gas 17% nuclear 6% hydro renewables 12%. 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030...

www.unescap.org/apef

Statistical Perspectives

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Focus Areas for Enhanced Energy Security

ENERGY ACCESSWorking towards universal access to modern energy services

can advance inclusive social and economic development.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY

Adopting efficiency measures can signi�cantly enhance economic competitiveness and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

RENEWABLE ENERGYDeveloping new and renewable energy sources can diversify

the energy mix and create new job opportunities.

ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Shifting consumption towards sustainable energy can minimise environmental impacts and improve the future outlook for the

well-being of our citizens and planet.

ENERGY ECONOMICS

Improving �scal policy and �nancing mechanisms can incentivise

and strengthen markets for sustainable energy.

ENERGY TRADE AND INVESTMENT

Promoting trade and investment can optimise the developmentand utilisation of current and emerging energy resources.

ENERGY CONNECTIVITY

Developing infrastructure and harmonised energy policies can

increase regional economic integration and resilience.

Member states listed in blue are considered “Asia-Paci�c Developed Countries”. Other member States are considered “Asia-Paci�c Developing Countries”.

The statistics presented in this publication primarily cover member States located in the Asia-Paci�c region. However, Associate and Non-regional members appear in select charts and tables. Due to data limitations, only selected countries are used in several of the statistical representations. Additionally, "Paci�c (AUS, NZ)" indicates that data for the Paci�c subregion represents only Australia and New Zealand.

This publication is for reference only. Graphs and charts are based on data sources consulted for this publication. Additional data sources may exist that are not represented. In some cases, data sets may not be complete. ESCAP cannot con�rm methodologies of data sources.

East andNorth-East Asia

ChinaJapanKorea, Democratic People’s Republic of(Korea, DPR)Korea, Republic of(Korea, Rep. of)Mongolia

North andCentral Asia

ArmeniaAzerbaijanGeorgiaKazakhstanKyrgyzstanRussian FederationTajikistanTurkmenistanUzbekistan

South-East Asia

Brunei DarussalamCambodiaIndonesiaLao PDRMalaysiaMyanmarPhilippinesSingaporeThailandTimor-LesteViet Nam

South and South-West Asia

AfghanistanBangladeshBhutanIndiaIran, Islamic Republic of (Iran, IR)MaldivesNepalPakistanSri LankaTurkey

Paci�c

AustraliaFijiKiribatiMarshall IslandsMicronesia, Federated Stated of (Micronesia, FS)NauruNew ZealandPalauPapua New GuineaSamoaSolomon IslandTongaTuvaluVanuatu

AssociateMembers

American SamoaCook IslandsFrench PolynesiaGuamHong Kong, ChinaMacao, ChinaNew CaledoniaNiueNorthern Mariana Islands

Non-regional Members

FranceUnited Kingdom (UK)NetherlandsUnited States of America

ESCAP MEMBER STATES 03

Per Capita Final Energy Consumption, 2010

Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from IEA

Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from WPP2010

Data sources: World Bank, UNDP, and ESCAPStatistical Database based on data from IEA


Energy Consumption and Human Development

Per Capita EnergyConsumption byGlobal Region

The HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

INDEX (HDI), developed by

UNDP, is a measure of human

development and is a compos-

ite statistic of life expectancy,

education, and income indices.

The index is published annually.

In this chart, the 2010 index was

used to match against the most

recent data for energy

consumption.

0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500

Paci�c (AUS, NZ)

North and Central Asia

South-East Asia

East and North-East Asia


Per capita kg of oil equivalent (kgoe)

1,777

1,551

593

220

37

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Asia-PacificAfricaLa�n America and Carib.North AmericaEuropeOther countries/areas

Very High

East and North-East Asia member StateNorth and Central Asia member StateSouth-East Asia member StateSouth and South-West Asia member StatePaci�c member State Countries outside Asia-Paci�c

BASIC NEEDS OVERCONSUMPTION

Low

High

Medium

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000

Per capita energy consumption 2009/2010 (kg of oil equivalent)

04 Energy Context Energy Context 05

Total Energy Consumption and Populationby Global Region

Total Energy Consumption and Populationby Asia-Paci�c Subregion Asia-Paci�c Urbanisation TrendsAsia-Paci�c Per Capita Energy Consumption

Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from IEA and WPP2010


Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from WPP2010

Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from IEA and WPP2010

0

1

2

3

4

5

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010


South-East Asia



Pacific (AUS, NZ)

Asia-Paci�c Population

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

4,500

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Asia-Pacific

Asia-Pacific developing countries

Asia-Pacific developed countries

Africa

La�n America and Carib.

North America

Europe

Asia-Paci�c Population

Rest of World Population

Future

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

East and North-East Asia North and Central Asia Pacific (AUS, NZ)

South and South-West Asia South-East Asia Asia-Pacific World


0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

12,000

14,000

16,000

18,000

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Asia-Pacific

Asia-Pacific developing economies

Asia-Pacific developed economies

Africa

La�n America and Caribbean

North America

Europe

3,098 mtoe

Coal33%

Oil30%

Gas16%

Nuclear3%

Hydro2%

Renewables

1990 2010 2030

16%

5,534 mtoe

Coal43%

Oil24%

Gas16%

Nuclear4%

Hydro2%

Renewables11%

8,109 mtoe

Coal40%

Oil22%

Gas17%

Nuclear6%

Hydro3%

Renewables12%

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

New Policies Scenario

Current Policies Scenario

450 Scenario

Global Cumulative Carbon Dioxide (C02) Emissions GDP in 2005 Constant Prices Asia-Paci�c* Total Primary Energy Demand Outlook in the New Policies Scenario**

Asia-Paci�c Total Primary EnergyDemand 1990-2035, by Scenario**

Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from MDG Indicators database

Data source: ESCAP Statistical Databasebased on data from NAMAD Source: Based on data from IEA World Energy Outlook (WEO) 2012

* Data excludes the following ESCAP member States: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Georgia, Iran IR, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uzbekistan.

** See References and Notes section for an explanation of the IEA Current Policies Scenario, New Policies Scenario and 450 Scenario.

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

Asia-Pacific

Africa


North America

Europe

Other Countries/Areas


Data sources: IEA WEO 2011, UNDPNote: Due to rounding, total differs from the sum of all countries.Data source: IEA WEO 2012 Data source: IEA WEO 2011

Access to Electricity and Human Development,Selected Countries, 2010

People without Access to Electricity, 2010 Rural and Urban Electri�cation Rates,Selected Countries, 2010

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Access to Electricity 2010 (% of Population)

Cambodia

Afghanistan

Timor-Leste

Bangladesh

Myanmar

Lao PDR

Pakistan

Nepal

India

Indonesia

Sri Lanka

Philippines Mongolia

Thailand

Singapore

Brunei Darussalam

Malaysia

Iran, IR

China

The HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (HDI)is a composite sta�s�c of life expectancy,

education, and income indices.

y = 0.24 + 0.04x R2 = 0.71

Number of people without electricity access (millions)

293 India 16 Philippines 2.1 Viet Nam

88 Bangladesh 10 Cambodia 1.2 Iran, IR

63 Indonesia 8 Thailand 0.7 Timor-Leste

56 Pakistan 7 Nepal 0.4 Mongolia

26 Myanmar 5 Sri Lanka 0.2 Malaysia

22 Afghanistan 4.2 China 8 Rest of Asia

18 Korea, DPR 2.2 Lao PDR

0 20 40 60 80 100

Singapore

China

Brunei Darussalam

Malaysia

Viet Nam

Iran, IR

Thailand

Sri Lanka

Philippines

Nepal

Mongolia

India

Indonesia

Pakistan

Lao PDR

Bangladesh

Myanmar

Afghanistan

Timor-Leste

Cambodia

Korea, DPR

Rural electrifica�on rate Urban electrifica�on rate

%

628million people

10 Energy Access Energy Access 11

Data sources: UNDP, UN Data Data source: IEA WEO 2012Data source: United Nations Statistics Division based on data from the MDG Indicator Database

Solid Fuel* Use and Gender Inequality,Selected Countries

Percentage of Population Using Solid Fuels*2010

People Using Traditional Biomass2010 (millions)

Afghanistan

Armenia

Australia

Bangladesh

Cambodia

China

India

Indonesia

Iran,IR

Japan

Kazakhstan

Korea, Rep. of

Kyrgyzstan

Lao PDR

Malaysia

Maldives

Mongolia

MyanmarNepal

New Zealand

Pakistan

Papua New Guinea

Philippines

Russian Fed.

Singapore

Sri Lanka

Tajikistan

Thailand

Tonga

Turkey

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Percentage of Population Using Solid Fuels, 2010

The GENDER INEQUALITY INDEX (GII)is composite measure reflec�ng

inequality in achievements between

women and men in three dimensions:

reproductive health, empowermentand the labour market.

y = 0.24 + 0.003x R2 = 0.48

772 India

387 China

149 Bangladesh

128 Indonesia

111 Pakistan

49 Viet Nam

47 Philippines

171 Rest of Asia

1,814million people

using traditional biomass

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

AustraliaBrunei Darussalam

Cook IslandsIran, IR

JapanKorea, Republic of

Malaysia

NauruNew Zealand

Niue

PalauRussian Federa�on

SingaporeTurkey

Turkmenistan

AzerbaijanMaldives

Kazakhstan

UzbekistanArmenia

TuvaluThailand

Marshall Islands

KyrgyzstanTajikistan

FijiBhutan

Micronesia

TongaChina

GeorgiaPhilippines

Samoa

IndonesiaViet Nam

IndiaPakistan

Mongolia

Papua New GuineaSri Lanka

Kiriba�

NepalVanuatu

AfghanistanCambodia

Solomon Islands

BangladeshKorea, DPR

Myanmar

Timor-LesteLao PDR

%

* Solid fuels include coal, charcoal,

wood, crops or other agricultural

waste, dung, shrubs, grass, straw,

and others. Tradi�onal biomass

includes wood, charcoal,

agricultural residues and

animal dung.


Data source: WHO Household Energy Database

Primary Cooking Fuel Mix for Selected Asia-Paci�c Countries, 2010

Data source: WHO Data source: WHO

Estimated DALYs Per 1,000 Capitafrom Indoor Air Pollution, 2004

Estimated Deaths fromIndoor Air Pollution, 2004

0 20 40 60 80 100

Viet Nam

Vanuatu

Uzbekistan

Turkmenistan

Tonga

Thailand

Tajikistan

Sri Lanka

Solomon Islands

Russian Federa�on

Philippines

Pakistan

Nepal

Myanmar

Mongolia

Marshall Islands

Malaysia

Lao PDR

Kyrgyzstan

Kazakhstan

Indonesia

India

Georgia

China

Bhutan

Bangladesh

Azerbaijan

Armenia

Afghanistan

%

RURAL

Coal Charcoal Wood Dung Cropwaste

0 20 40 60 80 100

%

URBAN

Electricity LPG Natural gas Biogas Kerosene Other

Solid Fuels Cleaner Fuels

2.2 2.5 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.3 4.1 4.2 4.5

7.1 7.5 8.0 8.4 8.5 8.5 8.6 8.8 9.2

10.8 16.0 16.9

78.5

Tonga

Tuvalu

Philippines

Viet Nam

Samoa

Mongolia

Sri Lanka

China

Marshall Islands

Indonesia

Azerbaijan

Solomon Islands

Bhutan

Uzbekistan

Bangladesh

India

Nepal

Kyrgyzstan

Papua New Guinea

Pakistan

Myanmar

Lao PDR

Cambodia

Tajikistan

Afghanistan

DALYs/1000 Capita

The disability-adjusted life year (DALY) is a measure of overall disease burden, expressed as the number of years lost due to ill-health, disability or early death.

• Kazakhstan 100

• Solomon Islands 100

• Bhutan 200

• Georgia 200

• Iran 300

• Mongolia 300

• Armenia 400

• Russian Federation 600

• Azerbaijan 1,100

• Papua New Guinea 1,600

• Kyrgyzstan 2,100

• Lao PDR 2,600

• Tajikistan 3,300

• Turkey 3,400

• Sri Lanka 4,300

• Uzbekistan 6,200

• Cambodia 6,600

• Philippines 7,200

• Nepal 8,700

• Thailand 10,500

• Myanmar 18,100

• Viet Nam 23,800

• Indonesia 45,300

• Bangladesh 49,400

• Afghanistan 54,000

• Pakistan 56,100

• India 488,200

• China 548,900

Myanmar

Viet Nam

Indonesia

Bangladesh

Afghanistan

Pakistan

India

China


Global Regional Primary Energy Intensity

Data source: ESCAP Statistical Database based on data from IEA Data source: ESCAP Statistical Database based on data from MDG Indicators database

Asia-Paci�c SubregionalPrimary Energy Intensity Global Regional Carbon Intensity Asia-Paci�c Subregional Carbon Intensity

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific developing economies

Asia-Pacific developed economies Africa

La�n America and Caribbean. North America

Europe

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

East and North-East Asia South-East Asia

South and South-West Asia North and Central Asia

Pacific (AUS, NZ)

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009


South and South - West Asia North and Central Asia

Pacific

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Asia-Pacific Africa

La�n America and Carib. North America

Europe Asia-Pacific developing economies

Asia-Pacific developed economies

16 Energy Efficiency Energy Efficiency 17

Selected Energy Use and Intensity Reduction Targets Energy Efficiency and Economic Competitiveness, 2010

The GLOBAL COMPETITIVENESS

INDEX is a composite statistic

published annually by the World

Economic Forum. The index is

comprised of over 100 variables

under 12 pillars including:

institutions, infrastructure,

macroeconomy, health and

primary education, higher

education, goods market

efficiency, labour markets,

�nancial markets, technological

readiness, market size, business

sophistication, and innovation.

Data source:World Economic Forum

The ENERGY EFFICIENCY FACTOR

value is derived from subtracting

�nal energy intensity (total �nal

consumption per unit GDP

[kgoe/2005 Contant USD]) from

1. A higher value represents

greater efficiency.

Data source: ESCAP Statistical Database based on data from IEA and NAMAD

Sources: China Twelfth Five-Year Plan (2011-2015), APEC Sydney Joint Declaration, Japan Energy Conser-vation Centre, Republic of Korea National Energy Basic Plan (2008 - 2030), ASEAN Centre for Energy, Indone-sian National Energy Conservation Master Plan (2005), Sustainable Singapore Development Blueprint (2009), Thailand 20-Year Energy Efficiency Development Plan (EEDP) 2011-2030, Vietnam National Energy Efficiency Program (VNEEP, 2006 -2015), Comprehensive Plan for Energy Efficiency Improvement in the Republic of Kazakhstan (2012-2015), Energy Efficiency and Energy Sector Development National Program of the Russian Federation (2013-2020), New Zealand Energy Efficiency and Conservation Strategy (2011-2016)

Note: TPES = Total Primary Energy SupplyTFC = Total Final ConsumptionBAU = Business as usual

2021

Energy Use Energy Intensity

Reduction Target (%)

Baseline Year

Target Year(TPES) (TFC)

East and North-East AsiaChina • 16 2010 2015

Hong Kong, China • 45 2005 2030

Japan • 30 2003 2030

Korea, Rep. • 45 2006 2030South-East AsiaBrunei Darussalam • 25 2005 2030

Cambodia • 10 BAU 2030

Indonesia • 1%/yr 2025

Lao PDR • 10 BAU 2030

Malaysia • 10 2011 2030

Myanmar • 5 BAU 2020• 10 BAU 2030

Philippines • 10 BAU 2030

Singapore • 20 2005 2020• 35 2005 2030

Thailand • 15 2005 2020• 25 2005 2030

Viet Nam • 8 2006 2015South and South-West AsiaIndia • 5 2010 2015North and Central AsiaKazakhstan • 10 2011 2010

• 25 2011 2020

Russian Federation • 40 2007 2020PacificNew Zealand • 1.3%/yr 2010

Armenia

Australia

Azerbaijan

Bangladesh

Brunei Darussalam

Cambodia

China

Georgia

Hong Kong, China

IndiaIndonesia

Iran, IR

Japan

Kazakhstan

Kyrgyzstan

Malaysia

Mongolia

Nepal

New Zealand

Pakistan

Philippines

Korea, Rep.

Russian Federa�on

Singapore

Sri Lanka

Tajikistan

Thailand

TurkeyViet Nam

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

5.5

6

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Energy Efficiency Factor

y = 3.12 + 1.87xR²=0.54


Technological Contributions to Global Emissions Reductions to Achieve the 2OC Scenario

Sectoral Contributions to Global Emissions Reductions to Achieve the 2OC Scenario

LIMITING GLOBAL WARMING

The 6°C Scenario (6DS) is largely an

extension of current trends and is

broadly consistent with the Current

Policies Scenario*. By 2050, energy

use almost doubles (compared with

2009) and total Green House Gas

(GHG) emissions rise even more. In

the absence of efforts to stabilise

atmospheric concentrations of GHGs,

average global temperature rise is

projected to be at least 6°C in the long

term.

The 4°C Scenario (4DS) takes into

account recent pledges made by

countries to limit emissions and step

up efforts to improve energy

efficiency. It is broadly consistent with

the New Policies Scenario.

The 2°C Scenario (2DS) describes an

energy system consistent with an

emissions trajectory that recent

climate science research indicates

would give an 80% chance of limiting

average global temperature increase

to 2°C. It is broadly consistent with the

450 Scenario. It sets the target of

cutting energy-related CO2 emissions

by more than half in 2050 (compared

with 2009) and ensuring that they Note: CCS = Carbon Capture and StorageSource: IEA, Energy Technology Perspectives 2012

*See the References and Notes section for a furtherexplanation of the various scenarios. Source: IEA, Energy Technology Perspectives 2012

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

2009 2020 2030 2040 2050

End-use fuel and electricity efficiency 31% CCS 22%

End-use fuel switching 9% Renewables 28%

Power genera�on efficiency and fuel switching 3% Nuclear 9%

6°C Scenario

2°C Scenario

4°C Scenario

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

2009 2020 2030 2040 2050

Power genera�on 42% Industry 18% Transport 21%

Buildings 13% Other transforma�on 7%

6°C Scenario

2°C Scenario

4°C Scenario


Asia-Paci�c Installed Renewable EnergyCapacity Including Hydro (GW), 2009/2010

Cumulative Installed Wind Power Capacityin Top Ten Countries, 1990-2012

Asia-Paci�c RenewableEnergy Production Trends

Source: EPI from Worldwatch, CREIA, DOE, GWEC, EWEA

Data source: REN 21

Data source: IEA

RPS = Renewable Portfolio Standard

Source: REN21 Renewables 2012 Global Status Report

Renewable Energy Policies, Selected Countries

0

50

100

150

200

250

2000 2005 2010

Portugal

Canada

France

ItalyUnited Kingdom

India

Spain

Germany

United States

China

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

2000 2005 2010

Solar (PV, Thermal)

0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

2000 2005 2010

Wind

02,0004,0006,0008,000

10,00012,00014,000

2000 2005 2010

Biofuels and Waste

293.663.0

23.2

89.7

22.4



South-East Asia


Pacific

491.9 GW

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

2000 2005 2010

Hydro

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

2000 2005 2010

Geothermal

• na�onal-level policy • state/provincial policy

Fiscal Incentives Public Financing Regulatory Policies

CountryArmenia •Australia • • • • •Bangladesh • • •China • • • • • • • •India • • • • • • • • •Indonesia • • • • • • • •Iran, IR • • •Japan • • • • • •Kazakhstan • •Korea, Rep. • • • • • • • •Kyrgyzstan • • •Malaysia • • • • • •Marshall Isl. •Mongolia • •Nepal • • • • •New Zealand •Pakistan • • • •Palau •Philippines • • • • • • • • • •Russian Fed. •Singapore • •Sri Lanka • • • • • • • •Thailand • • • •Turkey • •Viet Nam • • •

22 Renewable Energy Renewable Energy 23

Asia-Paci�c Renewable Energy Production, by Subregion(excluding Hydro and Solid Biomass)

Asia-Paci�cRenewable EnergyProduction, 2010

(excluding Hydro)

Asia-Paci�cEnergy Production

2010

Source: IEA Data source: IEA

* Includes: biogas, sludge gas, land�ll gas, renewablemunicipal waste, biodiesel, and biogasoline.

Data source: IEA

Renewables** as % of Total Energy Production

Renewables (excluding Solid Biomass***)as % of Total Energy Production

*** Solid biomass includes a multitude of woody materials such as �rewood, wood chips, bark, sawdust, shavings, chips, sulphite lyes, and animal waste.

** Includes: hydro, geothermal, solar PV, solar thermal, tidal, wind, municipal waste (renewable), solid biomass, charcoal, land�ll gas, sludge gas, other biogases, biogasoline, biodiesel, and other liquid biofuels.

0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

2000 2005 2010


0

5,000

10,000

15,000

20,000

25,000

30,000

35,000

40,000

2000 2005 2010

South-East Asia

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

2000 2005 2010


0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

2000 2005 2010

Paci�c (AUS, NZ)

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

2000 2005 2010


2% 2%

89%

1%6%

Biofuels and Waste* Solar

Solid Biomass Wind Geothermal

East and North-East Asia North and Central Asia South-East Asia

South and South-West Asia Pacific (AUS, NZ)

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

6%

2000 2005 2010

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

2000 2005 2010

Fossil fuels and nuclear88%

Renewables10%

Hydro2%


Asia-Paci�c Electricity Production from Renewables (excluding Hydro)

Asia-Paci�cRenewableElectricity

Production2010

Asia-Paci�cTotal Electricity

Production2010

Data source: IEAData source: IEA

Source: IRENA, 2012

Source: UNEP, 2008

Source: ILO, 2012

Potential Employment Creationthrough Off-Grid Renewable Electricity

Renewable Energy Employment 2009/10

Average Employment over Life of Power Plants(Estimated jobs per megawatt of average capacity)

Biofuels and Waste15%

Solar4%

Wind47%

Solid Biomass

17%

Geothermal17%

0

20,000

40,000

60,000

80,000

100,000

120,000

140,000

160,000

180,000

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Biofuels and Waste Solar

Wind Solid Biomass

Geothermal

Hydro14%

Renewables 2%

Fossil fuels and nuclear

84%

Jobs per megawatt

Solar 30

Small Hydro 4

Biomass 15

Wind 22

Manufacturing, Construction,

Installation

Operations & Maintenance/

Fuel Processing Total

Solar PV 5.76–6.21 1.20–4.80 6.96–11.01Wind Power 0.43–2.51 0.27 0.70–2.78Biomass 0.4 0.38–2.44 0.78–2.84Coal-Fired 0.27 0.74 1.01Natural Gas-Fired 0.25 0.7 0.95

-

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

1,600

1,800

China India USA

Biogas

Small Hydro

Biomass

Solar Thermal

Solar PV

Wind


Total CO2 Emissions by Asia-Paci�c Subregion

Global CO2Emissions

2009

Data source: ESCAP Statistical Database basedon data from MDG Indicators database

Data source: ESCAP Statistical Database basedon data from MDG Indicators database

Global Per Capita CO2 EmissionsPer Capita CO2 Emissionsby Asia-Paci�c Subregion

Asia-Paci�c54%Africa

4%

Latin America and Carib.

5%

North America

19%

Europe14%

Other countries/areas 4%

30.1 billion tonnes0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10



Pacific

0

5

10

15

20

25

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific developing economies

Asia-Pacific developed economies Africa

La�n America and Carib. North America

Europe Other countries/areas

World

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009



Pacific Pacific (excl AUS, NZ)

28 Energy and Environment Energy and Environment 29

Asia-Paci�c Electricity Productionby Resource

Median Lifecycle GHG Emissions fromElectricity Generation Technologies

Source: Adapted from IPCC SRRES, 2011

CSP = Concentrating solar power

Data source: IEA Data source: WHO Global Health Observatory Data source: WHO Urban Outdoor Air Pollution Database

Outdoor Air Pollution AttributableDALYs per 100,000 Capita, 2004

PM10 levels in Selected Asia-Paci�c Cities*

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

2000 2005 2010

Coal Natural Gas Hydro Nuclear Oil Renewables(other thanhydro)

4 8 12 1846

2245

16

469

840

1001

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

renewable

non-renewable

WHO Air Quality Particulate Matter (PM10) Level Targets

WHO Air Quality Guideline

20

WHO interimtarget-3

30

In addition to other health benefits,

Recommended value representing anacceptable and achievable objective tominimize health effects

these levels reduce mortality risk by another approximately 6% compared to WHO-IT2 levels

WHO interimtarget-2

50

In addition to other health benefits, these levels lower risk of premature mortality by approximately 6% compared to WHO-IT1

WHO interim target-1

70These levels are estimated to be associated with about 15% higher long-term mortality than at AQG

10 11

2329 33

4347 49

54

64

77

96 96

106

121

134

189198

279

20

30

50

70

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

This chart indicates annual mean concentra�on

of par�culate ma�er of less than 10 microns

of diameter (PM10) [ug/m3] in ci�es.

These par�cles are able to penetrate deeply

into the respiratory tract and therefore

cons�tute a risk for health by increasing

mortality from respiratory infec�ons and

diseases, lung cancer, and selected

cardiovascular diseases.

4 5 932 35 39 48 49

6578

117127

174

207

0

50

100

150

200

250The disability-adjusted life year(DALY) is a measure of overall

disease burden, expressed as the

number of years lost due to ill-

health, disability or early death.

Outside ofWHO targetrange

*Data ranges from 2003-2010

30 Energy and Environment Energy and Environment 31

Asia-Paci�c Diesel and Gasoline Pump Prices, 2012

Data source: World Bank statistical database based on data from GIZ Data source: GTZ “Power in G-20 and N-11 Countries – At What Cost?” 2010

Household Electricity Tariffs for Selected ESCAP Member States, September 2010

$0.00

$0.50

$1.00

$1.50

$2.00

$2.50

$3.00

Diesel

Gasoline

Yellow and blue lines indicate the retail

prices of diesel and gasoline in the

United States. These cost-covering retail

prices include industry margin, VAT and

include approximately US 10 cents for

two road funds (federal and state). This

fuel price, being without other specific

fuel taxes, may be considered as the

interna�onal minimum benchmark for a

non-subsidised road transport policy.

2012 crude oil average

$0.00

$0.10

$0.20

$0.30

$0.40

$0.50

$0.60

1st kWh

51st kWh

501st kWh

1001st kWh

32 Energy Economics Energy Economics 33

Total Oil, Natural Gas, Coal and ElectricitySubsidies as Share of GDP for Selected

Asia-Paci�c Countries, 2011

Global Share of Fossil FuelSubsidies Received by theLowest 20% Income Group2010

Data Source: IEA

Data Source: IEA Data Source: IEA

Data Source: IEA

Data source: IEA WEO 2011

Average Fossil Fuel ConsumptionSubsidisation Rate of Selected

Asia-Paci�c Countries, 2011 Fossil Fuel Subsidies for SelectedAsia-Paci�c Countries, 2011

Subsidies by Fuel ($billion), 2011

2012 4th Quarter Percentage ofTaxes in Automotive Diesel Prices for

Non-Commercial Use

0.3

4.3

4.6

15.5

18.4

18.4

18.6

23.2

24.1

32.2

35.4

35.8

44.9

60

61

70

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Korea, Rep.

Philippines

China

Viet Nam

Russian Federa�on

Malaysia

India

Indonesia

Sri Lanka

Kazakhstan

Pakistan

Azerbaijan

Bangladesh

Uzbekistan

Turkmenistan

Iran, IR

% as share of full cost of supply

0.4

0.7

1.9

2.2

2.4

2.5

2.6

3.1

3.3

3.4

5.1

5.3

17

22.7

28.1

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

China

Philippines

Sri Lanka

Russian Federa�on

India

Indonesia

Malaysia

Azerbaijan

Kazakhstan

Viet Nam

Bangladesh

Pakistan

Iran, IR

Turkmenistan

Uzbekistan

% share of GDP

6%

Gasoline

5%

LPG

15%

Kerosene

10%

Natural Gas

6%

Diesel

9%

Electricity

Oil NG Coal TotalIran, IR 41.39 23.4 0 64.79India 30.86 3.03 0 33.89Russian Fed. 0 21.87 0 21.87Indonesia 15.72 0 5.56 21.28China 18.45 0 1.39 19.84Uzbekistan 1.06 9.09 0 10.15Pakistan 2.79 5.54 0 8.33Malaysia 5.35 0.89 0 6.24Turkmenistan 0.83 4.36 0 5.19Kazakhstan 3.19 0.33 0.58 4.10Bangladesh 0.87 1.89 0 2.76Azerbaijan 0.65 0.83 0 1.48Philippines 1.46 0 0 1.46Viet Nam 1.02 0.16 0.02 1.20Sri Lanka 0.82 0 0 0.82

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Coal

Natural gas

Oil

13.3 13.3

31.9 34.5 37.1 38.7

57.7

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

%


Global New Investment* in RenewableEnergy by Sector, 2004-2011

* New investment volume adjusts for re-invested equity.Total values include estimates for undisclosed deals.

Data source: Bloomberg New Energy Finance, UNEPData source: Bloomberg New Energy Finance as published in The PewCharitable Trusts report Who's Winning the Clean Energy Race? 2012 edition

Data source: Bloomberg New Energy Finance as published in The PewCharitable Trusts report Who's Winning the Clean Energy Race? 2012 editionData source: Bloomberg New Energy Finance, UNEP

Note: WTE = waste to energy

Global New Investment* in Renewable Energyby Region, 2004-2011

Distribution of Clean Energy** Investment forSelected ESCAP Member States, 2006-2012

Total Clean Energy** Investment for SelectedESCAP Member States, 2012

** Clean energy includes: all biomass, geothermal, and wind generation projects of more than 1 MW; all hydro projects between 1 and 50 MW; all marine energy projects; all biofuels projects with a capacity of 1 million litres or more a year; and all solar projects, excluding those less than 1 MW in size. Efficiency & low carbon technology investment is comprised of �nancial investment in technology companies covering energy efficiency, smart grid, energy storage, advanced transportation, carbon capture and storage, and general clean energy services companies. Investment in efficiency and low-carbon technology projects by governments and public �nancing institutions was excluded.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Wind Solar Biofuels

Biomass & WTE Small hydro Geothermal

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

United States

Brazil

America (excl. U.S. & Brazil)

Europe

China

India

Asia and Oceania (excl. China & India)

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Efficiency & low carbon tech/services

Biofuels

Wind

Solar

Other renewables

65.1

35.6

16.3

8.3 6.94.9

1.4 0.9 0.20

10

20

30

40

50

60

70


Global Net Energy Imports Asia-Paci�c Subregional Net Energy Imports

Data source: ESCAP Statistical Database based on data from IEA Data source: ESCAP Statistical Database based on data from IEA

Note: “Coal” is comprised of coal and peat. “Renewables” includes hydro.

Data source: IEA

Asia-Paci�c Top 5 Importers and Exporters by Energy Resource, 2010(ktoe)

-800

-600

-400

-200

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

East and North-East Asia South-East Asia South and South-West Asia

North and Central Asia Pacific (AUS, NZ)

China237,682

Japan184,613

India167,193

Korea, Rep. of121,571

Singapore58,005

Japan115,329

China86,442

Korea, Rep.72,949

India49,379

Russian Fed.15,310

Japan82,788

Korea, Rep. of39,279

Turkey31,311

China12,587

India10,295

Philippines78

Thailand66

Korea, Rep. of18

Malaysia4

Hong Kong, China3

1

2

3

4

IMPORTERS

Australia190,144

Indonesia155,882

Russian Fed.85,948

China14,531

Kazakhstan13,766

Russian Fed.248,266

Iran, IR129,491

Kazakhstan65,527

Azerbaijan44,730

Indonesia17,385

Russian Fed.154,131

Indonesia35,952

Malaysia24,137

Australia20,886

Turkmenistan19,549

Indonesia290

Malaysia101

Thailand34

Russian Fed.0.1

---1

2

3

4

EXPORTERS

CRUDE OIL

COAL

NATURAL GAS

RENEWABLES

-1,000

-800

-600

-400

-200

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

ESCAP

ESCAP developing economies

ESCAP developed economies


North America

Europe

Africa

Other countries/areas

World

38 Energy Trade and Investment Energy Trade and Investment 39

Global Cross Border New Investment in Clean Energy, 2011* Asia-Paci�c** Cumulative Gross Capacity Additions by

Source under the New Policies Scenario*** 2012-2035

Source:Bloomberg New Energy Finance White Paper “North-South Clean Energy Investment Flows:An $8bn Step to a $100bn Goal”.

*New build asset �nance for renewable energy projects only.Investment volumes show cross-border investments only.Domestic investments are excluded.

Data source: IEA WEO 2012 Data source: IEA WEO 2012

Asia-Paci�c** Needed Investment in Electricity-Supply Infrastructure under the New Policies Scenario*** 2012-2035 ($2011 billion)

** Excludes the following ESCAP member States: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Georgia, Iran IR, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uzbekistan.

*** New Policies Scenario: A scenario in the IEA World Energy Outlook which takes account of broad policy commitments and plans that have been announced by countries, including national pledges to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and plans to phase out fossil energy subsidies, even if the measures to implement these commitments have yet to be identi�ed or announced.

**** Includes geothermal, concentrating solar power and marine.

893

589

30

213

597

409

334

118

25 214

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1,000

Renewable 1,508

Non-Renewable

1,512

North-South18%

North-North70%

South-South9%

South-North3%

Public Funds13%

Private Funds87%

$44.3 billion

1,062

411

19

557

968

793

582

241

144

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

Plant Infrastructure Investment,by Resource

Transmission948

Distribution 2,899

Non-Renewable

2,049Renewable

2,728

Plant Infrastructure 4,777

$8,624 (billion)

40 Energy Trade and Investment Energy Trade and Investment 41

Energy Self-Sufficiencyin Asia and the Paci�c Major Oil Trade

Movements, 2011

Major Gas TradeMovements, 2011

*Data was unavailable for Afghanistan, Maldives, Timore-Leste and Tuvalu.Note: Energy self-sufficiency values for this chart were derived by subtracting the ratio of production over TPES from one.

Oil trade movements are represented in million tonnes

Gas trade movements are in billion cubic metres

Source: Adapted from BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2012

Data source: ESCAP Statistical databasebased on data from IEA and IRENA

Self-sufficient

Between 0 and 25% below self-sufficiency



Between 75 and 100% below self

Data unavailable*

-sufficiency

-100%

0%

100%

200%

300%

400%

500%

SELF SUFFICIENT

88.0

26.614.1

9.7

117.1

66.4

35.2

23.5

12.1 10.2

32.0

14.3

17.38.6

6.7 6.3

3.8

3.9

15.7

3.0 7.6

44.116.8

4.4

13.5

29.1

19.8

17.47.1

41.3

9.8

5.0

19.0

133.8

59.8

27.1

41.1

23.7

29.5

35.5

68.3

18.4

95.5

111.2

42.2

27.1

29.5

57.6

298.2

126.0 175.1

48.6

61.1

110.7

34.3

15.6

22.128.4

61.5

137.849.5

28.4

26.0

226.6

Oil

Pipeline gas

LNG

42 Energy Connectivity Energy Connectivity 43

Russian Federa�on

China

Iran

India

Australia

Kazakhstan

Turkmenistan

Indonesia

Pakistan

Azerbaijan

Malaysia

Uzbekistan

ThailandViet Nam

Korea, DPR

Brunei Darussalam

New Zealand

Papua New Guinea

Bangladesh

Myanmar

Korea, Rep. of

Japan

HVDC OHL 600 kV

HVAC OHL 750 kV

pipeline (coal

gasifica�on)

Rail

HVDC UG 500 kV

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

Coal -generated electricity cost by transport options**(¢/kWh)

Resource Measurement Data SourceOil Proved reserves BP 2012

Gas Proved reserves BP 2012

Coal Proved reserves BP 2012

Hydro Technical poten�al (kWh) ESCAP 2008

Solar Total poten�al (KWh/m²/day) NREL 2008

Wind Area (km²) Class 3-7 Wind at 50m NREL 1990

Geothermal kWh GEA 1999

Uranium Proved reserves EEP 2008

High

Medium

• Medium-Low

Low

Unknown

X Not applicable

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Fossil Fuel Reserves Nuclear Renewable Energy Technical Poten�al




South-East Asia

Pacific

WIND

SOLAR

HYDRO

BIOMASS

GEOTHERMAL

OCEAN

Asia-Paci�c Proved Fossil FuelReserves at end of 2011

Asia-Paci�c RenewableEnergy Resources

Asia-Paci�c RenewableEnergy Resource Distribution

* Includes anthracite, bituminous,sub-bituminous and lignite

Fossil fuels data source: BP Coal-generated electricity cost source:ABB Review 1/2008

Note: Proportions represented are independent of eachother and therefore are not directly comparable.

Note: Information unavailable forArmenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia,Turkey and the Russian Federation

** Calculated from scenario of transporting 1,000 MWover distance of 1,000 km.

HVDC UG = High Voltage Direct Current UndergroundHVAC OHL = High Voltage Alternating Current Overhead LinesHVDC OHL = High Voltage Direct Current Overhead Lines

Note: Pie charts were generated using million tonnes oil equivalents for the three fossil fuel resource types. Size of chart is approximate representation of total fossil fuel resources.

Note: The information on resources should be taken as an indication only. It refers to a general trend of available resources, and does not pre-judge thefeasibility of individual projects. The thresholds are indicative, and do not refer to any technological choice. The IRENA analysis is based on literature.

OilNatural

Gas Coal*

Thousand million tonnes

Trillion cubic

metres

Million tonnes

Australia 0.4 3.8 76,400Azerbaijan 1.0 1.3 -

Bangladesh - 0.4 -Brunei Darussalam 0.1 0.3 -

China 2.0 3.1 114,500India 0.8 1.2 60,600

Indonesia 0.6 3.0 5,529Iran 20.8 33.1 -Japan - - 350

Kazakhstan 3.9 1.9 33,600

Korea, DPR - - 600Korea, Rep. - - 126Malaysia 0.8 2.4 -

Myanmar - 0.2 -New Zealand - - 571

Pakistan - 0.8 2,070Papua New Guinea - 0.4

Russian Federa�on 12.1 44.6 157,010Thailand 0.1 0.3 1,239

Turkmenistan 0.1 24.3 -

Uzbekistan 0.1 1.6 -

Viet Nam 0.6 0.6 150Other Asia Pacific 0.1 0.3 3,708Total 43.4 123.5 456,453

of


GENERATION

•Develop evolu�onary regula�on to support more variable and distributed approaches

•Develop regulatory mechanisms to encourage business and markets to enable wider system flexibility

TRANSMISSION

•Con�nue Smart Grid deployment to increase visibility and reliability

•Assess status of regional transmission systems and future requirements

DISTRIBUTION

•Determine policy to use Smart Grids to leverage investments

•Promote real-�me energy usage info and pricing

INDUSTRIAL SERVICE RESIDENTIAL

Wide-area monitoring & control

Renewable and distributed generation integration*

Information and communication technology (ICT) integration

Electric vehicle charging infrastructure

Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI)

Distribution grid management

Transmission enhancement applications**

Customer-side systems (CS)

•Prac�cal sharing of Smart Grid costs & benefits•Cyber security

Development TrendModerate Fast

Central Asia – South Asia Regional Electricity Market (CASA 1000)CountriesAfghanistanKyrgyzstanPakistanTajikistan

Capacity1,300 MW

InvestmentApprox. US$ 950 million

StatusWorld Bank board of approval expected in 2013

GMS Power Market

CountriesCambodiaChinaLao PDRMyanmarThailandViet Nam

Capacity *•2,767 MW exis�ng•5,545 MW committed

thru 2015•31,400 MW iden�fied

projects

StatusComple�on target by 2028

ASEAN Power Grid

CountriesBrunei Darussalam CambodiaIndonesiaLao PDRMalaysiaMyanmarPhilippinesSingaporeThailandViet Nam

Capacity**More than 32,000 MW

InvestmentApprox. US$ 5.9 billion

Status•9 interconnec�ons

opera�onal•Remaining 7 ready

by 2020

SAARC Market for Electricity (part of SAARC Energy Ring)CountriesAfghanistanBangladeshBhutanIndiaIran, IRKyrgyzstanMaldivesMyanmarNepalPakistanSri LankaTajikistanTurkmenistanUzbekistan

InvestmentApprox. US$ 1 billion over next 5 years on priority projects

StatusDra� Framework Agreement under considera�onby SAARCStudy on Regional Power Exchange forthcoming in 2013

Uzbekistan

12,000

Hong Kong, China

11,047

Thailand

7,287

India

5,610

Viet Nam

5,599

Top 5 Electricity Importers (GWh), 2010

Russian Fed.

19,091

China

19,059

Uzbekistan

12,087

Iran, IR

6,707

Hong Kong, China

2,609

Top 5 Electricity Exporters (GWh), 2010Smart Grid Technology, Maturity Levels, Development Trends and Action Areas

Selected Asia-Paci�c MultilateralCross-Border Power Interconnections

Source: adapted fromOECD/IEA 2011 Technology Roadmap: Smart Grids

* Battery storage technologies are less mature than other distributed energy technologies** High Temperature Superconducting technology is still in the developing stage of maturity

* Capacity under the GMS Master Plan ‘base case’** Approximation based on available information for about 14 out of 16 interconnections

Note: This is not an exhaustive list. Bilateral initiatives are not included.

SAARC non-member Sources: World Bank World - Central Asia South Asia Electricity Transmission and Trade Project (CASA 1000), 2012; SAARC Website www.saarc-sec.org; ADB Update of the GMS Regional Master Plan 2010; ASEAN Economic Community Handbook for Business 2012, ASEAN Community Project Information Sheets 2012; HAPUA website www.hapuasecretariat.org


Bloomberg New Energy Finance, Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment (2012), Frankfurt, Bloomberg New Energy Finance and UNEP, 2012. Bloomberg New Energy Finance, North-South Clean Energy Investment Flows: An $8bn Step to a $100bn Goal” white paper (2012).

BP, Statistical Review of World Energy (2012). Available from www.bp.com/statisticalreview.

ESCAP, Asian Energy Highway: Energy resource efficiency and security through regional energy planning and power trading. Working paper. Bangkok.

ESCAP, ESCAP statistical database(2013). Available from http://www.unescap.org/stat/data/statdb/DataExplorer.aspx.

IEA, Energy Technology Perspectives (2012). Paris. OECD and IEA.

IEA, Technology Roadmap: Smart Grids (2012). Paris. OECD and IEA.

IEA (2011).Fossil fuel consumption subsidy rates as a proportion of the full cost of supply database. Available from http://www.iea.org/subsidy/index.html

IEA. Renewables Information Statistics database. Available from http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/statistics.

IEA, World Energy Outlook (2011). Paris. OECD and IEA. IEA, World Energy Outlook (2012). Paris. OECD and IEA.

IEA, World energy outlook: IEA analysis of fossil fuel subsidies (2011). PowerPoint presentation. Paris. Accessed 4 October 2011.

IEA. World Energy Statistics and Balances database. Available from http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/statistics.

ILO, Working towards sustainable development (2012).Geneva.

IPCC, Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (2011). Bonn.

IRENA, Renewable Energy Country Pro�les database. Available from http://www.irena.org/REmaps/.

IRENA, Renewable Energy Jobs & Access (2012). United Arab Emirates.

Oudalov, A. and M. Reza. Transport or transmit? Should we transport primary energy resources or transmit them as electricity? ABB Review. vol. 1/2008: pp. 48-51 (2008).

The Pew Charitable Trusts, Who’s Winning the Clean Energy Race? 2012 Edition. Washington, 2013.

REN21, Renewables 2012 Global Status Report (2012). Paris. REN 21 Secretariat.

WHO, Global Health Observatory Data Repository database. Available from http://apps.who.int/gho/data/view.main#.

WHO, Household Energy Database” database (2013). Geneva, Available from www.who.int/indoorair/health_impacts/he_database/en/.

WHO, Solid fuel use for cooking estimates by country 2007” database (2013). Geneva. Available from www.who.int/indoorair/health_impacts/he_database/en/.

World Bank, Development Indicators database. Available from http://data.worldbank.org/.

World Economic Forum, The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011 (2011). Geneva.

UNDP, Gender Inequality Index database. Available from http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/gii/.

UNDP, Human Development Index database. Available from http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/hdi/.

United Nations Statistics Division, UNdata database. Available from http://data.un.org/.

Overview of ScenariosPresented in IEA’s World Energy Outlook Current Policies Scenario: A scenario that assumes no changes in policies from the mid-point of the year of publication.

New Policies Scenario: A scenario which takes account of broad policy commitments and plans that have been announced by countries, including national pledges to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions and plans to phase out fossil-energy subsidies, even if the measures to implement these commitments have yet to be identi�ed or announced.

450 Scenario: A scenario which sets out an energy pathway consistent with the goal of limiting the global increase in temperature to 2°C by limiting concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere to around 450 parts per million of CO2.

All web-based sources were accessed between April and May 2013.

48 References and Notes

gas 17% nuclear 6% hydro renewables 12%. 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030...

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