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Ecology of Tropical Forest Systems Forest Vegetation Studies on the Foothills of Mt. Pangasugan, Leyte/ The Philippines Gerhard Langenberger Eschborn, 2000

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Page 1: Forest Vegetation Studies on the Foothills of Mt ... · PDF fileForest Vegetation Studies on the Foothills ... The vegetation on the foothills of Mt. Pangasugan, Leyte, The Philippines,

Ecology of Tropical Forest Systems

Forest VegetationStudies on the Foothillsof Mt. Pangasugan,Leyte/ The Philippines

Gerhard Langenberger

Eschborn, 2000

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TÖB publication number: F-II/10e

Published by: Deutsche Gesellschaft fürTechnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbHPostfach 5180D-65726 Eschborn, Germany

Responsible: Begleitprogramm Tropenökologie (TÖB)Tropical Ecology Support ProgramDr. Claus Baetkeemail: [email protected]

Author: Gerhard Langenberger, Friedhofstrasse 11, 66996Erfweiler, Germanyemail: [email protected]

Layout: Michaela Hammer

ISBN: 3-933984-

Nominal fee: 10,-DM

Produced by: TZ Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, D-64380 Rossdorf

© 2000 All rights reserved

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Preface

Tropical ecosystems are the essential life-sustaining basis for the majority of theEarth's human population. Human intervention is destroying the environment anddegrading natural resources at an alarming rate, increasingly jeopardising effortsto attain sustainable development and effectively alleviate poverty.The Tropical Ecology Support Program (TÖB) strives, in a developmentcooperation (DC) setting, to contribute to more effective processing, evaluationand implementation of the knowledge and experience gained on these issues.TÖB provides its services on a supraregional basis. The program is implementedby the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) on behalfof the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development(BMZ).TÖB supports, upon request, back-up studies on issues relating to tropicalecology. The program endeavours to further the development of concepts aimedat protecting and using tropical ecosystems sustainably. It also hopes thatinnovative tools can be derived from these concepts which can enhance theecological sustainability of DC projects.By incorporating scientific findings into advisory and consultancy activities, theprogram helps DC projects implement international agreements such as Agenda21 and the Convention on Biological Diversity, to which BMZ attaches greatimportance.It is pivotal to the design of the program that German and partner countryscientists work jointly on applications-oriented issues. TÖB thus makes animportant contribution to the practical training of counterparts and to theestablishment of tropical ecology expertise in partner countries.Through its publication series, TÖB makes the findings and recommendationsfor action that derive from its back-up studies accessible, in an understandableform, to the organisations and institutions operating in the developmentcooperation arena, and to a broader public with an interest in environment anddevelopment issues.

I. Hoven Dr. C. v. TuyllHead of Division:Environmental Policy, Protection of NaturalResources, Forestry; CSD, GDF

German Federal Ministry for EconomicCooperation and Development (BMZ)

Head of Division:Rural Development

Deutsche Gesellschaft fürTechnische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH

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Contents

I

Contents

FIGURES & TABLES .............................................................................. II

ABSTRACT............................................................................................III

1 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................. 1

2 NATURAL SETTINGS ...................................................................... 52.1 Geography of the Philippines and the Island of Leyte ................5

2.2 Geology and Soils ....................................................................7

2.3 Climate of the Study Area .........................................................8

3 RESULTS...................................................................................... 113.1 Methodology.......................................................................... 11

3.2 Plant Diversity ........................................................................ 12

3.3 Tree Species, Habitat, and Forest Types ................................. 16

3.4 Additional Observations Concerning the Management of

Native Tree Species ................................................................ 20

4 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................. 234.1 Reforestation with Native Species............................................ 23

5 REFERENCES ............................................................................... 27

APPENDICES ....................................................................................... 31Appendix 1: Glossary..................................................................... 31

Appendix 2: Species Encountered in the Study Area........................ 33

Appendix 3: Trees and Shrubs on the Foothills of Mt.

Pangasugan ............................................................................ 45

Appendix 4: Tree Species Suggested for Inclusion in the

Project´s Reforestation Scheme (Rainforestation)..................... 53

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Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines

II

Figures

Fig 1: The Island of Leyte and the Location of the Study Site .................... 6

Fig. 2: Climatic Diagram of ViSCA......................................................... 10

Fig. 3: Number of Genera of the Most Common Families ........................ 13

Fig. 4: Number of Species of the Most Common Families ...................... 14

Fig. 5: Plant Groups in the Study Plots ................................................... 15

Tables

Table 1: TOR of TÖB Project "Forest Vegetation Studies on the

Foothills of Mt. Pangasugan" (PN: 90.2136.1-03.107) ................ 4

Table 2: The Occurrence of Dry Periods with a Duration of three

months or more since 1976....................................................... 9

Table 3: Plant Groups in the Study Plots................................................. 15

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Abstract

III

Abstract

The vegetation on the foothills of Mt. Pangasugan, Leyte, The Philippines,

has been studied along an environmental gradient from ridge to stream bank.

On an overall area of 4900 m2 representing 49 plots, 687 vascular plant

species belonging to 111 families and 286 genera could be identified

(epiphytes were excluded). About 58 % of the species were trees. A list of

all plants identified to species level is given in appendix2.

The studied area offers a large source of native species for reforestation.

Many species show clear preferences in habitat, which means that a careful

selection of species for reforestations is required. To ensure sustainable and

economically successful reforestations with native species a lot of research

is still needed. This is especially true for species identification in the field,

the ecology of species, like habitat, growth dynamics, plant-animal

interactions, and finally on the management of mixed species reforestations.

A country-wide system of systematic species trials is suggested.

Key words: vegetation studies, native tree species, habitat requirements,

reforestation, Philippines.

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Introduction

1

1 Introduction

During the last decades the Philippines has experienced extensive forest

destruction. The island of Leyte, the location of this study, lost about 45 %

or 77 000 ha of its forests between the years 1969 to 1984 (Forest

Management Bureau, 1987), reducing forest cover to a mere 10 % (Asio

1996) (Fig. 1). In 1987, the Forest Management Bureau calculated that a per

capita forest cover of 0.3 ha would be necessary to satisfy the population’s

needs for wood products on a sustained base. In 1980, the forest cover on

Leyte was 0.04 ha per person. Even without extrapolating the trend to the

present day, the situation is obvious. Apart from the ecological

consequences of forest destruction, serious economic problems have arisen

for local communities because the main raw material for construction, tools,

etc. has become a limited resource. Therefore, in 1990, the governments of

The Philippines and the Federal Republic of Germany established the

"Philippine-German Environmental Research and Development

Program" (PN 88.2122.5-01.100) which later on became the "ViSCA-

gtz Applied Tropical Ecology Program" (PN 95.2290.5-001.00). The

project is based at the Visayas State College of Agriculture (ViSCA) in

western Leyte.

The overall goal of the project is:

`to improve the ecological conditions in Leyte in order to uplift the

socio-economic life of the rural poor ‘.

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Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines

2

To achieve this goal the project developed a wide range of activities which

can be grouped into three categories

• education: covering environmental education and training, the

development of a curriculum on ecology for ViSCA, and the provision

of instructional material. The organisation of farmer communities can

also be included in this point.

• research: focusing on marine and terrestrial ecosystems

• application: e.g. the establishment of a marine sanctuary, island

development, eco livelihood activities, and reforestation with native

species.

The author’s study can be described as a combination of basic research

and applied research with the intention of supporting the project’s

reforestation activities of which the aim is to:

• create stable and sustainable forests with

• indigenous and locally adapted tree species, thus to help

• preserve local biodiversity and

• generate income for local communities and farmers.

The problem with such an approach is that the ecology of local forests is

still poorly understood. In contrast to the few highly recommended exotic

tree species which have been the focus of intense studies in the past (e.g.

Gmelina arborea or Swietenia macrophylla) very little is known about site

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Introduction

3

requirements, regrowth mechanisms, nursery handling, etc. of indigenous

species. It was therefore the aim of the TÖB Project "Forest Vegetation

Studies on the Foothills of Mt. Pangasugan" (PN: 90.2136.1-03.107)

• to gain a better understanding of the vegetation and ecology of

primary forests,

• to identify native tree species suitable for reforestation and to

describe their habitat requirements,

• to support further biodiversity studies at ViSCA by the

establishment of a herbarium.

The study has been set up as a cooperation between the University of

Freiburg, Section Vegetation Science, and the ViSCA-gtz Applied Tropical

Ecology Program. At ViSCA the Dept. of Plant Protection / Herbarium, the

Dept. of Soil Science and the Dept. of Forestry were involved. The terms of

reference (TOR) are given in Table 1.

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Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines

4

Table 1: TOR of TÖB Project "Forest Vegetation Studies on the

Foothills of Mt. Pangasugan" (PN: 90.2136.1-03.107)

TOR Expected Results Achievement

1 Establishment of a herbarium for

ViSCA and the Philippine

National Herbarium;

List of species is submitted

Over 2000 plant numbers have

been collected and handed over

to the Dept. of Plant Breeding /

Herbarium

2 Forest Types and Correlations are

described

Will be published as a PhD thesis

3 Mapping of Forest Types and

Site Characteristics

Due to rugged relief of the area

not feasible

4 General Data Analysis and

Evaluation in the Context of

Reforestation Activities

Presented in this booklet

5 Involvement of local counterparts Support of the Herbarium staff

Support of the nursery activities

of the ‘Cienda - San Vincente

Farmer Community’

The involvement of local students

failed

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Natural Settings

5

2 Natural Settings

2.1 Geography of the Philippines and the Island of Leyte

(Fig. 1)

The Philippine Archipelago

Location: 4°23´ - 21°30´ N

116° - 126° E

N-S extent: 1850 km

E-W extent: 965 km

No. of islands: 7107

Land surface: ~300 000 km2

Inhabitants: ~65 mil in 1989

~86 mil in 2000 (estimate)

The Island of Leyte

Location: 9°55´ - 10°48´ N

124°17´ - 125°18´ E

N-S extent: ~214 km

E-W extent: ~25 km (smallest part)

Land surface: ~8000 km2

Inhabitants: ~1,5 mil

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Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines

6

The study area is located on the western slopes of Mt. Pangasugan, western

Leyte, about 8 km north of the town of Baybay.

Fig. 1: The Island of Leyte, Change of Forest Cover, and Location of theStudy Site (according to Asio 1996, slightly altered)

Leyte

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Natural Settings

7

2.2 Geology and Soils1

Parent material: basaltic-andesitic breccia

Soil type: haplic Andosol with rudic phase

(covered by forest between 370-520 m )

pH (KCl): low (3,5 - 4,7)

Nutrient status: good

Available phosphorus: low

Drainage: good

The Philippines are part of the ‘ring of fire`, a volcanic belt resulting from

the collision of the Philippine Plate with the Eurasian Plate that stretches

around the Pacific Ocean (Press & Siever 1994). Along these lines of

collision (convergence zones) volcanic activity extrudes basaltic and

andesitic lava which forms the geological basis.

The Island of Leyte is characterised by the Leyte Cordillera, which is part of

the Philippine Fault Line and which runs from north to south. Mt.

Pangasugan is slightly higher than the surrounding peaks with about 1150 m

elevation. The island shows the typical rugged relief of young land surfaces

(Small 1978). Occasional earthquakes and the existence of hot spots show

that the island is still volcanically active. Leyte is thus dominated by volcanic

parent material, although limestone outcrops occur. In the studied area, on

west exposed slopes between 370 and 520 m parent material is basaltic and

andesitic breccia. The soil resulting from this parent material is a haplic

Andosol with rudic phase (Zikeli 1998). It is best developed along slopes,

1 Soil Classification according to FAO/UNESCO (1974, 1988).

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Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines

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while it becomes rather shallow on ridges and lower slopes which lead into

ravines. Andosols are young volcanic soils. They are nutrient rich compared

to most other tropical soils, and show good physical properties for plant

growth (Richards 1996). Due to the content of Allophans (specific clay

minerals) Andosols are highly prone to landslides, especially when they are

soaked with water.

Despite the difficult accessibility and very steep slopes (30°-50°), these

soils are increasingly becoming the focus of shifting cultivation. This is

because of high unemployment rates and the poor economic situation of

many people.

At lower elevations (100 m ) soils covered by secondary vegetation have

been described as orthic Acrisols with inclusions of humic Acrisols, and

Dystric Nitosols (Asio 1996). Acrisols and Nitosols are also the result of

volcanic parent material, but are much more weathered and developed, and

thus less nutrient rich than Andosols. But they still offer good physical

properties for plant growth. These sites are easily accessible and used as

residential areas, for agriculture, coconut plantations, etc.

2.3 Climate of the Study Area

Average Rainfall: ~ 2600 mm

Annual Variation of Rainfall: 1775 - 3598 mm

Average Temperature: ~ 27° C

Typhoons: ~ 3 in 5 years (Kintanar 1984)

Dry Periods: ~ every three years

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Natural Settings

9

The climate of western Leyte can be classified as ‘humid, rain evenly

distributed throughout the year with at most three dry months` (Kintanar

1984). Nevertheless, the amount of annual precipitation as well as its

distribution throughout the year is very variable. Although the mean values

of monthly rainfall do not show a dry season (Fig. 4), dry periods of several

months duration with less than 100 mm rainfall occurred (Table 2). Of the

272 months in which rainfall was recorded, 56 months (21 %) had less than

100 mm and22 months (8 %) even less than 50 mm of rainfall. According to

Walsh (1996), the latter must be classified as drought months. Dry periods

with a duration of three months or more occurred in intervals of ca. 3 years

(Langenberger & Reif 1998).

Another important climatic factor are tropical cyclones which are a common

feature of the area. Between 1948 and 1982 an average of three cyclones in

five years have been recorded (Kintanar 1984). Cyclones often occur as

typhoons, which result in heavy damage to the forest, like crown or stem

breaks or uprooting of whole trees (Walsh 1996). Heavy rainfalls connected

to most typhoons trigger numerous landslides which are a typical feature of

Mt. Pangasugan area.

Table 2: The Occurrence of Dry Periods with a Duration of three monthsor more since 1976 (Langenberger & Reif 1998)

Date Average monthly precipitation

February-May 1981 72,9 mmFebruary-May 1983 17,8 mm (May with 5,2 mm)March-June 1987 32,4 mm (April-June with an average of 12,9 mm)February-April 1990 56,9 mmJanuary-May 1992 36,5 mm (May with 4.8 mm)February-May 1995 79,4 mm (March with 102 mm)February-August 1998 68,4 mm (August last available data)

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Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines

10

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

mmJa

nuar

y

Feb

ruar

y

Mar

ch

Apr

il

Mai

June

July

Aug

ust

Sept

embe

r

Oct

ober

Nov

embe

r

Dec

embe

rFig. 2: Climatic Diagram of ViSCA

ViSCA (7m) Temp: ~27° Rainfall: ~2600 mm (22 years of observation)

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Results

11

3 Results

3.1 Methodology

49 plots of 100 m2 were analysed using a stratified sampling method. The

plots were arranged from ridge to lower slope and along the stream banks

of Kalbiga-a and Paghubasan Creek. All plots except some along the stream

banks were located in primary old growth forest. Due to easy access, the

original forest cover of the lower reaches of the streams was destroyed by

logging and kaingin making (shifting cultivation), and replaced by secondary

forest.

All flowering plants, ferns, and fern allies except epiphytes have been

recorded using a ‘nested quadrat design’ (Kent & Coker 1992). Plants

higher than 2.5 m were recorded on the whole plot (100 m2). Subplots of 25

m2 were used for the inventory of plants smaller than 2.5 m. Identification is

based on literature, and on the collections of the Philippine National

Herbarium (PNH) in Manila and the Rijksherbarium in Leiden (L), The

Netherlands. Apart from the support by the staff of the mentioned Herbaria,

Leonardo Co from Siliman University in Manila shared his great knowledge

on Philippine vegetation.

Six height strata were defined to gather data on the vertical structure of the

stands. Within each strata, vegetation coverage was estimated. The ‘ground

vegetation’ was represented in the strata up to 0.5 m (U1) and up to 2.5 m

(U2).. Four strata` (T1-T4) covered the plants taller than 2.5 m up to the

canopy. In addition, abundance and coverage for every species were

estimated (For results see Langenberger in preparation).

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Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines

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3.2 Plant Diversity

It has often been stated that Philippine forests are dominated by

dipterocarps. This is due to the huge biomass and the immense volumes of

exploitable timber which were mainly made up of dipterocarps - these

accounted for 70-90% of basal area on Mindanao for

example(Lamprecht 1989). When it comes to species diversity, however,

the Dipterocarpaceae family plays a minor role. Within the 49 plots

representing an area of 0.49 ha, 687 species representing 111 families and

286 genera could be identified. Appendix 2lists all plants that could be

identified to species level (plus some from outside the plots). A few genera

where no species could clearly be identified are also included. The

Rubiaceae family - followed by the Euphorbiaceae - contributed by far the

most genera (20 and 15 respectively) (Fig. 3) and species (35 and 32

respectively) (Fig. 4). The Dipterocarpaceae were represented by 6 genera

(seventh place together with the Annonaceae and Arecaceae (Palmae)) and

18 species (again seventh place together with the Annonaceae).

All plants have been classified into eight plant groups (Table 3, Fig. 5)

which were thought to be suitable to illustrate vegetation composition to the

non-scientist. Erect palms, usually included in the ‘life form’ of trees, have

been kept separately because they form a distinct feature of the forest.

Herbaceous plants, grasses and sedges, as well as ferns and fern allies were

assumed to reflect site conditions, and were therefore also treated as two

separate groups. Climbing and creeping plants were kept together, because

most creepers are juvenile climbers, waiting for the chance (light) to

eventually grow up into the canopy. Rattans are listed separately from the

climbers because they are an important non-timber forest product (NTFP)

and are especially affected by gathering.

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Results

13

20

15

10

9

9

8

8

7

7

6

6

6

5

5

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

0 10 20 30

Rubiaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Leguminosae

Annonaceae

Araceae

Meliaceae

Sapindaceae

Urticaceae

Lauraceae

Arecaceae

Dipterocarpaceae

Anacardiaceae

Zingiberaceae

Commelinaceae

Moraceae

Myrtaceae

Sterculiaceae

Araliaceae

Rutaceae

Vitaceae

Gesneriaceae

Fig 3: Number of Genera of the Most Common Families

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Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines

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Fig. 4: Number of Species of the Most Common Families

35

32

28

27

27

23

22

18

18

17

15

15

15

12

10

9

9

9

9

9

8

8

8

0 10 20 30 40

Rubiaceae

Euphorbiaceae

Arecaceae

Meliaceae

Moraceae

Leguminosae

Urticaceae

Annonaceae

Dipterocarpaceae

Lauraceae

Araceae

Sapindaceae

Myrtaceae

Clusiaceae

Sterculiaceae

Anacardiaceae

Araliaceae

Rutaceae

Myristicaceae

Sapotaceae

Zingiberaceae

Vitaceae

Burseraceae

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Results

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Table 3: Plant Groups in the Study Plots

Plant Groups No. of Species %

Trees 398 57,9Shrubs 34 4,9Erect Palms 12 1,7Grasses & Sedges 4 0,6Herbs 67 9,8Ferns & Fern Allies 56 8,2Climbers & Creepers 100 14,6Climbing Palms (Rattan) 16 2,3

687 100,0

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Fig. 5: Plant Groups in the Study Plots

%

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Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines

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3.3 Tree Species, Habitat, and Forest Types

Many species showed much clearer habitat preferences than expected. Four

categories of species were defined:

1. species restricted to or concentrated along the ridge,

2. species growing along the slope, avoiding the ridge and stream

banks,

3. species restricted to stream banks,

4. species occurring from the ridge to the lower slope but absent

from stream banks.

Species restricted to slopes preferred the middle slope. The upper and

lower slopes thus formed a sort of a transition zone between the three main

habitats:

1. ridge

2. slope

3. stream bank

Changes in plant composition took place in rather short intervals. Slopes are

often not longer than 100 m before ending in a ravine. This stresses the

importance of micro habitats.

Confined to the ridge were smaller trees like Olea borneensis, Melientha

suavis or Helicia loranthoides (Tarang)2. Big trees along the ridge were

Hopea plagata (Yakal saplungan) and Wallaceodendron celebicum

(Banuyo). The large dipterocarp emergent tree Shorea polysperma (Tangile)

2 Names in brackets are the common official names names according to Salvosa (1963).

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Results

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also showed its main distribution along the ridge at an elevation of 450 - 550

m.

Species mainly occurring on slopes were the undergrowth tree

Dolicholobium philippense, or the medium sized Knema glomerata

(Tambalau), Kibatalia blancoi (Pasnit) and Diospyros pyrrhocarpa

(Anang). The large dipterocarp Shorea squamata (Mayapis) was also

obviously thriving best on middle slopes.

The original forest cover along the lower reaches of the streams has been

replaced by secondary forest. The few big trees which can nowadays be

found are fast growing pioneers, and some remnants of the former lowland

forest, species such as Terminalia microcarpa (Kalumpit), Octomeles

sumatrana (Binuang) or Duabanga moluccana (Loktob). But mostly, the

streams at lower altitudes are covered by shrubs and small trees, for

example Sterculia stipulata, or Bridelia glauca (Balitahan). The

Euphorbiaceae family is also well represented with Neotrewia cumingii

(Apanang), Macaranga spp. and Mallotus spp.

Two common species which could not be observed along streams were the

medium sized Calophyllum blancoi (Bitanghol) and Diospyros blancoi

(Kamagong).

The following paragraphs try to give an overview of the forest types of the

area. This is based on the classification by Whitford (1911), whose

descriptions of ecological species perfectly fit the local conditions.

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Beach Forest

This forest type once covered the sandy beaches above high tide level. It

has been replaced by coconut stands and settlements. Scattered members

of this forest type can still be found along the coast, e.g. Calophyllum

inophyllum (Bitaog), Terminalia catappa (Talisay) or Pandanus spp.

Lauan-Hagakhak Type

Behind the Beach Forest, on the coastal plain and along the lower slopes of

the foothills up to perhaps 200 m, the Lauan-Hagakhak Forest Type very

likely dominated. Typical members of this type can still be found as isolated

individuals, like Dipterocarpus validus (Hagakhak), Pterocarpus indicus

(Narra), Cananga odorata (Ilang-Ilang), Koordersiodendron pinnatum

(Amugis), Terminalia nitens (Sakat), Dracontomelon dao (Dao), Toona

calantas (Kalantas), Erythrina subumbrans (Dapdap) or Octomeles

sumatrana (Binuang). Local loggers reported that in earlier times, tall

Dracontomelon dao (Dao) and Vitex parviflora (Molave) grew on the flood

plains and the slopes at lower elevations. Nowadays, this habitat is used for

rice fields and agriculture. This type has most likely gradually been replaced

by the Yakal-Lauan Type at about 200 to 300 m - depending on the relief.

Yakal-Lauan Type

The Yakal-Lauan forest is the first type which can still be studied ‘in situ’. It

is best developed along upper slopes and ridges between 300 and 400 m.

Common species are Hopea plagata (Yakal Saplungan), Shorea contorta

(White Lauan), Parashorea plicata (Bagtikan), Shorea guiso (Guijo),

Shorea squamata (Mayapis) and Maranthes corymbosa (Liusin).

Additionally, members of the Molave Type, a dry forest over limestone,

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can be found like Vitex parviflora (Molave), Heritiera sylvatica (Dungon),

Kingiodendron alternifolium (Batete) or Wallaceodendron celebicum

(Banuyo).

Tangile-Oak Type

Above 400 to 450 m and closer to the mountain with probably more rainfall,

the forest can be classified as Tangile-Oak Type. Shorea polysperma

(Tangile), Vatica mangachapui (Narig), Cinnamomum mercadoi

(Kaningag), Tristania decorticata (Malabayabas) and Lithocarpus spp. are

common. Exceptionally tall Shorea polysperma (Tangile) are a

characteristic feature of this forest. This type can be found up to about 600

m.

The elevation range between 600 m and about 800 m is extremely steep, and

only few small and stunted trees can survive there along the narrow ridges

which lead to the summit. At about 500 m Acer laurinum (Baliag) which is

described for montane rainforests (Balgooy 1998) or even the transition zone

to mossy forest (Weidelt et al. 1982) occurs. This is the result of a

phenomenon called the "telescope effect" (Van Steenis 1972, cited in Jacobs

1988). This means that forest formations which can be found at high

elevations on high mountains occur at much lower elevations on corres-

pondingly smaller mountains. This is the explanation for the occurrence of

Mossy Forest at the rather low elevation of about 800 to 900 m.. This forest

type, which also covers the summit, has not been assessed.

Nevertheless, this classification can not hide the fact that a clear delimitation

of forest types in the field is hardly possible. The transitions are fluid and

depend on changes in micro-habitat. The only exception to this is the

vegetation covering the very common land slides. In a later successional

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stage they can still be recognised by the occurrence of typical pioneers, like

Casuarina rumphiana (Mountain Agoho) or Cyathea spp. (tree ferns). As

shifting cultivation at higher elevations and on steep slopes seems to have

been started only recently, its impact on vegetation and plant succession is

difficult to assess, but erosion rates must be extremely high.

It is obvious that water plays an important role in the local ecosystem,

although physical and chemical soil properties are favourable to plant

growth. Ridges and most lower slopes which tend to become steeper

before changing into ravines show very shallow soils and thus low water

retention capacity. Additionally, ridges are exposed to permanent winds

which increase water losses through evapotranspiration. This can explain the

occurrence of species described for rather dry habitats like the Molave

forest.

Appendix 3 lists most encountered trees and shrubs with their habitat.

3.4 Additional Observations Concerning the Management

of Native Tree Species

Growth Habit

Descriptions of the growth habit of native tree species are generally based

on observations in primary forests. Experience with growth characteristics

of native species in reforestations scarcely exists. It is important to realise

that the performance in man-made forests may differ strongly from that in

primary forests. While in primary forests many species show long, straight,

and thus technically valuable boles, the same species might develop a shrub-

like appearance in reforestations. Dipterocarps, for example, develop one

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vertical terminal shoot no matter what light conditions exist. Legume trees

(e.g. Kingiodendron alternifolium (Batete) or Afzelia rhomboidea

(Balayong)), however, often exhibit a shrub-like appearance in

reforestations. This will seriously influence the economic value of a future

forest and must therefore be controlled and managed.

Parasites and Pests

Not only exotic tree species are susceptible to pests and diseases. During a

mass fruiting of dipterocarps in 1997, Shorea squamata (Mayapis) showed

a massive fruit shedding caused by boring beetles which reduced the

available fruits for collection and propagation. In the ViSCA-gtz nursery,

dipterocarps could be observed being attacked by insects feeding on the

leaves (Shorea almon (Almon)), or destroying the terminal shoot (Shorea

contorta (White lauan)). Terminalia microcarpa, which thrives along the

streams at lower elevations, was reported to show serious losses when

planted in other habitats. Along a neighbouring ridge, the flowering plant and

root parasite Balanophora papuana was a common feature. It could not

be found in the study area and it was unclear to which species it was

connected. Nevertheless, it may also affect reforestations.

Human Impact

Although the study area showed little obvious human impact, the actual

influence of man on the ecosystem is difficult to evaluate. The lack of large

rattan despite the abundant occurrence of juveniles is obviously the

consequence of over-exploitation. Several encounters with hunters and their

prey showed that hunting pressure is high. Only very few birds of a small

number of species could be observed. Farmers reported that a larger

species diversity can nowadays only be found far from ViSCA. This

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reduction of seed dispersers will change the distribution patterns of plant

populations in the long term, because many species are dispersed by animal.

The rotting of animal dispersed fruits on the trees observed in the area(e.g.

Melientha suavis) might be one sign of this. Also worth mentioning are the

effects of collecting seedlings for reforestation. Some stands were nearly

completely stripped of their regenerative potential of valuable species. This

practice will influence regeneration patterns in primary forests in the long run

and is only justified if reforestations aim at self regenerating, sustainable

forests.

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4 Conclusions and Recommendations

4.1 Reforestation with Native Species

The Philippines are home to about 8 100 flowering plant species (DENR &

UNEP 1997), of which about 3000 are trees (De Guzman et. al. 1986). For

years reforestation activities focused on exotic species, while native forests

with their species adapted to local soil and climatic conditions continued to

disappear. As biodiversity awareness increased the idea of using native

species for reforestation evolved. But, "although native species are in

demand, information concerning their management is scarce" (Butterfield et.

al. 1994, p. 40). The little information available concentrates on the few

species used in plantations (e.g. Eucalyptus deglupta (Bagras) or Agathis

dammara (Almaciga); see Lamprecht 1989). Mixed stands with native

species are hardly studied yet. To manage such stands sustainably and

economically successfully, much more knowledge on the ecology of

species is needed. Appendix 4 suggests 25 tree species for inclusion in

reforestation activities, based on size, timber quality, and the use for river

bank stabilisation. Ecological aspects were not taken into account because

knowledge is too scarce. The following paragraphs try to name the most

urgent fields of future research and activities:

Identification of Species (and Local Varieties)

Proper identification of species is a prerequisite to analyse and compare

observations and experiences. Literature on Philippine species is not only

scarce and mostly outdated, for a lot of species a taxonomically proper

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identification is not even possible yet. Therefore:

• detailed illustrated species descriptions with a special focus on

vegetative characters (‘field characters’) are needed

Habitat and Soil Requirements

Site requirements and distribution patterns of species must be analysed:

• geographical occurrence and elevation range

• preferred habitat (ridge, slope, dry or wet places, etc.)

• preferred parent material and soil type

• local climatic conditions under which the species can be found

Growth Characteristics and Growth Rates

Depending on habitat, every species shows its own characteristic growth

pattern during its life cycle. For a comparison of pioneer and climax forest

species Whitmore (1998). For their management in reforestations it is very

important to know this characteristic pattern. It is therefore necessary to

study the

• regeneration habit

• light requirements at different stages of development

• growth rate at different stages of development

• growth under competition from other species

• dependency on mycorrhizae

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Ecological Importance

While the economic importance of species has been the focus of many

studies and publications (e.g. Brown 1941-46; Quisumbing 1978;

Soerianegara et al. 1994), the role species play within the forest ecosystem

has been neglected. Open questions for many species are:

• Who are the pollinators?

• How are seeds/fruits distributed?

• Which and how many animal species depend on the species as

food source, nesting place, etc.?

• What role does the species play in nutrient cycling?

Strategy

Funding for environmental studies is limited. Research priorities must

therefore be identified. It is suggested to develop an

evaluation system for species that is not only based on economic

criteria (timber value, etc.) but that also includes ecological aspects.

This is a difficult but nevertheless necessary task in order to be able to

proceed in a systematic way. The criteria needed to develop such a ranking

system can only be achieved by a team comprising the different interest

groups (e.g. farmers, traders, forest service, environmentalists, etc.). Based

on this evaluation, research should be focused on the most promising

species.

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A nation-wide, standardised concept of species trials is suggested to

study ecological as well as economic performance under defined

conditions, which allow the comparison of results and the definition of

the decisive parameters. Special attention should be given to locally

adapted populations of species.

Publication of Results

Last but not least, research must be published in a way that

a/ can be understood by all user groups, especially the non-scientists

b/ is accessible to everybody interested.

To establish man-made, ecologically stable forests is by no means an easy,

or short term task. Without a proper concept to improve knowledge

systematically, reforestations will always remain a game of chance.

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References

27

5 References

Anonymous (1977): The Philippines recommends for dipterocarps 1977:I. Lumber. Philippine Council for Agriculture and ResourcesResearch, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 125 pp.

Asio, V.B. (1996): Characteristics, Weathering, Formation and Degradationof Soils from Volcanic Rocks in Leyte, Philippines. PhD Thesis.Hohenheimer Bodenkundliche Hefte, Heft 33. UniversitaetHohenheim, Stuttgart. 209 pp.

Baillie, I.C. (1996): Soils of the humid tropics. In: Richards, P.W (ed.) TheTropical Rainforest. Cambridge University Press. Pp. 256-286.

Balgooy, van M.M.J. (1998): Malesian Seed Plants Vol. 2 - Portraits ofTree Families. Rijksherbarium / Hortus Botanicus, Leiden, TheNetherlands. 307 pp.

Braun-Blanquet, J. (1964): Pflanzensoziologie. Springer Verlag, Wien. 865pp.

Brown, W.H. (1941-46): Useful Plants of the Philippines. 3 Vols. Bureauof Science, Manila, Philippines.

Butterfield, P.R. & Fisher, R.F. (1994): Untapped Potential: Native Speciesfor Reforestation. Journal of Forestry 92(6): 37-40.

De Guzman, E.D., Umali, R.M. & Sotalbo, E.D. (1986): Guide toPhilippine Flora and Fauna: Non-Dipterocarps. Natural ResourcesManagement Center, Ministry of Natural Resources & Univ. of thePhilippines. JMC Press, Quezon City, Philippines. 414 pp.

DENR & UNEP (1997): Philippine Biodiversity: An Assessment andAction Plan. Bookmark, Makati City, Philippines. 298 pp.

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FAO/UNESCO (1974): Soil Map of the World 1:5 000 000. I. Legend.UNESCO, Paris.

FAO/UNESCO (1988): Soil Map of the World. Revised Legend. WorldSoil Resources Report 60. FAO, Rome.

Forest Management Bureau (1987): Forest Resources of Region 8.Philippine-German Forest Resources Inventory Project.

Heaney, L.R.; Heideman, P.D.; Rickart, E.A.; Utzurrum, R.B. & Klompen,J.S.H. (1989): Elevational zonation of mammals in the centralPhilippines. Journal of Tropical Ecology 5: 259-80.

Jahn, G. (1982): Introduction. In: Jahn, G. (ed.) Application of VegetationScience to Forestry. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague. Pp. 1-14.

Jacobs, M. (1988): The Tropical Rain Forest: A first encounter. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. 295 pp.

Keenan, R.; Lamb, D.; Woldring, O.; Irvine, T. & Jensen, R. (1997):Restoration of plant biodiversity beneath tropical tree plantations inNorthern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 99: 117-31.

Kent, M. & Coker, P. (1992): Vegetation Description and Analysis.Belhaven Press, London. 363 pp.

Kintanar, R.L. (1984): Climate of the Philippines. Pagasa, September 1984.38 pp.

Lamb, D. (1997): Biodiversity Restoration by Plantation. Tropical ForestUpdate 7(2): 3-5.

Lamprecht, H. (1989): Silviculture in the Tropics. Deutsche Gesellschaftfuer Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH, Eschborn. 296 pp.

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Langenberger, G. & Reif, A. (1998): Vegetation Studies on the Foothills ofMt. Pangasugan, Leyte, Philippines, Part II: Forest Structure and LifeForms. Paper presented during the’ International Conference onApplied Tropical Ecology`, 8-10 September 1998, ViSCA, Leyte,Philippines.Proceedings in preperation

Langenberger, G. (1997): Vegetation Studies on the Foothills of Mt.Pangasugan, Leyte, Philippines: Preliminary results on the Occurrenceof Woody Taxa. Paper presented during the ‘InternationalConference on Reforestation with Philippine Species’ held inTacloban, Leyte, March 3-6, 1997.

Lemmens, R.H.M.J.; Soerianegara, I. & Wong, W.C. (1995): PlantResources of South-East Asia No 5 (2). Timber trees: Minorcommercial timbers. Bogor, Indonesia. 655 pp.

Merrill, E.D. (1923-26): An Enumeration of Philippine Flowering Plants.Vol. 1-4. Manila, Bureau of Printing.

Mueller-Dombois, D. & Ellenberg, H. (1974): Aims and Methods ofVegetation Ecology. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 547 pp.

Press, R. & Siever, R. (1994): Understanding Earth. Freeman andCompany, New York, 593 pp.

Quisumbing, E. (1978): Medicinal Plants of the Philippines. KathaPublishing Co., Inc., Quezon City, Philippines. 1262 pp.

Richards, P.W. (1996): The Tropical Rainforest. Cambridge UniversityPress. 575 pp.

Salvosa, F.M. (1963): Lexicon of Philippine Trees. Forest ProductResearch Institute, College, Laguna, Philippines. 136 pp.

Schulz, J.P. (1960): Ecological Studies on Rain Forest in NorthernSurinam. North Holland, Amsterdam. 267 pp.

Small, R.J. (1978): The Study of Landforms. Cambridge Univ. Press,

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London. 502 pp. Soerianegara, I. & Lemmens, R.H.M.J. (1994):Plant Resources of South-East Asia No 5 (1). Timber trees: Majorcommercial timbers. Bogor, Indonesia. 610 pp.

Sosef, M.S.M.; Hong, L.T. & Prawirohatmodjo, S. (1998): PlantResources of South-East Asia No. 5 (3). Timber trees: Lesser-knowntimbers. Bogor, Indonesia. 859 pp.

Walsh, R.P.D. (1996): Climate. In: Richards, P.W. (ed.) The TropicalRainforest. Cambridge University Press. Pp. 159-205.

Walter, H. (1990): Vegetation und Klimazonen. Verlag Eugen Ulmer,Stuttgart. 382 pp.

Weidelt, H.J. & Banaag, V.S. (1982): Aspects of Management andSilviculture of Philippine Dipterocarp Forests. Philippine-GermanRain Forest Development Project, Eschborn, Germany. 302 pp.

Whitford, H.N. (1911): The Forests of the Philippines Part I: Forest Typesand Products. Bulletin N. 10, Dept. of the Interior, Bureau ofForestry, Manila, The Philippines. 94 pp.

Whitmore, T.C. (1985): Tropical rain forests of the Far East. Correctedreprint of the 1984 edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 352 pp.

Whitmore, T.C. (1998): An Introduction to Tropical Rain Forests. OxfordUniversity Press, Oxford. 282 pp.

Zikeli, S. (1998): Nutrient status and nutrient cycles of the tropicalrainforest, Mt. Pangasugan, Leyte, Philippines. Diploma thesis atthe Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Germany. 101 pp.

Zimmermann, M.H. & Brown, C.L. (1971): Trees Structure and Function.Springer Verlag, New York. 336 pp.

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Appendix

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Appendices

Appendix 1: Glossary

DA Department of Agriculture

DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources

Epiphyte A plant growing on other plants without being

parasitic.

GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Technische

Zusammenarbeit GmbH

Habitat The environmental conditions a species needs to

thrive.

Herbarium A collection of dried plants for documentation and

research, as well as the building or institute the

collection is located.

Life Form The growth strategy a species developed to compete

in the ecosystem, e.g. tree, shrub, liana, etc.

NEDA National Economic Development Authority

NTFP Non Timber Forest Products, e.g. rattan, herbs, etc.

Species Trial Systematic planting of species to test and compare

their performance under defined environmental

conditions.

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Stratified

Sampling Method

A method to collect information where plot size

depends on plant size. Here: all plants taller than 2.5 m

were studied in 10 m x 10 m plots, while smaller plants

were studied on 5 m x 5 m plots located within the

bigger one.

Succession The vegetational stages with their different plantsdeveloping after the new colonization (e.g. after alandslide), or the recolonisation of an area (e.g. afterclear cutting).

Taxonomy Science of classifying species.

TÖB Tropenökologisches Begleitprogramm = SupportProgram for Tropical Ecology

ViSCA Visayas State College of Agriculture

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Appendix 2: Species Encountered in the Study Area

Family Species

Aceraceae Acer laurinum Hassk.

Actinidiaceae Saurauia samarensis Merr.

Alangiaceae Alangium longiflorum Merr.

Amaranthaceae Deeringia polysperma (Roxb.) Moq.

Anacardiaceae Dracontomelon dao (Blco) Merr. & Rolfe

Anacardiaceae Dracontomelon edule (Blco.) Skeels

Anacardiaceae Koordersiodendron pinnatum (Blco) Merr.

Anacardiaceae Mangifera altissima Blco.

Anacardiaceae Rhus taitensis Guill.

Anacardiaceae Semecarpus cuneiformis Blco.

Annonaceae Alphonsea arborea (Blanco) Merr.

Annonaceae Anaxagorea javanica Bl.

Annonaceae Cananga odorata (Lamk.) Hook. f. & Thoms.

Annonaceae Goniothalamus elmeri Merr.

Annonaceae Meiogyne virgata (Bl.) Miq.

Annonaceae Papualthia cf. lanceolata (Vid.) Merr.

Annonaceae Popowia pisocarpa (Bl.) Endl.

Apocynaceae Alstonia macrophylla Wall. ex. G. Don

Apocynaceae Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.

Apocynaceae Kibatalia blancoi (Rolfe) Merr.

Apocynaceae Lepiniopsis ternatensis Val.

Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana pandacaqui Poir.

Apocynaceae Voacanga globosa (Blco.) Merr.

Araceae Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson

Araceae Pothos cylindricus Presl

Araceae Raphidophora korthalasii Schott

Araliaceae Arthrophyllum ahernianum Merr.

Araliaceae Osmoxylon trilobatum (Merr.) Philipson

Araliaceae Polyscias nodosa (Bl.) Seem.

Arecaceae Calamus spp.

Arecaceae Caryota cf. mitis Lour.

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Family Species

Arecaceae Daemonorops cf. mollis (Blco.) Merr.

Arecaceae Korthalsia laciniosa Mart.

Aristolochiaceae Aristolochia philippinensis Warb.

Asclepiadaceae Hoya multiflora Bl.

Aspidiaceae Ctenitis cf. silvatica Holttum

Aspidiaceae Didymochlaena cf. truncatula (Sw.) J. Sm.

Aspidiaceae Tectaria crenata Cav.

Aspleniaceae Asplenium nidus L.

Aspleniaceae Asplenium tenerum Forst.

Asteraceae Vernonia arborea Buch.-Ham.

Athyriaceae Athyrium asperum (Bl.) Milde

Athyriaceae Diplazium esculentum (Retz.)Sw.

Balanophoraceae Balanophora papuana Schltr.

Bignoniaceae Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent.

Bignoniaceae Radermachera pinnata (Blco.) Seem.

Burseraceae Canarium asperum Benth.

Burseraceae Canarium denticulatum Bl.

Burseraceae Canarium euryphyllum Perk.

Burseraceae Canarium gracile Engl.

Burseraceae Canarium hirsutum Willd.

Burseraceae Dacryodes rostrata (Bl.) H. J. Lam

Caprifoliaceae Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex Bl.

Casuarinaceae Casuarina rumphiana Miq.

Celastraceae Bhesa paniculata Arn.

Celastraceae Euonymus cochinchinensis Pierre

Celastraceae Euonymus javanicus Bl.

Celastraceae Lophopetalum javanicum (Zoll.) Turcz.

Chloranthaceae Chloranthus erectus (Buch.-Ham.) Verdc.

Chloranthaceae Sarcandra glabra (Thunb.) Nakai

Chrysobalanaceae Maranthes corymbosa Bl.

Clusiaceae Calophyllum blancoi Pl. & Tr.

Clusiaceae Calophyllum soulattri Burm. f.

Clusiaceae Cratoxylum formosum Benth. & Hook. f. ex Dyer

Combretaceae Terminalia microcarpa Decne.

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Family Species

Combretaceae Terminalia nitens Presl.

Commelinaceae Floscope scandens Lour.

Commelinaceae Forrestia hispida Less. & A. Rich.

Commelinaceae Pollia sorzogoniensis (E. Meyer) Steud.

Commelinaceae Pollia thyrsiflora (Bl.) Steud.

Commelinaceae Rhopalephora cf. vitiensis (Seem.) Fader

Connaracaceae Connarus semedicanthus Jack

Connaraceae Agelaea borneensis (Hook. f.) Merr.

Connaraceae Connarus culionensis Merr.

Connaraceae Ellipanthus tomentosus Kurz

Crypteroniaceae Crypteronia cumingii (Planch.) Planch. ex Endl.

Cunoniaceae Weinmannia sp.

Datiscaceae Octomeles sumatrana Miq.

Davalliaceae Davallia solida (G. Forst.) Sw.

Davalliaceae Davallia trichomanoides Bl.

Dilleniaceae Dillenia megalantha Merr.

Dilleniaceae Dillenia philippinensis Rolfe

Dilleniaceae Tetracera fagifolia Bl.

Dipterocarpaceae Parashorea malaanonan (Blco.) Merr.

Dipterocarpaceae Anisoptera thurifera Foxw.

Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpus gracilis Bl.

Dipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpus validus Bl.

Dipterocarpaceae Hopea acuminata Merr.

Dipterocarpaceae Hopea malibato Foxw. ex Elm.

Dipterocarpaceae Hopea philippinensis Dyer

Dipterocarpaceae Hopea plagata (Blco.) Vid.

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea almon Foxw.

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea assamica Dyer forma philippinensis (Brandis) Sym.

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea astylosa Foxw.

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea contorta Vid.

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea falciferoides Foxw.

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea guiso (Blco) Bl.

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea hopeifolia (Heim) Sym.

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea polysperma (Blco) Merr.

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Family Species

Dipterocarpaceae Shorea squamata (Turcz.) Dyer

Dipterocarpaceae Vatica mangachapui Blco.

Ebenaceae Diospyros blancoi A. DC.

Ebenaceae Diospyros cf. nitida Merr. or D. cf. wrayi King et Gamble

Ebenaceae Diospyros curranii Merr.

Ebenaceae Diospyros multibracteata Merr.

Ebenaceae Diospyros pilosanthera Blco.

Ebenaceae Diospyros pyrrhocarpa Miq.

Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus triflora Roxb. var. triflora

Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpus cumingii Turcz.

Euphorbiaceae Acalypha amentacea Roxb.

Euphorbiaceae Antidesma digitaliforme Tul.

Euphorbiaceae Antidesma nitidum Tul.

Euphorbiaceae Antidesma tomentosum Bl.

Euphorbiaceae Aporosa benthamiana Hook. f.

Euphorbiaceae Baccaurea tetrandra (Baill.) Müll. Arg.

Euphorbiaceae Bridelia glauca Bl.

Euphorbiaceae Cansjera rheedii J.F. Gmelin

Euphorbiaceae Claoxylon brachyandrum Pax & K. Hoffm.

Euphorbiaceae Cleistanthus cf. glaber Airy Shaw

Euphorbiaceae Cleistanthus sumatranus (Miq.) Müll. Arg.

Euphorbiaceae Codiaeum luzonicum Merr.

Euphorbiaceae Croton cascarilloides Raeusch.

Euphorbiaceae Drypetes bordenii (Merr.) Pax et Hoffm.

Euphorbiaceae Drypetes cf. megacarpa (Merr.) Pax & K. Hoffm.

Euphorbiaceae Glochidion rubrum Bl.

Euphorbiaceae Macaranga caudatifolia Elm.

Euphorbiaceae Macaranga grandifolia(Blcol.) Merr.

Euphorbiaceae Macaranga hispida (Bl.) Muell.-Arg.

Euphorbiaceae Macaranga tanarius (L.) Muell.-Arg.

Euphorbiaceae Mallotus cf. paniculatus (Lam.) Muell.-Arg.

Euphorbiaceae Mallotus floribundus (Bl.) Muell.-Arg.

Euphorbiaceae Mallotus lackeyi Elm.

Euphorbiaceae Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg.

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Family Species

Euphorbiaceae Melanolepis multiglandulosa (Reinw.) Reichb. f. & Zoll.

Euphorbiaceae Neotrewia cumingii (Muell.-Arg.) Pax & Hoffm.

Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus leytensis Elm.

Euphorbiaceae Suregada glomerulata (Hassk.) Jones

Fagaceae Lithocarpus buddii (Merr.) A. Camus

Fagaceae Lithocarpus caudatifolia (Merr.) Rehd.

Fagaceae Lithocarpus coopertus (Blco) Rehd.

Flacourtiaceae Casearia cf. mindanaensis Merr.

Flacourtiaceae Casearia grewiaefolia Vent. var. gelonioides (Bl.) Sleum.

Flacourtiaceae Flacourtia cf ramontchi L´Herit.

Flacourtiaceae Osmelia philippina (Turcz.) Benth.

Flagellariaceae Flagellaria indica L.

Gesneriaceae Monophyllaea merrilliana Kranzl.

Gesneriaceae Pentaphragma grandiflorum

Gesneriaceae Rhynchoglossum obliquum Bl.

Gnetaceae Gnetum gnemon L. var. gnemon

Gnetaceae Gnetum latifolium Bl.

Hamamelidaceae Sycopsis dunnii Hemsl.

Hernandiaceae Illigera luzoniensis (Presl) Merr.

Hymenophyllaceae Trichomanes javanicum Bl.

Icacinaceae Gomphandra cumingiana (Miers) F.-Vill.

Icacinaceae Gonocaryum calleryanum (Baill.) Becc.

Icacinaceae Miquelia celebica Bl.

Icacinaceae Platea excelsa Bl. var. borneensis (Heine) Sleum.

Ixonanthaceae Ixonanthes petiolaris Bl.

Juglandaceae Engelhardia serrata Bl.

Labiatae Cyrtandra angularis Elm.

Labiatae Cyrtandra glaucescens Kränzl.

Lamiaceae Gomphostemma javanicum (Bl.) Bth.

Lauraceae Actinodaphne apoensis Merr.

Lauraceae Actinodaphne bicolor (Elm.) Merr.

Lauraceae Caryodaphnopsis tonkinensis (Lec.) Shaw

Lauraceae Cinnamomum mercadoi Vid.

Lauraceae Endiandra coriacea Merr.

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Family Species

Lauraceae Litsea garciae Vid.

Lauraceae Litsea leytensis Merr.

Lauraceae Neolitsea cf. vidallii Merr./Neolitsea cf villosa (Bl.) Merr.

Leeaceae Leea cf. manillensis Walp.

Leeaceae Leea guineensis G. Don

Leeaceae Leea quadrifida Merr.

Leguminosae Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr.

Leguminosae Afzelia rhomboidea (Blco.) Vid.

Leguminosae Albizia saponaria (Lour.) Bl. ex Miq.

Leguminosae Archidendron clypearia (Jack) I.C. Nielsen

Leguminosae Archidendron pauciflorum (Benth.) Nielsen

Leguminosae Archidendron scutiferum (Blco.) I.C. Nielsen

Leguminosae Bauhinia integrifolia Roxb. ssp. cumingiana (Benth.) K. & S.S. Larsen

Leguminosae Dalbergia cf. cumingiana Benth. or cf. mimosella (Blco) Prain

Leguminosae Desmodium laxum DC.

Leguminosae Euchresta horsfieldii (Lesch.) Benn.

Leguminosae Kingiodendron alternifolium (Elm.) Merr. & Rolfe

Leguminosae Ormosia calavensis Azaola

Leguminosae Pithecelobium subacutum (Blco.) Benth.

Leguminosae Pterocarpus indicus Willd.

Leguminosae Spatholobus maingayi Prain ex. King

Leguminosae Strongylodon pulcher C.B. Rob.

Leguminosae Wallaceodendron celebicum Koord.

Lindsaeaceae Lindsaea lucida Bl. ssp. lucida

Lindsaeaceae Tapeinidium pinnatum (Cav.) C.Chr.

Loganiaceae Fagraea auriculata Jack

Loganiaceae Fagraea racemosa Jack ex Wall.

Loganiaceae Strychnos luzoniensis Elm.

Lomariopsidaceae Bolbitis cf. guoyana (Gaudich.) Ching

Lomariopsidaceae Bolbitis heteroclita (Pr.) Ching

Lomariopsidaceae Lomogramma cf copelandii Holttum

Lomariopsidaceae Teratophyllum arthropteroides (Christ) Holttum

Lomariopsidaceae Teratophyllum cf articulatum (J. Sm. ex Fée) Mett.

Magnoliaceae Magnolia liliifera (L.) Baill. var. angatensis

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Family Species

Malpighiaceae Hiptage sp.

Marantaceae Donax cannaeformis (Forst. f.) K. Schum.

Marattiaceae Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffm.

Marattiaceae Marattia pellucida Presl.

Melastomataceae Memecylon paniculatum Jack

Meliaceae Aglaia argentea Bl.

Meliaceae Aglaia costata Merr.

Meliaceae Aglaia elliptica Bl.

Meliaceae Aglaia luzoniensis (Vid.) Merr. & Rolfe

Meliaceae Aphanamixis polystachia (Wall.) R.N. Parker

Meliaceae Chisocheton ceramicus (Miq.) C. DC.)

Meliaceae Chisocheton cumingianus (C. DC.) Harms

Meliaceae Chisocheton pentandrus (Blco) Merr.

Meliaceae Dysoxylum arborescens (Blume) Miq.

Meliaceae Dysoxylum cumingianum C. DC.

Meliaceae Reinwardtiodendron humile (Hassk.) Mabb.

Meliaceae Toona calantas Merr. & Rolfe

Meliaceae Vavaea amicorum Benth.

Meliaceae Walsura cf. pinnata Hassk.

Menispermaceae Coscinium fenestratum Colebr.

Monimiaceae Matthaea pubescens Merr.

Moraceae Artocarpus blancoi (Elm.) Merr.

Moraceae Artocarpus elastica Reinw. ex Bl.

Moraceae Ficus balete Merr.

Moraceae Ficus benjamina L.

Moraceae Ficus cumingii Miq. var. angustissima (Merr.) Corner

Moraceae Ficus fistulosa Reinw. ex Bl.

Moraceae Ficus heteropoda Miq.

Moraceae Ficus odorata (Blco.) Merr.

Moraceae Ficus pedunculosa Miq.

Moraceae Ficus punctata Thunb.

Moraceae Ficus ribes Reinw. ex Bl.

Moraceae Ficus subulata Bl.

Moraceae Ficus ulmifolia Lam.

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Family Species

Moraceae Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner

Moraceae Streblus ilicifolia (Vid.) Corner

Moraceae Streblus macrophyllus Bl.

Myristicaceae Endocomia macrocoma (Miq.) W.J.J. de Wilde

subsp. prainii (King) W.J.J.de Wilde

Myristicaceae Gymnacranthera farquhariana (Hook. f. & Th) Warb. var. paniculata (A.

DC.) R. Schouten

Myristicaceae Horsfieldia cf. megacarpa Merr.

Myristicaceae Knema glomerata (Blco) Merr.

Myristicaceae Knema stellata Merr.

Myristicaceae Myristica cf. frugifera W. J. J. de Wilde

Myristicaceae Myristica simiarum A. DC cf subsp. simiarum

Myrsinaceae Ardisia pardelina Mez.

Myrsinaceae Ardisia squamulosa Presl

Myrsinaceae Discocalyx sp.

Myrsinaceae Maesa denticulata Mez

Myrtaceae Acmena acuminatissima (Bl.) Merr. & Perry

Myrtaceae Syzygium cf. densinervum (Merr.) Merr.

Myrtaceae Syzygium cf. xanthophyllum (C.B. Rob.) Merr.

Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeel

Myrtaceae Tristania decorticata Merr.

Myrtaceae Tristania micrantha Merr.

Myrtaceae Xanthostemon verdugonianus Naves

Olacaceae Erythropalum scandens Bl.

Olacaceae Strombosia philippinensis (Baill.) Rolfe

Oleaceae Olea borneensis Boerl.

Opiliaceae Champereia manillana (Bl.) Merr.

Opiliaceae Melientha suavis Pierre ssp. suavis

Orchidaceae Acanthephippium sp.

Orchidaceae Acanthephippium sp.

Orchidaceae Aphyllorchis sp.

Orchidaceae Bulbophyllum sp.

Orchidaceae Calanthe triplicata (Willem.) Ames

Orchidaceae Cymbidium aliciae Quis.

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Family Species

Orchidaceae Eulophia zollingeri Kurz

Orchidaceae Grammatophyllum scriptum (L.) Bl.

Orchidaceae Habenaria sp.

Orchidaceae Lepidogyne longifolia (Bl.) Bl.

Orchidaceae Malaxis sp.

Orchidaceae Phalaenopsis hieroglyphica (Rchb.f.) Sweet

Orchidaceae Trichoglottis rosea (Lindl.) Ames

Osmundaceae Osmunda banksiaefolia (Pr.) Kuhn

Pandanaceae Freycinetia cf. philippinensis Hemsl.

Pandanaceae Freycinetia cumingiana Gaudich.

Pandanaceae Freycinetia membranifolia Elm.

Pandanaceae Freycinetia multiflora Merr.

Pandanaceae Freycinetia vidalii Hemsl.

Piperaceae Piper abbreviatum Opiz

Piperaceae Piper halconense C. CD.

Piperaceae Piper toppingii C. CD.

Piperaceae Piper viminale Opiz

Podocarpaceae Podocarpus rumphii Bl.

Polygalaceae Polygala venenosa Juss. ex Poir.

Polygalaceae Xanthophyllum vitellinum (Bl.) Dietr.

Polypodiaceae Drynaria quercifolia L. (J. Sm)

Polypodiaceae Microsorum cf. longissimum

Polypodiaceae Microsorum plukenetii (Presl) M.G. Price

Polypodiaceae Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel.

Polypodiaceae Microsorum scolopendria (Burm. f.) Copel.

Proteaceae Helicia graciliflora Merr.

Proteaceae Helicia loranthoides Presl.

Proteaceae Helicia robusta (Roxb.) R. Br. ex Wall.

Pteridaceae Pteris cf. pellucida Presl

Pteridaceae Pteris ensiformis Burm.

Pteridaceae Pteris longipinnula Wall.

Ranunculaceae Clematis javana DC.

Rhamnaceae Ventilago dichotoma (Blco.) Merr.

Rhamnaceae Ziziphus angustifolius (Miq.) Hatusima ex Steenis

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Family Species

Rhizophoraceae Gynotroches axillaris Bl.

Rosaceae Prunus arborea (Bl.) Kalkm. var. arborea

Rosaceae Prunus cf. fragrans (Elm.) Kalkm.

Rosaceae Prunus grisea (Bl,) Kalkm. var. grisea

Rosaceae Rubus fraxinifolius Poiret

Rubiaceae Boholia nematostylis Merr.

Rubiaceae Canthium gynochthodes Baill.

Rubiaceae Diodia ocynifolia (Willd.) Brem.

Rubiaceae Diplospora cf. fasciculiflora Elm.

Rubiaceae Dolicholobium philippinense Trenteuse

Rubiaceae Greeniopsis multiflora (Elm.) Merr.

Rubiaceae Hedyotis baruensis (Miq.) Val. ex Merr.

Rubiaceae Hypobathrum purpureum (Elm.) Merr.

Rubiaceae Ixora bartlingii Elm.

Rubiaceae Ixora cf. cumingiana Vidal

Rubiaceae Ixora cf. macrophylla Bartl.

Rubiaceae Ixora longistipula Merr.

Rubiaceae Ixora salicifolia (Bl.) DC.

Rubiaceae Lasianthus cf. obliquinerva Merr.

Rubiaceae Morinda bracteata Roxb.

Rubiaceae Mussaenda vidallii Elm.

Rubiaceae Mycetia javanica (Bl.) Korth.

Rubiaceae Nauclea subdita (Korth.) Stend.

Rubiaceae Neonauclea formicaria (Elm.) Merr.

Rubiaceae Neonauclea lanceolata (Bl.) Merr. subsp. gracilis (Vidal) Ridsdale

Rubiaceae Praravinia cf. mindanensis (Elm.) Brem.

Rubiaceae Psychotria cf. ixoroides Berll ex Bl. - Namen prüfen

Rubiaceae Psychotria membranifolia Bartl.

Rubiaceae Tarenna cumingiana (Vid.) Elm.

Rubiaceae Tarrenoidea wallichii (Hook. f.) Tirr. Sastra - prüfen

Rubiaceae Timonius arboreus Merr.

Rubiaceae Uncaria cf. perrottetii (A. Rich.) Merr.

Rubiaceae Uncaria longiflora (Poir.) Merr.

Rubiaceae Uncaria philippinensis Elm.

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Family Species

Rubiaceae Wendlandia luzoniensis DC.

Rubiaceae Xanthophytum fruticulosum Reinw. ex Bl.

Rutaceae Clausena anisum-olens (Blanco) Merrill

Rutaceae Lunasia amara Blco.

Rutaceae Micromelum compressum (Blco.) Merr.

Rutaceae Severinia disticha (Blco) Merr.

Sapindaceae Allophyllus cobbe (L.) Raeuschel

Sapindaceae Cubilia cubili (Blco.) Adelh.

Sapindaceae Dictyoneura acuminata Bl. ssp. acuminata

Sapindaceae Dimocarpus fumatus (Bl.) Leenhouts ssp. philippinensis Leenhouts

Sapindaceae Euphorianthus obtusatus Radlk. ex Koord.

Sapindaceae Ganophyllum falcatum Bl.

Sapindaceae Guioa cf. diplopetala or cf. koelratheri

Sapindaceae Harpullia cupanioides Roxb.

Sapindaceae Lepisanthes fruticosa (Roxb.) Leenh.

Sapindaceae Paranephelium cf. xestophyllum Miq.

Sapindaceae Pometia pinnata Forst.

Sapotaceae Palaquium philippense (Perr.) C. B. Rob.

Sapotaceae Planchonella mindanaensis Clemens

Sapotaceae Pouteria firma (Miq.) Baehni

Saxifragaceae Polyosma integrifolia Bl.

Saxifragaceae Dichroa philippinensis Schltr.

Schizaeaceae Lygodium auriculatum (Willd.) Alst. et Holtt.

Schizaeaceae Lygodium circinatum (Burm.) Sw.

Simaroubaceae Picrasma javanica Bl.

Solanaceae Solanum anisophyllum Elm.

Solanaceae Solanum ferox L.

Sonneratiaceae Duabanga moluccana Bl.

Sterculiaceae Heritiera sylvatica Vidal

Sterculiaceae Kleinhovia hospida L.

Sterculiaceae Pterocymbium tinctorium (Blco.) Merr.

Sterculiaceae Pterospermum diversifolium Bl.

Sterculiaceae Pterospermum elongatum Korth.

Sterculiaceae Pterospermum obliquum Blco.

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Family Species

Sterculiaceae Sterculia multistipularis Elm.

Sterculiaceae Sterculia oblongata R. Br.

Sterculiaceae Sterculia philippinensis Merr.

Sterculiaceae Sterculia stipulata Korth. var. jagorii (Warb.) Tantra

Symplocaceae Symplocos cochinchinensis (Lour.) Moore var. cochinchinensis

Taccaceae Tacca palmata Bl.

Taenitidaceae Taenitis blechnoides (Willd.) Sw.

Tectaria Group Cyclopeltis crenata (Feé) C. Chr.

Tectaria Group Pleocnemia cf. presliana Holttum

Tectaria Group Pleocnemia irregularis (Presl) Holttum

Theaceae Eurya acuminata DC.

Theaceae Ternstroemia philippinensis Merr. var. philippinensis

Thelypteridaceae Pneumatopteris laevis (Mett.) Holttum

Thelypteridaceae Pronephrium granulosum (Presl) Holtt.

Thelypteridaceae Pronephrium x xiphioides (Christ) Holttum

Thelypteridaceae Pseudophaegopteris cf. paludosa

Thymelaeaceae Aquilaria cumingiana (Decn) Ridl.

Thymelaeaceae Phaleria perrottetiana (Dcne) F.-Vill.

Tiliaceae Colona serratifolia Cav.

Tiliaceae Diplodiscus paniculatus Turcz.

Ulmaceae Gironniera celtidifolia Gaudich.

Ulmaceae Trema orientalis (L.) Bl.

Urticaceae Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd.

Urticaceae Maoutia setosa Wedd.

Urticaceae Villebrunea rubescens (Bl.) Bl.

Urticaceae Villebrunea trinerva Wedd.

Verbenaceae Clerodendrum villosum Bl.

Verbenaceae Premna odorata Blco.

Verbenaceae Teijsmanniodendron pteropodium (Miq.) Bakh.

Verbenaceae Vitex parviflora Juss.

Verbenaceae Vitex turczaninowii Merr.

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Appendix 3: Trees and Shrubs on the Foothills of Mt. Pangasugan

Abbreviations :

R. = Ridge U. Sl. = Upper Slope

M. Sl. = Middle Slope L. Sl. = Lower Slope

R. B. = River Bank S. = Succession

Species Family R. U.

Sl.

M.

Sl.

L.

Sl.

R.

B.

S.

Acalypha amentacea Roxb. Euphorbiaceae x x x

Acer laurinum Hassk. Aceraceae x x x

Acmena acuminatissima (Bl.) Merr. & Perry Myrtaceae x x x

Actinodaphne apoensis Merr. Lauraceae x x x

Aglaia argentea Bl. Meliaceae x x

Aglaia costata Merr. Meliaceae x x

Aglaia luzoniensis Merr. & Rolfe Meliaceae x

Alangium longiflorum Merr. Alangiaceae x x

Albizia saponaria (Lour.) Bl. ex Miq. Leguminosae x

Alstonia macrophylla Wall. ex G. Don Apocynaceae x x x x

Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Apocynaceae x x x

Anisoptera thurifera Foxw. Dipterocarpaceae x

Antidesma digitaliforme Tul. Euphorbiaceae x x x x

Antidesma nitidum Tul. Euphorbiaceae x

Antidesma tomentosum Bl. Euphorbiaceae x

Aphanamixis polystachia (Wall.) R.N. Parker Meliaceae x

Aporosa benthamiana Hook. f. Euphorbiaceae x x x

Aquilaria cumingiana (Decn.) Ridl. Thymelaeaceae x x x x x

Archidendron clypearia (Jack) I.C. Nielsen Leguminosae x x

Archidendron pauciflorum (Benth.) Nielsen Leguminosae x

Ardisia pardelina Mez. Myrsinaceae x x

Ardisia squamulosa Presl Myrsinaceae x x x

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Species Family R. U.

Sl.

M.

Sl.

L.

Sl.

R.

B.

S.

Arthrophyllum ahernianum Merr. Araliaceae x x x

Artocarpus blancoi (Elm.) Merr. Moraceae x x x

Artocarpus elastica Reinw. ex Bl. Moraceae x

Baccaurea tetrandra (Baill.) Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae x x

Bhesa paniculata Arn. Celastraceae x x

Bridelia glauca Bl. Euphorbiaceae x x

Calophyllum blancoi Pl. & Tr. Clusiaceae x x x x

Calophyllum soulattri Burm. f. Clusiaceae x x

Canarium asperum Benth. Burseraceae x x x x

Canarium denticulatum Bl. Burseraceae x x x

Canarium euryphyllum Perk. Burseraceae x x x

Canarium gracileEngl. Burseraceae x

Canarium hirsutum Willd. Burseraceae x

Canthium gynochthodes Baill. Rubiaceae x

Caryodaphnopsis tonkinensis (Lec.) Shaw Lauraceae x

Casearia grewiaefolia Vent. Flacourtiaceae x

Chisocheton ceramicus (Miq.) C. DC. Meliaceae x x

Chisocheton cumingianus (C. DC.) Harms Meliaceae x x x

Chisocheton pentandrus (Blco.) Merr. Meliaceae x x

Cinnamomum mercadoi Vid. Lauraceae x x x

Claoxylon brachyandrum Pax & Hoffm. Euphorbiaceae x

Clausena anisum-olens (Blco.) Merr. Rutaceae x x x x

Cleistanthus sumatranus (Miq.) Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae x x

Clerodendrum villosum Bl. Verbenaceae x

Codiaeum luzonicum Merr. Euphorbiaceae x x x x

Cratoxylum formosum Benth. & Hook. f. ex

Dyer

Clusiaceae x x

Croton cascarilloides Raeusch. Euphorbiaceae x

Crypteronia cumingii (Planch.) Endl. Crypteroniaceae x

Cubilia cubili (Blco.) Adelh. Sapindaceae x x x x

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Species Family R. U.

Sl.

M.

Sl.

L.

Sl.

R.

B.

S.

Cypholophus moluccanus (Bl.) Miq. Urticaceae x x

Dacryodes rostrata (Bl.) H.J. Lam Burseraceae x x x x

Dalbergia cumingiana Benth. Leguminosae x

Dictyoneura acuminata Bl. Sapindaceae x

Dimocarpus fumatus (Bl.) Leenh. ssp.

philippinensis Leenh.

Sapindaceae x

Diospyros multibracteata Merr. Ebenaceae x x x

Diospyros blancoi A. DC. Ebenaceae x x x x

Diospyros pilosanthera Blco. Ebenaceae x

Diospyros pyrrhocarpa Miq. Ebenaceae x x x

Diplodiscus paniculatus Turcz. Tiliaceae x x

Dipterocarpus validus Bl. Dipterocarpaceae x x x

Dolicholobium philippense Trenteuse Rubiaceae x x x

Dracontomelon dao (Blco.) Merr. & Rolfe Anacardiaceae x

Dracontomelon edule (Blco.) Skeels Anacardiaceae x

Drypetes bordenii (Merr.) Pax & Hoffm. Euphorbiaceae x

Duabanga moluccana Bl. Sonneratiaceae x

Dysoxylum arborescens (Bl.) Miq. Meliaceae x x x

Dysoxylum cumingianum C. DC. Meliaceae x x

Elaeocarpus cumingii Turcz. Elaeocarpaceae x

Ellipanthus tomentosus Kurz Connaraceae x x x x

Endiandra coriacea Merr. Lauraceae x

Endocomia macrocoma (Miq.) W.J.J. de

Wilde

Myristicaceae x

Engelhardia serrata Bl. Juglandaceae x

Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr. Leguminosae x x

Euonymus cochinchinensis Pierre Celastraceae x

Euonymus javanicus Bl. Celastraceae x x

Euphorianthus obtusatus Radlk. ex Koord. Sapindaceae x

Eurya acuminata DC. Theaceae x

Ficus aurita Bl. Moraceae x

Ficus benjamina L. Moraceae x

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Species Family R. U.

Sl.

M.

Sl.

L.

Sl.

R.

B.

S.

Ficus cumingii var. angustissima (Merr.)

Corner

Moraceae x

Ficus fistulosa Reinw. ex Bl. Moraceae x x

Ficus heteropoda Miq. Moraceae x

Ficus odorata (Blco.) Merr. Moraceae x x

Ficus pedunculosa Miq. Moraceae x

Ficus pseudopalma Blco. Moraceae x

Ficus ribes Reinw. ex Bl. Moraceae x x x

Ficus ruficaulis Merr. Moraceae x

Ficus ulmifolia Lam. Moraceae x

Ganophyllum falcatum Bl. Sapindaceae x x x

Gironniera celtidifolia Gaudich. Ulmaceae x x

Gnetum gnemon L. var. gnemon Gnetaceae x

Gomphandra cumingiana (Miers) F.-Vill. Icacinaceae x

Gonocaryum calleryanum (Baill.) Becc. Icacinaceae x x

Gymnacranthera farquhariana (Hook. f & Th.)

Warb. var. paniculata (A. DC.) R. Schouten

Myristicaceae x

Gynotroches axillaris Bl. Rhizophoraceae x x x

Harpullia cupanioides Roxb. Sapindaceae x

Helicia graciliflora Merr. Proteaceae x x

Helicia loranthoides Presl Proteaceae x

Helicia robusta Roxb. Proteaceae x

Heritiera sylvatica S. Vidal Sterculiaceae x x

Homalanthus populneus (Geisel) Pax Euphorbiaceae x

Hopea acuminata Merr. Dipterocarpaceae x x

Hopea malibato Foxw. ex Elm. Dipterocarpaceae x x x

Hopea philippinensis Dyer Dipterocarpaceae x x x

Hopea plagata (Blco.) Vid. Dipterocarpaceae x

Hypobathrum purpureum (Elm.) Merr. Rubiaceae x

Ixora bartlingii Elm. Rubiaceae x

Ixora longistipula Merr. Rubiaceae x x x x

Ixora salicifolia (Bl.) DC. Rubiaceae x x x

Kibatalia blancoi (Rolfe) Merr. Apocynaceae x x x

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Appendix

49

Species Family R. U.

Sl.

M.

Sl.

L.

Sl.

R.

B.

S.

Kingiodendron alternifolium (Elm.) Merr. &

Rolfe

Leguminosae x x x x x

Knema glomerata (Blco.) Merr. Myristicaceae x x x

Koordersiodendron pinnatum (Blco.) Merr. Anacardiaceae x

Leea aculeata Bl. Leeaceae x x x x

Leea guinensis G. Don Leeaceae x x x x x

Leea quadrifida Merr. Leeaceae x x x x

Lepisanthes fruticosa (Roxb.) Leenh. Sapindaceae x

Leucosyke capitellata (Poir.) Wedd. Urticaceae x x x

Lithocarpus buddii (Merr.) A. Camus Fagaceae x x x

Lithocarpus caudatifolia (Merr.) Rehd. Fagaceae x

Lithocarpus coopertus (Blco.) Rehd. Fagaceae x x

Litsea garciae Vid. Lauraceae x

Litsea leytensis Merr. Lauraceae x x

Lophopetalum javanicum (Zoll.) Turcz. Celastraceae x x

Lunasia amara Blco. Rutaceae x

Macaranga grandifolia(Blcol.) Merr. Euphorbiaceae x

Macaranga hispida (Bl.) Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae x

Macaranga tanarius (L.) Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae x

Maesa denticulata Mez. Myrsinaceae x

Magnolia liliifera (L.) Baill. Magnoliaceae x x

Mallotus lackeyi Elm. Euphorbiaceae x

Mallotus philippinensis (Lam.) Muell.-Arg. Euphorbiaceae x

Mangifera altissima Blco. Anacardiaceae x x

Maranthes corymbosa Bl. Chrysobalanaceae x

Matthaea pubescens Merr. Monimiaceae x

Melientha suavis Pierre ssp. suavis Opiliaceae x

Memecylon paniculatum Jack Melastomataceae x

Micromelum compressum (Blco.) Merr. Rutaceae x x x

Morinda bracteata Roxb. Rubiaceae x

Mussaenda philippica A. Rich. Rubiaceae x x

Myristica cf. frugifera W.J.J. de Wilde Myristicaceae x x x

Myristica philippensis Lam. Myristicaceae x

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Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines

50

Species Family R. U.

Sl.

M.

Sl.

L.

Sl.

R.

B.

S.

Myristica simiarum A. DC. ssp. simiarum Myristicaceae x x x

Nauclea subdita (Korth.) Stend. Rubiaceae x x x

Neonauclea formicaria (Elm.) Merr. Rubiaceae x

Neonauclea lanceolata (Bl.) Merr. ssp. gracilis

(Vidal) Ridsdale

Rubiaceae x x x x x

Neotrewia cumingii (Muell.-Arg.) Pax &

Hoffm.

Euphorbiaceae x x x x

Octomeles sumatrana Miq. Datiscaceae x x

Olea borneensis Boerl. Oleaceae x

Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. Bignoniaceae x x

Osmoxylon trilobatum (Merr.) Philipson Araliaceae x x x x x x

Palaquium philippense (Perr.) C.B. Rob. Sapotaceae x x

Parashorea malaanonan (Blco.) Merr. Dipterocarpaceae x x x x x

Phaleria perottetiana (Decn.) F.-Vill. Thymelaeaceae x x

Picrasma javanica Bl. Simaroubaceae x x x x x

Pithecelobium subacutum (Blco.) Benth. Leguminosae x

Planchonella mindanaensis Clemens Sapotaceae x

Platea excelsa var. borneensis (Heine) Sleum. Icacinaceae x x x

Podocarpus rumphii Bl. Podocarpaceae x x x

Polyosma integrifolia Bl. Saxifragaceae x

Polyscias nodosa (Bl.) Seem. Araliaceae x x x x

Pometia pinnata Forst. Sapindaceae x x x x

Popowia pisocarpa (Bl.) Endl. Annonaceae x

Pouteria firma (Miq.) Baehni Sapotaceae x

Praravinia cf. mindanensis (Elm.) Brem. Rubiaceae x x x

Prunus arborea (Bl.) Kalkman var. arborea Rosaceae x x x

Prunus grisea (Bl.) Kalkman Rosacae x

Pterocarpus indicus Willd. Leguminosae x x

Pterocymbium tinctorium (Blco.) Merr. Sterculiaceae x x x x x x

Pterospermum diversifolium Bl. Sterculiaceae x x

Pterospermum elongatum Korth. Sterculiaceae x

Pterospermum obliquum Blco. Sterculiaceae x x

Radermachera pinnata (Blco.) Seem. Bignoniaceae x x x

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Appendix

51

Species Family R. U.

Sl.

M.

Sl.

L.

Sl.

R.

B.

S.

Reinwardtiodendron humile (Hassk.) Mabb. Meliaceae x x x

Sambucus javanica Reinw. ex Bl. Caprifoliaceae x

Saurauia samarensis Merr. Saurauiaceae x

Semecarpus cuneiformis Blco. Anacardiaceae x x

Severinia disticha (Blco.) Merr. Rutaceae x

Shorea almon Foxw. Dipterocarpaceae x x x x x

Shorea assamica Dyer forma philippinensis

(Brandis) Sym.

Dipterocarpaceae x x

Shorea astylosa Foxw. Dipterocarpaceae x

Shorea contorta S. Vidal Dipterocarpaceae x x x x x x

Shorea falciferoides Foxw. Dipterocarpaceae x x x x

Shorea guiso (Blco.) Bl. Dipterocarpaceae x

Shorea polysperma (Blco.) Merr. Dipterocarpaceae x x x

Shorea squamata (Turcz.) Dyer Dipterocarpaceae x x x

Sterculia multistipularis Elm. Sterculiaceae x x x x x x

Sterculia oblongata R. Br. Sterculiaceae x

Sterculia philippinensis Merr. Sterculiaceae x

Sterculia stipulata Korth. var. jagori (Warb.)

Tantra

Sterculiaceae x x x

Streblus ilicifolia (Vidal) Corner Moraceae x

Streblus macrophyllus Bl. Moraceae x

Strombosia philippinensis (Baill.) Rolfe Olacaceae x x x x x

Suregada glomerulata (Hassk.) Jones Euphorbiaceae x

Sycopsis dunnii Hemsl. Hamamelidaceae x x

Tabernaemontana pandacaqui Poir. Apocynaceae x

Tarenna cumingiana (Vid.) Elm. Rubiaceae x

Tarrenoidea wallichii (Hook. f.) Tirv. & Sastre Rubiaceae x

Teijsmanniodendron pteropodium (Miq.)

Bakh.

Verbenaceae x

Terminalia microcarpa Decne. Combretaceae x

Terminalia nitens Presl Combretaceae x

Ternstroemia philippinensis Merr. Thymelaeaceae x

Toona calantas Merr. & Rolfe Meliaceae x

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Forest Vegetation Studies in Leyte, The Philippines

52

Species Family R. U.

Sl.

M.

Sl.

L.

Sl.

R.

B.

S.

Trema orientalis (L.) Bl. Ulmaceae x

Tristania decorticata Merr. Myrtaceae x

Tristania micrantha Merr. Myrtaceae x

Vatica mangachapui Blco. Dipterocarpaceae x x x x

Vavaea amicorum Benth. Meliaceae x x

Villebrunea rubescens (Bl.) Bl. Urticaceae x

Villebrunea trinerva Wedd. Urticaceae x

Vitex parviflora Juss. Verbenaceae x x

Vitex turczaninowii Merr. Verbenaceae

Wallaceodendron celebicum Koord. Leguminosae x

Wendlandia luzoniensis DC. Rubiaceae x

Xanthophyllum vitellinum (Bl.) Dietr. Polygalaceae x x x

Xanthophytum fruticulosum Reinw. ex Bl. Rubiaceae x x

Xanthostemon verdugonianus Naves Myrtaceae x x x

Ziziphus angustifolius (Miq.) Hatus. ex v.

Steenis

Rhamnaceae x x x

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Appendix 4: Tree Species Suggested for Inclusion in the Project´s Reforestation Scheme (Rainforestation)

Scientific Name

(Common Official Name 3)

Family Growth

Habit4

Occurrence in the Study Area Use & Remarks5

Acer laurinum Hassk.

(baliág)

Aceraceae l-t slope and ridge; ~500 m light- to medium-weight hardwood of some

ornamental value; household utensils, furniture,

instruments; usually in hill and montane forests

(800-2550 m)

Acmena acuminatissima (Bl.)

Merr. & Perry (binolóan)

Myrtaceae m-t ridge; ~350-450 m medium-weight to heavy hardwood; construction,

furniture, household utensils, instruments

Alangium longiflorum Merr.

(malatápai)

Alangiaceae s-t ridge; ~250-350 m medium-weight to heavy hardwood, house

construction, furniture, cabinet work, etc.;

sapwood non-susceptible to Lyctus (a beetle),

heartwood non-susceptible to dry-wood termites

Albizia saponaria (Lour.) Bl.

ex Miq. (salíngkugi)

Leguminosae s-t to m-t secondary ridge forest; ~400 m moderately hard and heavy, furniture, interior finish

etc.;

Canarium denticulatum Bl.

(kalísau)

Burseraceae m to l-t lower slopes and riverbanks;

~50-150 m

light- to medium-weight wood; light or temporary

construction; river bank stabilization

Canarium asperum Benth.

(pagsahíngin)

Burseraceae m to l-t ridge to lower slope; 200-500 m light- to medium-weight, moderately soft to

moderately hard wood; indoor use

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Scientific Name

(Common Official Name 3)

Family Growth

Habit4

Occurrence in the Study Area Use & Remarks5

Cinnamomum mercadoi S.

Vidal (kalíngag)

Lauraceae m-t ridge to lower slopes; 400-500 m light- to medium-weight hardwood, construction,

cabinet work; bark contains cinnamom

Cubilia cubili (Blco.) Adelh.

(kubíli)

Sapindaceae l-t slopes; ~ 250 m medium-weight hardwood; interior con-struction,

carpentry; fruits edible (´castanas`)

Diospyros pyrrhocarpa Miq.

(ánang)

Ebenaceae s-t to m-t upper to lower slopes; 200-450

m

"ebony", heavy hardwood, sculptures, furniture,

cabinet work, etc.; very valuable

Duabanga moluccana Bl.

(loktób)

Sonneratiaceae l-t river bank; ~ 100 m soft & light wood; fast growing; potential for river

bank stabilization

Hopea plagata (Blco.) Vid.

(yakál-saplúngan)

Dipterocarpaceae m-t to l-t ridge; ~300-400 m heavy construction timber

Kingiodendron alternifolium

(Elm.) Merr. & Rolfe (batete)

Leguminosae l-t ridge to lower slope; 250-450 m medium-weight hardwood; furniture, cabinet work,

flooring, etc.

Lithocarpus coopertus (Blco.)

Rehder (dalútan)

Fagaceae m-t river bank and lower slope; ~

50-150 m

medium-weight to heavy wood, furniture, flooring,

ceiling, etc., moderately durable; potential for river

bank stabilization

Litsea leytensis Merr.

(batikúling)

Lauraceae m-t lower and middle slopes; ~ 150-

250 m

light- to medium-weight hardwood, carving,

pattern making, ceilings, etc.; endangered

Lophopetalum javanicum

(Zoll.) Turcz. (abúab)

Celastraceae l-t ridge; ~450 m lightweight hardwood, joinery, cabinet work,

furniture, easy to work; bark contains dart poison

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Scientific Name

(Common Official Name 3)

Family Growth

Habit4

Occurrence in the Study Area Use & Remarks5

Mangifera altissima Blco.

(pahútan)

Anacardiaceae l-t slope; ~300-400 m light- to medium-weight hardwood, general

construction, furniture, cabinet work; endangered

Maranthes corymbosa Bl.

(liúsin)

Chrysobalanaceae l-t ridge; ~350-400 m medium-weight to heavy hardwood; construction

wood; fruit edible

Octomeles sumatrana Miq.

(binúang)

Datiscaceae l-t river bank; ~80 m lightweight hardwood; not durable; very fast

growing; potential for river bank stabilisation

Pouteria firma (Miq.) Baehni

(bagomáho)

Sapotaceae l-t ridge; 450-500 m "nyatoh"; light- to medium-weight, moderately hard

to hard wood, indoor use like fine furniture,

panelling, etc.

Reinwardtiodendron humile

(Hassk.) Mabb.

Meliaceae m-t ridge to lower slope; 250-450 m medium-weight to heavy hardwood; high grade

furniture

Shorea falciferoides Foxw.

(yakál-yambán)

Dipterocarpaceae l-t ridge and upper slope; 450-500

m

heavy hardwood, all sorts of heavy construction

work

Tristania micrantha Merr.

(tíga)

Myrtaceae m-t to l-t ridge and upper slope; 350-450

m

heavy hardwood, durable; heavy construction

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Scientific Name

(Common Official Name 3)

Family Growth

Habit4

Occurrence in the Study Area Use & Remarks5

Vatica mangachapoi Blco.

(naríg)

Dipterocarpaceae m-t to l-t ridge and upper slope; ~400-500

m

medium-weight to heavy hardwood, strong and

durable

Wallaceodendron celebicum

Koord. (banúyo)

Leguminosae l-t ridge; 250-400 m// regeneration

common along the ridge at about

300 - 400 m, one huge tree at

about 300 m; shade intolerant

medium-weight hardwood; valuable decorative

timber for interior work, furniture, musical

instruments, etc.; traded as’ Derahm mahagony`

Xanthostemon verdugonianus

Naves (mangkóno)

Myrtaceae l-t steep slopes; ~ 400 m heavy hardwood ("Philippine ironwood"), very

durable; considered endangered in the Philippines

1 According to Salvosa (1967)

1 Describes the growth habit encountered in the study area: s-t: small tree (diameter up to 30 cm, height up to 5 m); m-t: medium-sized tree (diameter 30 to 40

cm, height 5 to 15 m); l-t: large tree (diameter over 40 cm, height over 15 m)

1 Cited from: Soerianegara et al. (1994), Sosef et al. (1998), Lemmens et al. (1995)