes,_Manchehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guernseyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayeuxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waroch_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laetihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayeuxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovis_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovis_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayeuxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laetihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waroch_IIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayeuxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-20https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guernseyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graignes,_Manche


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and were often called upon toserve alongside the local levyof

their region in Merovingianmilitarycampaigns. They were ineffectiveagainst the Breton Waroch in thiscapacity in 579.[23]In 589, theSaxons wore their hair in

the Bretonfashion at the ordersof Fredegundand fought with themas alliesagainst Guntram.[24]Beginning in626, the Saxons of the Bessinwereused by Dagobert Ifor hiscampaigns against the Basques.One of their own, Aeghyna, wascreated a duxover the region

of Vasconia.[25]

In 843 and 846 under king Charlesthe Bald, other official documentsmention a paguscalled Otlinga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_servicehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merovingianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretonshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredegundhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guntramhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-24https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagobert_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basqueshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeghynahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Gasconyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Vasconiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-25https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_the_Baldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_the_Baldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_the_Baldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_the_Baldhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-25https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Vasconiahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke_of_Gasconyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeghynahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basqueshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagobert_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-24https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guntramhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fredegundhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bretonshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merovingianhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_service


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Saxoniain the Bessin region, butthe meaning of Otlingais unclear.

Different Bessin toponyms wereidentified as typically Saxon,ex : Cottun(Coltun1035 -1037 ;Cola's "town"). It is the onlyplace-name in Normandy that can

be interpreted as a -tunone(English -ton; cf. Colton).[26]Incontrast to this one example inNormandy are numerous -thunvillages in the north of France,in Boulonnais, ex : Alincthun,Verlincthun, Pelingthun,etc.[27]showing with othertoponyms, an important Saxon or

Anglo-Saxon settlement.comparing the concentration of -ham/ -hem(Anglo-Saxon hm>home) toponyms in the Bessin and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottunhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colton_(disambiguation)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-26https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulonnais_(land_area)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-27https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-27https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulonnais_(land_area)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-26https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colton_(disambiguation)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottun


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in the Boulonnais gives moreexamples of Saxon

settlement.[28]In the area knowntoday as Normandy, the -hamcases of Bessin are unique,they do not exist elsewhere. Othercases were considered, but there is

no determining example,f.e. : Canehan(Kenehan1030/ Canaan1030 - 1035) could be thebiblicalname Canaan[29]or Airan(Heidram9th century), the Germanicmasculine name Hairammus.[30]The Bessin examples are clear. f.e. Ouistreham(Oistreham1086),

trham(Oesterham1350 ?),[31]Huppain(*Hubbehain; Hubba's"home"), Surrain(Surrehain11thcentury), etc. Another significant
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-28https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canehanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-30https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouistrehamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tr%C3%A9hamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tr%C3%A9hamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huppainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huppainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huppainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huppainhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-31https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tr%C3%A9hamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tr%C3%A9hamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ouistrehamhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-30https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-29https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canehanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-28


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example can be found in theNorman onomastics: the

widespreadsurname Lecesne,[32]with variantspellings : Le Cesne, Lesne,Lecne and Cesne. It comes fromGallo-Romance *SAXINU "the

Saxon" > saisnein Old French.These examples are not derivedfrom more recent Anglo-Scandinavian toponyms, becausein that case they would have beennumerous in the Norman regions(pays de Caux, Basse-Seine,North-Cotentin) settled by theNordic peoples. That is not the

case, nor does Bessin belong tothe pagii,which were affected byan important wave of Anglo-Scandinavian immigration.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomasticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lecesne&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-32https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-32https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lecesne&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onomastics


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In addition, archeological finds addevidence to the documents and the

results of toponymic research. Allaround the city of Caenand in theBessin (Vierville-sur-Mer, Bnouville, Giverville, Hrouvillette), excavations have shown

numerous Anglo-Saxon jewellery,design elements, settings andweapons. All these things werediscovered in cemeteries in acontext of the 5th, 6th and 7thcenturies AD.[33][34]The oldest and most spectacularSaxon site found in France to dateis Vron, in Picardy. There,

archeologists excavated a largecemetery with tombs dating fromthe Roman Empire until the 6thcentury. Furniture and other
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caenhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vierville-sur-Merhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vierville-sur-Merhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9nouville,_Calvadoshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Givervillehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9rouvillettehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9rouvillettehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-33https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picardyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picardyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vronhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-33https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-33https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9rouvillettehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9rouvillettehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Givervillehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A9nouville,_Calvadoshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vierville-sur-Merhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vierville-sur-Merhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caen


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gravegoods, as well as the humanremains, revealed a group of

people buried in the 4th and 5thcenturies AD. Physically differentfrom the usual local inhabitantsfound before this period, theyinstead resembled the Germanic

populations of the north. At thebeginning (4th century) 92% wereburied, sometimes with typicalGermanic weapons. Then, theywere ranked to the east, when theywere buried in the 5th and later tothe beginning of the 6th century. Astrong Anglo-Saxon influencebecame obvious in the middle of

the period, but it disappeared later.Archeological material,neighbouring toponymy, and textssupport the same conclusions:


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settlement of Saxon foederatiwiththeir families. Further

anthropological research by JolBlondiaux shows these peoplewere from Low Saxony.[35]Saxons in Britain[edit]

Alfred the GreatFurther information: Sub-RomanBritainandAnglo-Saxon settlementof Britain

Saxons, alongwith Angles, Frisiansand Jutes,invaded or migrated to the islandof Great Britain(Britannia) around
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the time of the collapse ofthe Western Roman Empire. Saxon

raiders had been harassing theeastern and southern shores ofBritannia for centuries before,prompting the construction of astring of coastal forts called

the Litora Saxonicaor SaxonShore. Before the end of Romanrule in Britannia, many Saxons andother folk had been permitted tosettle in these areas as farmers.According to tradition, the Saxons(and other tribes) first enteredBritain en masse as part of anagreement to protect

the Britonsfrom the incursions ofthe Picts, Gaelsand others. Thestory, as reported in such sourcesas the Historia
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Brittonumand Gildas, indicatesthat the British

king Vortigernallowed theGermanic warlords, later namedas Hengistand Horsaby Bede, tosettle their people on the Isle ofThanetin exchange for their

service as mercenaries. Accordingto Bede, Hengist manipulatedVortigern into granting more landand allowing for more settlers tocome in, paving the way for theGermanic settlement of Britain.Historians are divided about whatfollowed: some argue that thetakeover of southern Great Britain

by the Anglo-Saxonswaspeaceful.[citation needed]The knownaccount from a native Briton wholived in the mid-5th century
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Brittonumhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gildashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vortigernhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hengisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Thanethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Thanethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercenarieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxonshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Saxonshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercenarieshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Thanethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Thanethttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horsahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hengisthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vortigernhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gildashttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Brittonum


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AD, Gildas, described events as aforced takeover by armed attack:

For the fire...spread from sea tosea, fed by the hands of our foes inthe east, and did not cease, until,destroying the neighbouring townsand lands, it reached the other sideof the island, and dipped its redand savage tongue in the westernocean. In these assaults...all thecolumns were levelled with the

ground by the frequent strokes ofthe battering-ram, all thehusbandmen routed, together withtheir bishops, priests and people,whilst the sword gleamed, and the

flames crackled around them onevery side. Lamentable to behold,in the midst of the streets lay thetops of lofty towers, tumbled to the
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ground, stones of high walls, holyaltars, fragments of human bodies,

covered with livid clots ofcoagulated blood, looking as if theyhad been squeezed together in apress; and with no chance of beingburied, save in the ruins of the

houses, or in the ravening bellies ofwild beasts and birds; withreverence be it spoken for theirblessed souls, if, indeed, therewere many found who werecarried, at that time, into the highheaven by the holy angels... Some,therefore, of the miserableremnant, being taken in the

mountains, were murdered in greatnumbers; others, constrainedby famine, came and yieldedthemselves to be slaves for ever to
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their foes, running the risk of beinginstantly slain, which truly was the

greatest favour that could beoffered them: some others passedbeyond the seas with loudlamentations instead of the voice ofexhortation...Others, committing

the safeguard of their lives, whichwere in continual jeopardy, to themountains, precipices, thicklywooded forests and to the rocks ofthe seas (albeit with tremblinghearts), remained still in theircountry.

Gildas described how the Saxonswere later slaughtered at the battle

of Mons Badonicus44 years beforehe wrote his history, and Britainreverted to Romano-British rule.
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The 8th century Englishhistorian Bededisagreed with

Gildas, stating that the Saxoninvasions continued after the battleof Mons Badonicus, includingalso Jutishand Anglicexpeditions.He said these resulted in a swift

overrunning of the entirety ofSouth-Eastern Britain, and thefoundation of the Anglo-Saxonkingdoms.

Four separate Saxon realmsemerged:

1. East Saxons: createdthe Kingdom of Essex.

2. Middle Saxons: created theprovince of Middlesex

3. South Saxons: led by Aelle,created the Kingdom of Sussex
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4. West Saxons: createdthe Kingdom of Wessex

During the period of the reignsfrom Egbertto Alfred the Great, thekings of Wessex emergedas Bretwalda, unifying the country.They eventually organised it as thekingdom of England in the faceof Vikinginvasions.

Culture[edit]Social structure[edit]

Bede, a Northumbrianwritingaround the year 730, remarks that"the old (that is, the continental)Saxons have no king, but they are

governed byseveral ealdormen(or satrapa)who, during war, cast lots forleadership but who, in time of
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peace, are equal in power."The regnum Saxonumwas divided

into threeprovinces Westphalia, Eastphaliaand Angriawhich comprisedabout one hundred pagior Gaue.Each Gauhad its own satrap with

enough military power to levelwhole villages that opposed him.[36]In the mid-9th century, Nithardfirstdescribed the social structure of

the Saxons beneath their leaders.The caste structure was rigid; inthe Saxon languagethe threecastes, excluding slaves, werecalled the edhilingui(related to the

term aetheling), frilingiand lazzi.These terms weresubsequently Latinisedas nobilesor nobiliores; ingenui, ingenuilesor
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liberi;and liberti, litior serviles.[37]Accordi

ng to very early traditions that arepresumed to contain a good deal ofhistorical truth, the edhilinguiwerethe descendants of the Saxonswho led the tribe out

of Holsteinand during themigrations of the 6thcentury.[37]They were a conqueringwarrior elite.The frilingirepresented thedescendants ofthe amicii, auxiliariiand manumissiof that caste. The lazzirepresentedthe descendants of the original

inhabitants of the conqueredterritories, who were forced tomake oaths of submission and paytribute to the edhilingui.
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The Lex Saxonumregulated theSaxons' unusual society.

Intermarriage between the casteswas forbidden bythe Lex,and wergildswere setbased upon caste membership.The edhilinguiwere worth

1,440 solidi, or about 700 head ofcattle, the highest wergild on thecontinent; the price of a bride wasalso very high. This was six timesas much as that of the frilingiandeight times as much as the lazzi.The gulf between noble andignoble was very large, but thedifference between a freeman and

an indentured labourer wassmall.[38]According to the Vita Lebuiniantiqua, an important source for
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early Saxon history, the Saxonsheld an annual council

at Marklowhere they "confirmedtheir laws, gave judgment onoutstanding cases, and determinedby common counsel whether theywould go to war or be in peace that

year."[36]All three castesparticipated in the general council;twelve representatives from eachcaste were sent from each Gau. In782, Charlemagne abolished thesystem of Gaueand replaced itwith the Grafschaftsverfassung, thesystem ofcountiestypicalof Francia.[39]By prohibiting the

Marklo councils, Charlemagnepushed the frilingiand lazziout ofpolitical power. The old Saxonsystem
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ofAbgabengrundherrschaft,lordship based on dues and taxes,

was replaced by a formof feudalismbased on service andlabour, personal relationships andoaths.[40]Religion[edit]Paganism[edit]Saxon religious practices wereclosely related to their politicalpractices. The annual councils of

the entire tribe began withinvocations of the gods. Theprocedure by which dukes wereelected in wartime, by drawing lots,is presumed to have had religious

significance, i. e. in giving trust todivine providence it seems toguide the random decision
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making.[41]There were also sacredrituals and objects, such as the

pillars called Irminsul; these werebelieved to connect heaven andearth, as with other examples oftrees or ladders to heaven innumerous

religions. Charlemagnehad onesuch pillar chopped down in 772close to the Eresburgstronghold.Early Saxon religious practices in

Britain can be gleaned from placenames and the Germaniccalendarin use at that time. TheGermanic godsWoden, Frigg, Tiwand Thunor, who are attested to in

every Germanic tradition, wereworshipped in Wessex, Sussexand Essex. They are the only onesdirectly attested to, though the
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names of the third and fourthmonths (March and April) of

the Old English calendarbear thenames Hrethmonathand Eosturmonath, meaning "month of Hretha"and "month of ostre." It ispresumed that these are the

names of two goddesses who wereworshipped around thatseason.[42]The Saxons offeredcakes to their gods in February(Solmonath). There was a religiousfestival associated with theharvest, Halegmonath("holymonth" or "month of offerings",September).[43]The Saxon

calendar began on 25 December,and the months of December andJanuary were called Yule(or Giuli).They contained a Modra nihtor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Month#Old_English_calendarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hrethahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%92ostrehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-Stenton.2C_97.E2.80.9398-42https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-43https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yulehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yulehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-43https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-Stenton.2C_97.E2.80.9398-42https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%92ostrehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hrethahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Month#Old_English_calendar


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"night of the mothers", anotherreligious festival of unknown

content.The Saxon freemen and servileclass remained faithful to theiroriginal beliefs long after theirnominal conversion to Christianity.Nursing a hatred of the upperclass, which, with Frankishassistance, had marginalised themfrom political power, the lower

classes (theplebeiumvulgusor cives) were a problem forChristian authorities as late as 836.The Translatio S. Liboriiremarkson their obstinacy in pagan ritus et

superstitio(usage andsuperstition).[44]Christianity[edit]
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1868 illustration

of Augustineaddressing the SaxonsThe conversion of the Saxons inEngland from theiroriginal Germanicreligionto Christianityoccurred inthe early to late 7th century underthe influence of the alreadyconverted Jutesof Kent. In the630s, Birinusbecame the "apostle

to the West Saxons" andconverted Wessex, whose firstChristian king was Cynegils. TheWest Saxons begin to emerge from
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obscurity only with their conversionto Christianity and keeping written

records. TheGewisse, a WestSaxon people, were especiallyresistant to Christianity; Birinusexercised more efforts againstthem and ultimately succeeded in

conversion.[42]In Wessex, abishopricwas foundedat Dorchester. The South Saxonswere first evangelised extensivelyunder Anglianinfluence; Aethelwalh of Sussexwas convertedby Wulfhere, King of Merciaandallowed Wilfrid, Archbishop of York,to evangelise his people beginning

in 681. The chief South Saxonbishopric was that of Selsey.The East Saxonswere more paganthan the southern or western
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Saxons; their territory had asuperabundance of pagan

sites.[45]Their king, Saeberht, wasconverted early and a diocese wasestablished at London. Its firstbishop, Mellitus, was expelled bySaeberht's heirs. The conversion of

the East Saxons was completedunder Ceddin the 650s and 660s.The continental Saxons wereevangelised largely by English

missionaries in the late 7th andearly 8th centuries. Around 695,two early Englishmissionaries, Hewald theWhiteand Hewald the Black, were

martyred by the vicani, that is,villagers.[41]Throughout the centurythat followed, villagers and otherpeasants proved to be the greatest
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opponents of Christianisation, whilemissionaries often received the

support of the edhilinguiand othernoblemen. Saint Lebuin, anEnglishman who between 745 and770 preached to the Saxons,mainly in the eastern Netherlands,

built a church and made manyfriends among the nobility. Some ofthem rallied to save him from anangry mob at the annual council atMarklo. Social tensions arosebetween the Christianity-sympathetic noblemen and thepagan lower castes, staunchlyfaithful to their traditional religion.[46]

Under Charlemagne, the SaxonWarshad as their chief object theconversion and integration of theSaxons into the Frankish empire.
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Though much of the highest casteconverted readily, forced baptisms

and forced tithing made enemies ofthe lower orders. Even somecontemporaries found the methodsemployed to win over the Saxonswanting, as this excerpt from a

letter of Alcuin of Yorkto his friendMeginfrid, written in 796, shows:If the light yoke and sweet burdenof Christ were to be preached to

the most obstinate people of theSaxons with as muchdetermination as the payment oftithes has been exacted, or as theforce of the legal decree has been

applied for fault of the most triflingsort imaginable, perhaps theywould not be averse to theirbaptismal vows.[47]
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Charlemagne's successor, Louisthe Pious, reportedly treated the

Saxons more as Alcuin would havewished, and as a consequencethey were faithful subjects.[48]Thelower classes, however, revoltedagainst Frankish overlordship in

favour of their old paganism as lateas the 840s, whenthe Stellingarose up against theSaxon leadership, who were alliedwith the Frankish emperor Lothair I.After the suppression ofthe Stellinga, in 851 Louis theGermanbrought relicsfrom Rometo Saxony to foster a devotion to

the Roman CatholicChurch.[49]The Poeta Saxo, in hisverseAnnalesof Charlemagne'sreign (written between 888 and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_the_Pioushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_the_Pioushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-48https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellingahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothair_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_the_Germanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_the_Germanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-49https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poeta_Saxohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poeta_Saxohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-49https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Churchhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relicshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_the_Germanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_the_Germanhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lothair_Ihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellingahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-48https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_the_Pioushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_the_Pious


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891), laid an emphasis on hisconquest of Saxony. He celebrated

the Frankish monarch as on parwith the Roman emperors and asthe bringer of Christian salvation topeople. References are made toperiodic outbreaks of pagan

worship, especially of Freya,among the Saxon peasantry as lateas the 12th century.Christian literature[edit]

In the 9th century, the Saxonnobility became vigoroussupporters of monasticismandformed a bulwark of Christianityagainst the existing Slavic

paganismto the east andthe Nordic paganismofthe Vikingsto the north. Much
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=21https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monasticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_paganismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_paganismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_paganismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikingshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikingshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordic_paganismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_paganismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_paganismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monasticismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=21


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Christian literature was produced inthe vernacular Old Saxon, the

notable ones being a result of theliterary output and wide influence ofSaxon monasteries suchas Fulda, Corveyand Verden; andthe theological controversy

betweenthe AugustinianGottschalkandthe semipelagianRabanusMaurus.[50]

From an early date, Charlemagneand Louis the PioussupportedChristian vernacular works in orderto evangelise the Saxons moreefficiently. The Heliand, a verse

epic of the life of Christ in aGermanic setting, and Genesis,another epic retelling of the eventsofthe first book of the Bible, were
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Saxonhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_of_Fuldahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_of_Corveyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbey_of_Verden&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottschalk_(theologian)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semipelagianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabanus_Maurushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabanus_Maurushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-50https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_the_Pioushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesishttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_the_Pioushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-50https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabanus_Maurushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabanus_Maurushttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semipelagianismhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottschalk_(theologian)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippohttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abbey_of_Verden&action=edit&redlink=1https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_of_Corveyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_of_Fuldahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Saxon


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commissioned in the early 9thcentury by Louis to disseminate

scriptural knowledge to themasses. A council of Toursin 813and then a synod of Mainzin 848both declared that homiliesoughtto be preached in the vernacular.

The earliest preserved text in theSaxon language is a baptismal vowfrom the late 8th or early 9thcenturies; the vernacular was usedextensively in an effort toChristianise the lowest castes ofSaxon society.[51]

See also[edit]Ancient Germanic culture portal

List of Germanic tribes

Notes[edit]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homilyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-51https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Germanic_culturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Germanic_culturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Germanic_tribeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mjollnir_icon.pnghttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=23https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Germanic_tribeshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Germanic_culturehttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxons&action=edit&section=22https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_note-51https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homilyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainzhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tours


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1. Jump up^ Haydn Middleton(1 June 2001). Romans, Anglo-

Saxons & Vikings in Britain.Heinemann. pp. 7. ISBN978-0-431-10209-2. Retrieved 19October 2012.

2. Jump up^ Simon Young,

"AD 500 A journey through thedark isles of Britain and Ireland"p. 36, Phoenix 2006

3. Jump up^ Mark Thomas;

Michael Stumpf; Heinrich Hrke(July 18, 2006). "Germans setup an apartheid-like society inBritain".

4. Jump up^ "New times and

old stories". LiteraryAppropriations of the Anglo-Saxons. p. 111 fn 14.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_ref-Middleton2001_1-0https://books.google.com/books?id=pcrqYA_vdX4C&pg=PA7https://books.google.com/books?id=pcrqYA_vdX4C&pg=PA7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-431-10209-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-431-10209-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_ref-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_ref-apartheid_3-0http://www.ucl.ac.uk/media/library/apartheidenglandhttp://www.ucl.ac.uk/media/library/apartheidenglandhttp://www.ucl.ac.uk/media/library/apartheidenglandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_ref-4https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_ref-4http://www.ucl.ac.uk/media/library/apartheidenglandhttp://www.ucl.ac.uk/media/library/apartheidenglandhttp://www.ucl.ac.uk/media/library/apartheidenglandhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_ref-apartheid_3-0https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_ref-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-431-10209-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-431-10209-2https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttps://books.google.com/books?id=pcrqYA_vdX4C&pg=PA7https://books.google.com/books?id=pcrqYA_vdX4C&pg=PA7https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_ref-Middleton2001_1-0


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5. Jump up^ RichardCarew, Survey of Cornwall,

1602. N.B. in revived Cornish,this would be transcribed, My nyvynnaf cows sowsnek. TheCornish word Emitmeaning"ant" (and perversely derived

from OE) is more commonlyused in Cornwall as of 2015 asslang to designate non-CornishEnglishmen.

6.Jump up^

Barber, David W.(1996). Bach, Beethoven Andthe Boys: Music History as itOught to be Taught. Sound andVision, Toro
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_ref-5https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Carew_(antiquary)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Carew_(antiquary)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Englishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_ref-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_ref-6https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Englishhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Carew_(antiquary)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Carew_(antiquary)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxons#cite_ref-5

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