gases mold

7
Vol. 5 8 , N o . 8 PPLIED AND ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY, Aug. 1992, p . 2599-2605 0099-2240/92/082599-07$02.00/0 Copyright C ) 1992, American Society f o r Microbiology Volatile Metabolites Produced b y S i x Fungal Species Compared with Other Indicators o f Fungal Growth on Cereal Grains THOMAS BORJESSON,.12* ULLA STOLLMAN,1 AND JOHAN SCHNURER2 SIK-The Swedish Institute f o r Food Research, Box 5401, S-402 2 9 Goteborg, 1 a n d DeTartment o f Microbiology, T h e Swedish University o f Agricultural Sciences, S-750 0 7 Uppsala, Sweden Received 2 8 January 1992/Accepted 1 8 May 1992 S i x fungal species, Penicillium brevicompactum, P . glabrum, P . roqueforti, AspergiUusflavus, A . versicolor, a n d A . candidus, were inoculated on moistened a n d autoclaved wh ea t an d o a t grains. They were cultivated i n glass vessels pro vided with an inlet a n d outlet f o r air. A i r was passed through t h e vessels t o collect volatile fungal metabolites on porous polymer adsorbents attached t o t h e outlet. Samples were collected a t two fungal growth stages. Adsorbed compounds were thermally desorbed, separated b y ga s chromatography, and identified b y mass spectrometry. Differences i n t h e production o f volatile metabolites depended more on t h e fungal species than on t h e grain type. T h e fungal growth stage was n o t an important factor determining t h e composition o f volatiles produced. 3-Methylfuran was produced i n similar amounts regardless o f t h e fungal species a n d substrate (oat versus wheat). T he production o f volatile metabolites was compared with t h e production o f ergosterol a n d C O2 a n d t h e number o f CFU. T h e production of volatile metabolites was more strongly correlated with accumulated C O2 production than with actual C O2 production a n d more strongly correlated with ergosterol contents o f t h e grain than with numbers o f CFU. Fungal growth i n stored cereals decreases their nutrit ional value a n d c a n pose health hazards because o f t h e formation o f mycotoxins a n d potentially allergenic spores. There i s thus a need f o r methods that c a n accurately quantify t h e degree o f fungal infection i n grains a t a n early stage o f mold Earlier studies have shown that volatile fungal metabolites c a n be used a s indicators o f fungal growth i n stored cereals (14). A number o f compounds have been reported a s volatile fungal metabolites i n grains. T h e most common o f these a r e 3-octanone, 1-octen-3-ol, a n d 3-methyl-1-butanol ( 1 , 1 0 , 14). In addition, i n our previous studies ( 2 , 3 ) , 3-methylfuran (identified a s 2-methyl-furan i n 2 ) was found t o be produced a l l examined storage molds g r ow th on grain. T h e above-mentioned metabolites seem t o have potential a s indicators o f fungal growth i n grains. Another wa y o f using volatile fungal metabolites a s indicators o f mold growth i s t o measure t h e total concentration of a group o f compounds. Kaminski e t a l . ( 9 ) used carbonyl compounds f o r this pur- pose. Marked differences i n t h e production o f volatile metabo- lites havebeen reported between closely related species a n d even between strains o f t e same ( 4 , 5 , 13). This was also confirmed f o r molds occurring on wheat (2). Before volatile fungal metabolites c a be used t o quantify fungal growth i n cereals, a closer look a t t h e range of metabolites produced b y t h e most common grain-deteriorating fungi i s essential. I n a n earlier study, t h e choice of cereal-based agar medium d id not markedly influence t h e volatile produced b y Penicillium aurantiogriseum (3). These results agree with those o f Abramson et a l. (1), wh o found t h e same odorous, volatile fungal metabolites regardless o f cereal type. Similarly, t h e volatile metabolites produced during growth o f Phlebia radiata on a range o f substrates were * Corresponding author. generally t h e same (6). However, 1-octen-3-ol h a s been reported o b e produced during t h e enzymatic breakdown o f lipids (15). 1-Octen-3-ol levels could therefore be expected t o vary with different lipid contents i n substrates. When study- i n g t h e range of volatiles produced o n cereals, i t i s therefore advisable t o include oats, which have a substantially higher lipid content than other cereals. Besides being influenced b y species a n d substrate compo- sition, t h e production o f volatile metabolites c a n b e influ- enced b y t h e duration o f fungal growth. F o r instance, Hubbal a n d Collins ( 8 ) found that volatile terpenes occurred i n different ratios depending o n t h e stage o f growth o f Ceratocystis vanospora. I t was suggested that this variation was d u e t o t h e metabolic turnov e r of the terpenes. Th e relative proportions o f different yeast metabolites were dependent o n t h e amount o f residual glucose i n t h e medium a n d thus o n t h e stage o f growth o f t h e yeast (11). We also found that t h e stage o f fungal growth c a n influence t h e amounts o f volatile metabolites produced from molds o n cereals (2). I t therefore seemed essential t o also consider t h e stage o f growth i n t h e present study. In a previous investigation, w e found a high positive correlation between production o f CO2 a n d that o f volatile metabolites (3). Furthermore, volatile metabolites were more strongly correlated with levels o f ergosterol than with numbers o f CFU. I f volatile metabolites a r e t o be used a s indicators o f fungal growth, t h e following criteria based on earlier findings should b e met. ( i ) I t should b e possible t o u s e a single volatile compound o r a s et o f compounds a s general indicators o f fungal growth. (ii) Differences between fungal species should b e greater than differences caused b y growth o n different cereals. (iii) The time o f sampling should n o t influence t h e composition o f volatile metabolites produced, although quantitative differences m a y occur. (iv) There should b e a strong correlation between t h e production o f CO2 a n d that o f volatile metabolites. ( v ) T h e production o f 2599

Upload: nadia-tannia

Post on 06-Apr-2018

230 views

Category:

Documents


0 download

TRANSCRIPT

8/2/2019 Gases Mold

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gases-mold 1/7

V o l . 5 8 , N o . 8PPLIED AND ENVIRONMENTA L M I C R O B I O L O G Y , A u g . 1 9 9 2 , p . 2 5 9 9 - 2 6 0 5

0 0 9 9 - 2 2 4 0 / 9 2 / 0 8 2 5 9 9 - 0 7 $ 0 2 . 0 0 / 0C o p y r i g h t C ) 1 9 9 2 , A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y f o r M i c r o b i o l o g y

V o l a t i l e M e t a b o l i t e s P r o d u c e d by S i x F u n g a l S p e c i e s

Compared w i t h O t h e r I n d i c a t o r s o f F u n g a l G r o w t h on

C e r e a l G r a i n sTHOMAS B O R J E S S O N , . 1 2 * ULLA STOLLMAN,1 AND JOHAN SCHNURER2

S I K - T h e S w e d i s h I n s t i t u t e f o r Food R e s e a r c h , Box 5 4 0 1 , S - 4 0 2 2 9 G o t e b o r g , 1 a n d D e T a r t m e n t o f

M i c r o b i o l o g y , T h e S w e d i s h U n i v e r s i t y o f A g r i c u l t u r a l S c i e n c e s , S - 7 5 0 0 7 U p p s a l a , S w e d e n

R e c e i v e d 2 8 J a n u a r y 1 9 9 2 / A c c e p t e d 1 8 Ma y 1 9 9 2

S i x f u n g a l s p e c i e s , P e n i c i l l i u m b r e v i c o m p a c t u m , P . g l a b r u m , P . r o q u e f o r t i , A s p e r g i U u s f l a v u s , A . v e r s i c o l o r ,a n d A . c a n d i d u s , were i n o c u l a t e d on m o i s t e n e d a n d a u t o c l a v e d w h e a t a n d o a t g r a i n s . They were c u l t i v a t e d i ng l a s s v e s s e l s p r o v i d ed w i t h an i n l e t a n d o u t l e t f o r a i r . A i r was p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e v e s s e l s t o c o l l e c t v o l a t i l ef u n g a l m e t a b o l i t e s on p o r o us p o ly m e r a d s o r b e n t s a t t a c h e d t o t h e o u t l e t . S a m p l e s were c o l l e c t e d a t two f u n g a l

g r o w t h s t a g e s . A d s o r b e d c o m p o u n d s were t h e r m a l l y d e s o r b e d , s e p a r a t e d b y ga s c h r o m a t o g r a p h y , and

i d e n t i f i e d b y mass s p e c t r o m e t r y . D i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s d e p e n d e d more on t h e

f u n g a l s p e c i e s t h a n on t h e g r a i n t y p e . T h e f u n g a l g r o w t h s t a g e was n o t an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e

c o m p o s i t i o n o f v o l a t i l e s p r o d u c e d . 3 - M e t h y l f u r a n was p r o d u c e d i n s i m i l a r amounts r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e f u n g a l

s p e c i e s a n d s u b s t r a t e ( o a t versus w h e a t ) . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s was c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e

p r o d u c t i o n o f e r g o s t e r o l a n d C O2 a n d t h e number o f CFU. T h e p r o d u c t io n o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s was more

s t r o n g l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a c c u m u l a t e d C O2 p r o d u c t i o n t h a n w i t h a c t u a l C O2 p r o d u c t i o n a n d more s t r o n g l yc o r r e l a t e d w i t h e r g o s t e r o l c o n t e n t s o f t h e g r a i n t h an w it h n u m b e r s o f CFU.

F u n g a l g r o w t h i n s t o r e d c e r e a l s d e c r e a s e s t h e i r n u t r i t i o n a lv a l u e a n d c a n p o s e h e a l t h h a z a r d s b e c a u s e o f t h e f o r m a t i o no f m y c o t o x i n s a n d p o t e n t i a l l y a l l e r g e n i c s p o r e s . T h e r e i st h u s a n e e d f o r m e t h o d s t h a t c a n a c cu ra t el y q u a nt i f y t h e

d e g r e e o f f u n g a l i n f e c t i o n i n g r a i n s a t a n e a r l y s t a g e o f m o l dg r o w t h .

E a r l i e r s t u d i e s h a v e s h o w n t h a t v o l a t i l e f u n g a l m e t a b o l i t e s

c a n b e u s e d a s i n d i c a t o r s o f f u n g a l g r o w t h i n s t o r e d c e r e a l s( 1 4 ) . A n u m b e r o f c o m p o u n d s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d a s v o l a t i l e

f u n g a l m e t a b o l i t e s i n g r a i n s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n o f t h e s e a r e3 - o c t a n o n e , 1 - o c t e n - 3 - o l , a n d 3 - m e t h y l - 1 - b u t a n o l ( 1 , 1 0 , 1 4 ) .I n a d d i t i o n , i n o u r p re vi o u s s t u d i e s ( 2 , 3 ) , 3 - m e t h y l f u r a n( i d e n t i f i e d a s 2 - m e t h y l - f u r a n i n 2 ) was f o u n d t o b e p r o d uc e db y a l l e x a m i n e d s t o r a g e m o l d s d u r i n g g r o w t h o n g r a i n . T h ea b o v e - m e n t i o n e d m e t a b o l i t e s seem t o h a v e p o t e n t i a l a s

i n d i c a t o r s o f f u n g a l g r o w t h i n g r a i n s . A n o t h e r wa y o f u s i n gv o l a t i l e f u n g a l m e t a b o l i t e s a s i n d i c a t o r s o f m o l d g r o w t h i s t om e a s u r e t h e t o t a l c o nc en t ra t io n o f a g r o u p o f c o m p o u n d s .K a m i n s k i e t a l . ( 9 ) u s e d c a r b o n y l c o m p o u n d s f o r t h i s p u r -

p o s e .

M a r k e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o -l i t e s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d b e t w e e n c l o s e l y r e l a t e d s p e c i e s a n de v e n b e t w e e n s t r a i n s o f t h e same f u n g u s ( 4 , 5 , 1 3 ) . T h i s wasa l s o c o n f i r m e d f o r m o l d s o c c u r r i n g on w h e a t ( 2 ) . B e f o r ev o l a t i l e f u n g a l m e t a b o l i t e s c a n b e u s ed t o q u a n t i f y f u n g a lg r o w t h i n c e r e a l s , a c l o s e r l o o k a t t h e r a n g e o f m et a b o l i t esp r o d u c e d b y t h e m o s t c o m m o n g r a i n - d e t e r i o r a t i n g f u n g i i s

e s s e n t i a l . I n a n e a r l i e r s t u d y , t h e c h o i c e o f c e re a l - ba s e d a g a rmedium d i d n o t m a r k e d l y i n f l u e n c e t h e v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s

p r o d u c e d b y P e n i c i l l i u m a u r a n t i o g r i s e u m ( 3 ) . T h e s e r e s u l t sa g r e e w i t h t h o s e o f Abramson e t a l . ( 1 ) , wh o f o u n d t h e same

o d o r o u s , v o l a t i l e f u n g a l m e t a b o l i t e s r e g a r d l e s s o f c e r e a lt y p e . S i m i l a r l y , t h e v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s p r o d u c e d d u r i n gg r o w t h o f P h l e b i a r a d i a t a o n a r a n g e o f s u b s t r a t e s were

* C o r r e s p o n d i n g a u t h o r .

g e n e r a l l y t h e s a m e ( 6 ) . H o w e v e r , 1 - o c t e n - 3 - o l h a s b e e n

r e p o r t e d t o b e p r o d u c e d d u r i n g t h e e n z y m a t i c b r e a k d o w n o f

l i p i d s ( 1 5 ) . 1 - O c t e n - 3 - o l l e v e l s c o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e e x p e c t e d t ov a r y w i t h d i f f e r e n t l i p i d c o n t e n t s i n s u b s t r a t e s . W hen s t u d y -

i n g t h e r an ge o f v o l a t i l e s p r o d u c e d o n c e r e a l s , i t i s t h e r e f o r e

a d v i s a b l e t o i n c l u d e o a t s , w h i c h h a v e a s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r

l i p i d c o n t e nt t h a n o t he r c e r e a l s .B e s i d e s b e i n g i n f l u e n c e d b y s p e c i e s a n d s u b s t r a t e c o m p o -

s i t i o n , t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s c a n b e i n f l u -

e n c e d b y t h e d u r a t i o n o f f u n g a l g r o w t h . F o r i n s t a n c e ,H u b b a l a n d C o l l i n s ( 8 ) f o u n d t h a t v o l a t i l e t e r p e n e s o c c u r r e d

i n d i f f e r e n t r a t i o s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s t a g e o f g r o w t h o f

C e r a t o c y s t i s v a n o s p o r a . I t was s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s v a r i a t i o nwas d u e t o t h e m e t a b o l i c t u r no v e r o f t h e t e rp en es . Th e

r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n t y e a s t m e t a b o l i t e s w e r e

d e p e n d e n t o n t h e amount o f r e s i d u a l g l u c o s e i n t h e medium

a n d t h u s o n t h e s t a g e o f g r o w t h o f t h e y e a s t ( 1 1 ) . We a l s of o u n d t h a t t h e s t a g e o f f u n g a l g r o w t h c a n i n f l u e n c e t h e

a m o u n t s o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s p r o d u c e d f r o m m o l d s o n

c e r e a l s ( 2 ) . I t t h e r e f o r e s e e m e d e s s e n t i a l t o a l s o c o n s i d e r t h es t a g e o f g r o w t h i n t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y .

I n a p r e v i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , w e f o u n d a h i g h p o s i t i v ec o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n p r o d u c t i o n o f CO2 a n d t h a t o f v o l a t i l em e t a b o l i t e s ( 3 ) . F u r t h e r m o r e , v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s were

more s t r o n g l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h l e v e l s o f e r g o s t e r o l t h a n w i t hn u m b e r s o f CFU. I f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s a r e t o b e u s e d a s

i n d i c a t o r s o f f u n g a l g r o w t h , t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a b a s e d on

e a r l i e r f i n d i n g s s h o u l d b e m e t . ( i ) I t s h o u l d b e p o s s i b l e t o u s e

a s i n g l e v o l a t i l e c o m p o u n d o r a s e t o f c o m p o u n d s a s g e n e r a li n d i c a t o r s o f f u n g a l g r o w t h . ( i i ) D i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n f u n g a ls p e c i e s s h o u l d b e g r e a t e r t h a n d i f f e r e n c e s c a u s e d b y g r o w t ho n d i f f e r e n t c e r e a l s . ( i i i ) The t i m e o f s a m p l i n g s h o u l d n o t

i n f l u e n c e t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s p r o d u c e d ,a l t h o u g h q u a n t i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s m a y o c c u r . ( i v ) T h e r e

s h o u l d b e a s t r o n g c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f

CO2 a n d t h a t o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s . ( v ) T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f

2 5 9 9

8/2/2019 Gases Mold

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gases-mold 2/7

2 6 0 0 BORJESSON E T AL.

v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s s h o u l d b e more s t r o n g l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h

t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f e r g o s t e r o l t h a n w i t h t h e n u m b e r s o f CFU.

T h e s e c r i t e r i a were t e s t e d b y c u l t i v a t i n g s i x d i f f e r e n tm o l d s t h a t c o m m o n l y occur on c e r e a l s o n m o i s t , a u t o c l a v e d

w h e a t a n d m o i s t , a u t o c l a v e d o a t s . V o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e a n d

C O2 l e v e l s , e r g o s t e r o l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , a n d n u m b e r s o f C F Uwere m e a s u r e d a t two s t a g e s o f g r o w t h .

M A T E R I A L S AND METHODS

F u n g a l c u l t u r e s . T h e f o l l o w i n g s t r a i n s were u s e d : P e n i c i l -l i u m b r e v i c o m p a c t u m D i e r c k x C B S 2 5 7 . 2 9 , P e n i c i l l i u m g l a -brum ( W e h m e r ) W e s t l i n g S L U J 3 , P e n i c i l l i u m r o q u e f o r t iTh o m SIK 5 . 1 8 . 9 8 , A s p e r g i l l u s c a n d i d u s L i n k C B S 1 0 2 . 1 3 ,A s p e r g i l l u s f l a v u s L i n k C BS 5 6 9 . 6 5 , a n d A s p e r g i l l u s v e r s i -c o l o r ( V u i l l . ) T i r a b o s c h i C B S 1 1 1 . 3 2 .

C e r e a l g r a i n . The w h e a t u s e d ( c u l t i v a r D r a b a n t ; h a r v e s t e d

i n 1 9 8 9 ; m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t , 8 . 2 % ) h a d t h e f o l l o w i n g m i c r o b i -

o l o g i c a l s t a t u s : e x o g e n o u s f l o r a , 8 . 0 x 1 0 4 CFU; e n d o g e n o u s

i n f e c t i o n l e v e l , 8 8 % ; e r g o s t e r o l c o n t e n t , 0 . 7 0 , u g / g ( d r y

w e i g h t ) . S p e c i e s o f A l t e r n a r ia a n d C l a d o s p o n u m d o m i n a t e d

t h e e x o g e n o u s m i c r o f l o r a a n d were a l s o p r o m i n e n t e n d o g e -

n o u s l y t o g e t h e r w i t h F u s a r i u m s p e c i e s .T h e o a t s ( c u l t i v a r V i t a l ; h a r v e s t e d i n 1 9 8 9 ; m o i s t u r e

c o n t e n t , 1 0 . 9 % ) u s e d h a d t h e f o l l o w i n g m i c r o b i o l o g i c a l

s t a t u s : e x o ge n o u s f l o r a , 1 . 2 x 1 0 6 CFU; e n d o g e n o u s i n f e c -

t i o n l e v e l , 7 5 % ; e r g o s t e r o l c o n t e n t , 4 . 0 , u g / g ( d r y w e i g h t ) . A l lt h e genera i n w h e a t were a l s o f o u n d i n o a t s ; i n a d d i t i o n ,Acremonium s p e c i e s were f o u n d b o t h e x o g e n o u s l y a n d

e n d o g e n o u s l y .

T h e g r a i n was s t o r e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y i n s t e e l c o n t a i n e r s

a t 1 8 ' C i n a d r y p l a c e b e f o r e use.

E q u i p m e n t u s e d f o r c u l t i v a t i o n , s a m p l i n g , a n d a n a l y s i s .

Th e e q u i p m e n t u s e d f o r c u l t i v a t i n g f u n g i a n d s a m p l i n g

v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s was a s d e s c r i b e d b y B o r j e s s o n e t a l . ( 2 ) .

We u s e d a V a r i a n 3 7 0 0 ga s c h r o m a t o g r a p h c o u p l e d t o an

I n c o s 5 0 Q u a d r o p o l e mass s p e c t r o m e t e r ( F i n n i g a n MAT).

The c o l u m n u s e d was a J & W D B 1 7 0 1 , w h i c h was

d e s c r i b e d p r e v i o u s l y ( 3 ) . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e was programmedt o r e m a i n a t 3 0 ° C f o r t h e i n i t i a l 2 m i n a n d t h e n t o i n c r e a s e by

4 ° C p e r m i n t o 2 0 0 ° C .

T h e d a t a c o l l e c t i o n system, l i b r a r y o f mass s p e c t r a , a n d

e q u i p m e n t f o r m e a s u r i n g C O2 were a s d e s c r i b e d by B o r j e s -

so n e t a l . ( 3 ) . F o r m e a s u r i n g e r g o s t e r o l , we u s e d a Novapak

C 1 8 c o l u m n ( 3 . 9 b y 1 5 0 mm; W a t e r s ) a n d a HP s e r i e s 1 0 5 0

UV s p e c t r o p h o t o m e t e r ( H e w l e t t - P a c k a r d ) . F o r s t a t i s t i c a le v a l u a t i o n o f t h e d a t a , s o f t w a r e f r o m SYSTAT, I n c . , was

u s e d .

P r e p a r a t i o n o f g r a i n s . The w a t e r content o f t h e grains was

r a i s e d t o a b o u t 25% b y a d d i n g d i s t i l l e d water. The g r a i n s

were t h e n s h a k e n v i g o r o u s l y i n an E r l e n m e y e r f l a s k once

e v e r y h o u r f o r 6 h . T h e n 4 0 0 g o f w h e a t o r o a t s was a d d e d t o

e a c h c u l t i v a t i o n c o n t a i n e r , a n d t h e c o n t a i n e r s were auto-

c l a v e d a t 1 2 1 ° C f o r 1 5 m i n . Toprevent c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f t h e

c o n t a i n e r s , t h e y were p r o v i d e d w i t h spore f i l t e r s and pro-

t e c t i v e a d s o r b e n t s ( T e n a x GC , which a l l o w s w a t e r t o pass

t h r o u g h ) . A i r was t h e n p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e c o n t a i n e r s a t a

f l o w r a t e o f 3 0 m l / m i n f o r 4 d a y s , which r e d u c e d t h e

b a c k g r o u n d o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s e m a n a t i n g from t h e

g r a i n s b y a b o u t 5 0 % . To k e e p t h e m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f t h e

g r a i n s c o n s t a n t , t h e i n g o i n g a i r was p a s s e d t h r o u g h a f l a s k

f i l l e d w i t h d ei o ni z ed c h a r c o a l - f i l t e r e d water.

To mak e sure t h a t t h e g r a i n s were s t e r i l e , C O 2 l e v e l s were

c o n t i n u o u s l y m e a s u r e d . N o i n c r e a s e was d e t e c t e d ; t h u s , t h e

c o n t a i n e r s c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s s t e r i l e .P r e p a r a t i o n o f sp o r e s u s p e n s i o n s and i n o c u l a t i o n o f f u n g i .

T h e f u n g i w e r e c u l t i v a t e d i n p e t r i d i s h e s w i t h 2% m a l t

e x t r a c t a ga r c o nt a in in g 5 0 U o f p e n i c i l l i n a n d 5 0 , u g o f

s t r e p t o m y c i n p e r m l . A f t e r a b o u t 1 w e e k , s p o r e s w e r e

l i b e r a t e d b y a d d i n g 1 0 m l o f s t e r i l e t a p w a t e r c o n t a i n i n g

0 . 0 2 % Tween 8 0 t o t h e p e t r i d i s h e s a n d r u b b i n g t h e a g a r

s u r f a c e w i t h a g l a s s r o d . E a c h s p o r e s u s p e n s i o n w a s f i l t e r e dt h r o u g h a c o t t o n c l o t h a n d d i l u t e d t o 1 0 s p o r e s p e r m l . T e n

m i l l i l i t e r s o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s p o r e s u s p e n s i o n w a s a d d e d t oe a c h c u l t i v a t i o n c o n t a i n e r .

C u l t i v a t i o n a n d s a m p l i n g . D u r i n g t h e s a m p l i n g o f v o l a t i l em e t a b o l i t e s , t h e p r o t e c t i v e a d s o r b e n t a n d t h e s a m p l i n g a d -s o r b e n t w e r e f i l l e d w i t h C h r o m o s o r b 1 0 2 . T h i s c h a n g e w a smade t o p r e ve n t l o w - m o l ec u l a r -w e ig h t c o m p o u n d s , w h i c h

c a n p as s t h ro u g h t h e T e n a x G C a d s o r b e n t , f r o m c o n t a m i -

n a t i n g t h e s a m p l e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e m o i s t u r i z i n g f l a s k f o r t h ei n g o i n g a i r w a s r e m o v e d , a n d t h e f l o w w a s l o w e r e d t o 2 0

m l / m i n t o d i m i n i s h t h e r i s k o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s b r e a k i n g

t h r o u g h t h e s a m p l i n g a d s o r b e n t . T h e l e v e l o f C O 2 w a sm e a s u r e d e v e r y d a y , s t a r t i n g o n d a y 2 a f t e r i n o c u l a t i o n .

S a m p l e s o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s w e r e c o l l e c t e d a t C O 2p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s o f c a . 7 a n d 2 1 m g / h f o r a l l s p e c i e s e x c e p t P .r o q u e f o r t i . B e c a u s e t h e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e o f C O 2 f o r t h i s

s p e c i e s s e l d o m r e a c h e d2 1 m g / h ,

t h es e c o nd s a m p l e w a s

c o l l e c t e d 1 0 d a y s a f t e r i n o c u l a t i o n ( F i g . 1 ) . E a c h c o m b i n a -

t i o n o f f u n g u s , c e r e a l g r a i n , a n d s a m p l i n g o c c a s i o n w a sr e p l i c a t e d t h r e e t i m e s , r e s u l t i n g i n a t o t a l o f 6 x 2 x 2 x 3 =

7 2 t r e at m e nt s a m p l e s + 6 u n i n o c u l a t e d c o n t r o l s = 7 8 s a m -

p l e s . T h e f i r s t s a m p l i n g w a s made a b o u t 4 d a y s a f t e r i n o c u -

l a t i o n , a n d t h e s e c o n d s a m p l i n g w a s made a b o u t 7 d a y s a f t e ri n o c u l a t i o n . S a m p l e s w e r e c o l l e c t e d f o r 8 h , g i v i n g a t o t a ls a m p l e d a i r v o l u m e o f 9 . 6 l i t e r s . I n a p r e l i m i n a r y e x p e r i -m e n t , c o n s i d e r a b l e b r e a k t h r o u g h o f t h e m o s t v o l a t i l e m e t a b -

o l i t e s o c c u r r e d when t h e w h o l e s a m p l i n g v o l u m e w a s c o l -l e c t e d o n a s i n g l e a d s o r b e n t . B r e a k t h r o u g h w a s m e a s u r e d b y

d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o n t e n t s o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s i n a s e c o n d

a d s o r b e n t a t t a c h e d i n s e r i e s a f t e r t h e f i r s t o n e . T h e r e f o r e ,

t h e s a m p l i n g a d s o r b e n t s w e r e c h a n g e d a f t e r 4 h , w h i c h

r e s u l t e d i n a n e g l i g i b l e b r e a k t h r o u g h ( 4 % ) o f a c et o ne , t h e

m o s t v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s t u d i e d . No b r e a k t h r o u g h o f t h el e s s v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e 2 - m e t h y l - 1 - p r o p a n o l w a s d e t e c t e d .

A f t e r t h e v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s w e r e s a m p l e d , t w o 1 0 - g

s a m p l e s w e r e r e m o v e d f r o m e a c h c u l t i v a t i o n v e s s e l f o re r g o s t e r o l a n a l y s i s a n d C F U c o u n t . T h e s a m p l e s f o r e r g o s -

t e r o l a n a l y s i s w e r e k e p t i n 5 0 m l o f m e t h a n o l a t - 1 8 ' C u n t i la n a l y s i s .

A n a l y t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s . T h e p r o c e d u r e s f o r d e s o r p t i o n ,

c o n c e n t r a t i o n , a n d i n j e c t i o n o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s w e r ei d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e u s e d i n o u r p r e v i o u s s t u d y ( 3 ) . F o r a n a l y s i so f C O 2 , t h e p r o c e d u r e o f B o r j e s s o n e t a l . ( 2 ) w a s u s e d . T h e

p r o c e d u r e f o r m e a s u r i n g e r g o s t e r o l w a s m o d i f i e d f r o m t h a to f N e w e l l e t a l . ( 1 2 ) a s d e s c r i b e d b y B o r j e s s o n e t a l . ( 3 ) . F o r

c o u n t i n g o f CFU , t h e s a m p l e s w e r e m ix e d w i t h 9 0 m l o f

s t e r i l e t a p w a t e r c o n t a i n i n g 0 . 0 2 % Tween 8 0 . A f t e r 1 5 m i nt h e m i x t u r e w a s a g i t a t e d f o r 2 m i n i n a S t o m a c h e r b l e n d e r ,

d i l u t e d , a n d s p r e a d o n 2% m a l t e x t r a c t p l a t e s w i t h o u t

a n t i b i o t i c s s o t h a t a n y p o s s i b l e b a c t e r i a l c o n t a m i n a n t s c o u l d

b e d e t e c t e d .S t a t i s t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n . C o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s w e r e u s e d t o

e v a l u a t e c o r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t m e a s u r e s o f f u n g a l

g r o w t h . To d e t e r m i n e t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h f u ng a l s p e c ie s a n d

g r a i n t y p e i n f l u e n c e d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s ,

t h e t o t a l v a r i a t i o n i n t h e m a t e r i a l was c o n d e n s e d b y c o n -

s t r u c t i n g p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s . T h e p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t sw e r e t h e n s u b j e c t e d t o a n a n a l y s i s o f v ar ia nc e. To a v o i d

s k e w e d d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e s q u a r e r o o t o f e a c h m e t a b o l i t e y i e l dwas u s e d .

A P P L . E N V I R O N . M I C R O B I O L .

8/2/2019 Gases Mold

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gases-mold 3/7

V OL A T IL E M E TA B OL I TE S PRODUCED BY SI X F U N G I ON GRAIN 2 6 0 1

-P.r oquel o rl

E ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ DCLIAi~-1~io2FIG./0Pouto0 uigfnglgot nwha lf)ad as(ih)

R ES U LT S

V o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s a n d C O 2 . W i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f P .b r e v i c o m p a c t u m , t h e t o t a l a m ount o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s

p r o d u c e d on a g i v e n s a mp l i n g o c ca s i o n was i n t h e same

r a n g e f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t f u n g i . P . b r e v i c o m p a c t u m d e v i a t e d

p r i m a r i l y i n t h a t i t p r o d u c e d l a r g e amounts o f a c e t o n e .

3 - M e t h y l f u r a n was d e t e ct e d d u r in g t h e e ar l y s t a g e o f g r o w t ho f a l l f u n g i e x a m i n e d ( T a b l e 1 ) b u t was a b s e n t i n u n i n o c u -l a t e d c o n t r o l s . O t h e r w i s e , t h e v o l a t i l e p r o f i l e s o f t h e exam-

i n e d f u n g a l s p e c i e s were h i g h l y v a r i a b l e ( T a b l e 1 ) . C o e f f i -c i e n t s o f v a r i a t i o n were g e n e r a l l y a b o u t 5 0 % . F o r3 - m e t h y l f u r a n , h o w e v e r , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n was

a b o u t 3 0 % .

Each P e n i c i l l i u m s p e c i e s p r o d u c e d a t l e a s t one compoundi n a n a m o u n t much l a r g e r t h a n t h a t o f any o f t h e o t h e r

s p e c i e s . Th e h i g h p r o d u c t i o n o f a c e t o n e b y P . b r e v i c o m p a c -

tum was e s p e c i a l l y n o t e w o r t h y , a s was t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f

3 - o c t a n o n e b y P . g l a b r u m . P . r o q u e f o r t i p r o d u c e d some

s e s q u i t e r p e n e s t h a t were u n i q u e f o r t h i s s p e c i e s . A l l t h r ee

A s p e r g i l l u s s p e c i e s p r o d u c e d t h u j o p s e n e , w h i c h was n o t

f o u n d i n a n y o f t h e P e n i c i l l i u m c u l t u r e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , A .c a n d i d u s p r o d u c e d a monot erpene t h a t none o f t h e o t h e r f i v es p e c i e s r e l e a s e d . O n t h e f i r s t s a m p l i n g o c c a s i o n , t h e v o l a t i l ep r o f i l e s o f t h e A s p er gi l l u s s p ec ie s were h a r d t o d i s t i n g u i s hf r o m one a n o t h e r . U n i n o c u l a t e d c o n t r o l s c o n t a i n e d h i g h

amounts o f a c e t o n e , e t h a n o l , 3 - m e t h y l - 1 - b u t a n o l , a n d a c e t i c

a c i d a s w e l l a s a number o f a l d e h y d e s a n d h y d r o c a r b o n s .

D i f f e r e n c e s r e l a t e d t o g r a i n t y p e were g e n e r a l l y s m a l l( T a b l e 1 ) . F o r e x a m p l e , 1 - o c t e n - 3 - o l , a m e t a b o l i t e t h a t may

b e p r o d u c e d d u r i n g t h e breakdown o f l i p i d s , was p r o d u c e di n s i m i l a r a m o u n t s b y P . g l a b r u m r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e t y p e o f

g r a i n u s e d .

Th e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d o b s e r v a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t v a r i a -

t io ns r el a t ed t o f u n g al s p ec ie s were g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e

r e l a t e d t o g r a i n t y p e . To v e r i f y t h i s , a n a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e

was p e r f o r m e d on p r i n c i p a l components c o n s t r u c t e d from

t h e raw d a t a w i t h o u t s u b t r a c t i n g u n i n o c u l a t e d c o n t r o l v a l -

ues. The a n a l y s i s i n c l u d e d d a t a f o r a l l 1 9 v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s

p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 a s w e l l a s 3 - m e t h y l - 1 - b u t a n o l , a c e t i c

a c i d , a n d e t h a n o l . These compounds were i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e

t h e y h a v e p r e v i o u s l y b e e n r e p o r t e d a s f u n g a l m e t a b o l i t e s .

T h e i r a b u n d a n c e i n u n i n o c u l a t e d c o n t r o l s c o u l d h a v e o b -

s c u r e d t h e p r o d u c t i o n b y f u n g i i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Th e f i r s ts i x compo n e nts c o n s t i t u t e d 80% o f t h e t o t a l v a r i a t i o n i n t h e

m a t e r i a l , a s f o l l o w s : c o m p o n e n t 1 , 2 1 % ; c o m p o n e n t 2 , 2 0 % ;

c o m p o n e n t 3 , 1 5 % ; c o m p o n e n t 4 , 1 1 % ; c o m p o n e n t 5 , 7 % ;a n d c o m p o n e n t 6 , 6 % . The r e m a i n i n g c o m p o n e n t s e a c h

c o n s t i t u t e d l e s s t h a n 5 % o f t h e t o t a l v a r i a n c e , a n d a l t o g e t h e r

t h e y o n l y a c c o u n t e d f o r 20% o f t h e v a ri an ce . T h u s , t h e i ri m p o r t a n c e was c o n s i d e r e d t o b e m i n o r . Wh e n t h e f i r s t s i xcompo n e nts were s u b j e c t e d t o a n a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e , F

v a l u e s ( a n d t h u s t h e d e g r e e o f v a r i a t i o n ) were g e n e r a l l y

h i g h e r f o r t h e f u n g a l s p e c i e s t h a n f o r t h e g ra in t y p e ( T a b l e 2 ) .F o r a l l f u n g a l s p e c i e s , t h e t o t a l a m o u n t o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b -

o l i t e s p r o d u c e d (summed f r o m T a b l e 1 ) was h i g h e r on t h e

l a t e s a m p l i n g o c c a s i o n t h a n on t h e e a r l y one ( T a b l e 3 ) .S o m e v a r i a t i o n i n C O2 p r o d u c t i o n b e t w e e n s p e c i e s was

f o u n d ( F i g . 1 ) . P . r o q u e f o r t i was n o t a b l e i n s h o w i n g a n

e x c e p t i o n a l l y s l o w i n c r e a s e i n C O2 p r o d u c t i o n .

A l o w p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t o t a l v o l a t i l e m e t a b o -

l i t e s a n d C O2 ( 0 . 2 2 , n = 7 2 , P < 0 . 0 5 ) was f o u n d . H o w e v e r ,f o r t h e compound whose p r o d u c t i o n showed t h e l e a s t v a r i -

a t i o n among s p e c i e s o f f u n g i , i . e . , 3 - m e t h y l f u r a n , t h e corre-

l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h C O2 was h i g h e r ( 0 . 6 5 ; n = 7 2 , P <

0 . 0 5 ) . S i m i l a r l y , w hen t h e t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b -

o l i t e s was c o m p a r e d w i t h t h a t o f C O2 f o r e a c h f u n g u si n d i v i d u a l l y , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s were i n c r e a s e d ; t h e c or re l a -

t i o n s were even h i g h e r f o r a c c u m u l a t e d p r o d u c t i o n o f C O2a n d v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e p r o d u c t i o n ( T a b l e 4 ) .C F U a n d e r g o s t e r o l . No c o n t a m i n a t i o n was f o u n d d u r i n g

t h e c o u n t i n g o f CFU i n e i t h e r t r e a t m e n t o r c o n t r o l v e s s e l s .

A l m o s t w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , t h e CFU counts a n d e r g o s t e r o l

c o n t e n t s o f t h e g r a i n i n c r e a s e d between t h e t w o s a m p l i n go c c a s i o n s ( T a b l e 3 ) .

Th e mean c o e f f i c i e n t s o f v a r i a t i o n f o r each c o m b i n a t i o n o f

s a m p l i n g o c c a s i o n and k i n d o f g r a i n were 94% f o r CFU a n d

32% f o r e r g o s t e r o l . T h i s r e f l e c t s t h e f a c t t h a t , a t a g i v e ng r o w t h s t a g e , t h e v a r i a t i o n between t h e s p e c i e s o f f u n g i i n

terms o f CFU t e n d e d t o exceed t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a r i a t i o n

i n e r g o s t e r o l c o n t e n t .

E

c0

t s

0 .

0- ax

0

c o

V O L . 5 8 , 1 9 9 2

; )

8/2/2019 Gases Mold

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gases-mold 4/7

T A B L E 1 . P r o d u c t i o n o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s a

P r o d u c t i o n o f t h e i n d i c a t e d m e t a b o l i t e ( n g / h ) i n f u n g i g r o w n o n :

S p e c i e s a n d W h e a t O a t sm e t a b o l i t e

E a r l y L a t e E a r l y L a t e

P . b r e v i c o m p a c t u mA c e t o n e 7 , 3 0 0 b 2 4 , 0 0 0 b 2 , 3 0 0 b 1 5 , 0 0 02 - P r o p a n o l 4 4 b 2 9 8 C 5 . 8 c

1 5 C3 - M e t h y l f u r a n 2 . 7 " 4 . 8 2 . 7 6 . 92 - M e t h y l - 1 - p r o p a n o l 6 . 2 c 1 o b 4 . 8 c 2 . 33 - P e n t a n o n e 7 . 4 1 . 7 b"2b2 - M e t h y l - 1 - b u t a n o l 0 . 8 1 2 C 1 7 3 . 92 - B u t a n o n e 9 . 8 2 8 1 0 c 2 5

P . g l a b r u m3 - M e t h y l f u r a n 8 . 7 2 6 1 1 3 52 - M e t h y l - 1 - p r o p a n o l 2 . 2 c 0 . 6 7 c 3 . 8 b3 - P e n t a n o n 2 0 b 3 2 b 3 2 b 1 32 - M e t h y l - 1 - b u t a n o l 2 . 8 b 1 . 4 c 1 6 b 1 1O c t a d i e n e d 2 . 5 b 6 . 1 4 . 6 b 1 72 - B u t a n o n e 1 1 2 2 2 0 b 2 7D i m e t h y l b e n z e n e 0 . 4 3 b 0 . 2 7 cL i m o n e n e 0 . 4 0 b 0 . 2 0 b 1 . 2 0 . 63 - O c t a n o n e 6 . 5 1 2 1 1 b 2 61 - O c t e n - 3 - o l 4 . 3 b 3 . 2 b 2 . 7 c 4 . 5 C

P . r o q u e f o r t i3 - M e t h y l f u r a n 5 . 4 1 2 4 . 3 1 32 - M e t h y l - 1 - p r o p a n o l 1 0 " 8 3 1 4 C 8 1 b2 - M e t h y l - 1 - b u t a n o l 1 0 c 8 1 1 6O c t a d i e n e d 3 . 7 2 . 3 b 7 . 7 7 . 7D i m e t h y l b e n z e n e 0 . 1 7 bL i m o n e n e 0 . 1 7 b 0 . 4 7 b 0 . 7 3 c 3 . 3 b3 - O c t a n o n e 0 . 5 7 b 0 . 3 7 bS e s q u i t e r p e n e 1 4 7 1 . 6 b 5 . 5S e s q u i t e r p e n e 2 8 . 2 1 5 3 . 3 b 2 1 b

A . f l a v u s3 - M e t h y l f u r a n 4 . 7 3 0 3 . 9 2 3N i t r o m e t a n 1 . 7 " 9 . 4 5 . 82 - M e t h y l - 1 - p r o p a n o l 1 3 2 . 4 b1 - P e n t e n - 3 - o l 1 . 7 C 2 . 6 4 . 3 b 1 . 8 c

O c t a d i e n e d 1 . 0 b 1 . 8 bD i m e t h y l b e n z e n e 0 . 1 7 b 7 . 5 b 1 9E t h y l b e n z e n e 0 . 1 1 . 5 4 . 5 bL i m o n e n e 2 . 1 1 . 4T h u j o p s e n e 0 . 9 6 0 . 8 2 b

A . v e r s i c o l o r3 - M e t h y l f u r a n 4 . 7 2 7 5 . 7 3 02 - M e t h y l - 1 - p r o p a n o l 2 . 9 c l b 5 . 81 - P e n t e n - 3 - o l 6 . 5 b2 - M e t h y l - 1 - b u t a n o l 7O c t a d i e n e d 1 . 9 3 . 8 b 3 . 0 " 7 . 2D i m e t h y l b e n z e n e 2 . 9 0 . 2 7 b 8 . 7E t h y l b e n z e n e 0 . 8 3 b 2 . 1 bL i m o n e n e 1 . 7 1 . 0T h u j o p s e n e 1 . 5 0 . 6 7

A . c a n d i d u s3 - M e t h y l f u r a n 8 . 4 b 3 2 5 3 42 - M e t h y l - 1 - p r o p a n o l 2 . 9 c 9 . 3 3 . 4 c 7 . 6 c1 - P e n t e n - 3 - o l 1 . 2 c 4 . 3 b 2 . 2 c 3 . 5 c2 - M e t h y l - l - b u t a n o l 3 . 6 5 . 4 b 1 0D i m e t h y l b e n z e n e 1 . 3 b 4 . 3 bE t h y l b e n z e n e 0 . 6 b 1 . 3 bM o n o t e r p e n e 1 1 4 1 3T h u j o p s e n e 0 . 6 2 0 . 4 0 ba T h e v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e c o n t e n t s i n u n i n o c u l a t e d c o n t r o l v e s s e l s w e r e s u b t r a c t e d f r o m t h e m e a s u r e d v a l u e s t o g i v e t h e r e s u l t s s h o w n ( n = 3 ) . S a m p l e s w e r e

t a k e n a b o u t 4 d a y s ( e a r l y ) a n d 7 d a y s ( l a t e ) a f t e r i n o c u l a t i o n ." C o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n , > 5 0 % .c C o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n , > 1 0 0 % .d 1 , 3 - O c t a d i e n e a n d a n u n i d e n t i f i e d i s o m e r e .

2 6 0 2

8/2/2019 Gases Mold

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gases-mold 5/7

V O L A T I L E M E T A B O L I T E S P R O D U C E D B Y S I X FU NG I ON G R A I N 2 6 0 3

T A B L E 2 . F v a l u e s ( e x p l a i n e d v a r i a n c e / r e s i d u a l v a r i a n c e ) f o r f u n g a l s p e c i e s a n d g r a i n t y p e s f o r t h e f i r s t s i x p r i n c i p a l c o m p o n e n t s "

F v a l u e f o r c o m p o n e n t :F a c t o r

1 2 3 4 5 6

S p e c i e s ( d f 5 , 6 6 ) 5 1 4 3 5 8 2 0 3 . 4 1 1

G r a i n t y p e ( d f 1 , 7 0 ) 4 . 7 8 . 6 3 5 1 1 3 7 1 . 7

a D a t a f r o m 2 2 v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s w e r e u s e d .

A l o w ( 0 . 3 5 , n = 7 2 ) b u t s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( P < 0 . 0 5 ) DIS CUSS ION

c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s a n d e r g o s t e r o l was

f o u n d , w h e r e a s n o s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n was f o u n d b e t w e e n T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t 3 - m e t h y l f u r a n c a n b e

C F U a n d v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e p r o d u c t i o n . A h i g h e r c o r r e l a - u s e d a s a n i n d i c a t o r o f m o l d g r o w t h i n c e r e a l s . P r o d u c t i o n

t i o n ( 0 . 6 5 , n = 7 2 , P < 0 . 0 5 ) was f o u n d b e t w e e n a c c u m u l a t e d l e v e l s showed l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n r e l a t e d t o t h e f u n g a l s p e c i e sC O2 a n d e r g o s t e r o l . T h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n C F U a n d c u l t u r e d o r t he g r a i n t y p e u s e d a s a s ub s t r at e . W i t h r e g a r d t o

a c c u m u l a t e d CO2 was 0 . 5 7 ( n = 7 2 , P < 0 . 0 5 ) . F o r e a c h p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e o t h e r v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s , l a r g e d i f f e r -

f u n g u s i n d i v i d u a l l y , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n C F U a n d a c c u - e n c e s a m o ng f u n g a l s p e c i e s w e r e f o u n d , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e s e

m u l a t e d C O2 was g e n e r a l l y h i g h e r . T h u s , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o m p o u n d s a r e l e s s s u i t a b l e a s i n d i c a t o r s o f g en er al m o l d

c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e s i x f u n g a l s p e c i e s w e r e 0 . 6 5 , 0 . 7 9 , 0 . 8 2 , g r o w t h . H o w e v e r , i n c o m b i n a t i o n , t h e s e m e t a b o l i t e s c a n b e

0 . 8 3 , 0 . 9 6 , a n d 0 . 8 8 ( n = 1 2 , P < 0 . 0 5 ) . H o w e v e r , t h i s t r e n d u s e d a s i n d i c a t o r s o f f u n g a l g r o w t h . T e r p e n e s w e r e t h e m o s t

was n o t f o u n d when e r g o s t e r o l a n d a c cu m ul a t e d C O2 w e r e s u i t a b l e c o m p o u n d s f o r u s e i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g b e t w e e n f u n g a lc o m p a r e d ; i n t h i s c a s e , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e s i x s p e c i e s . I t was e a s i e r t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n P e n i c i l l i u ms p e c i e s w e r e 0 . 7 , 0 . 7 , 0 . 2 8 , 0 . 6 , 0 . 6 3 , a n d 0 . 4 5 ( n = 1 2 , P > s p e c i e s t h a n b e t w e e n A s p e r g i l l u s s p e c i e s ( T a b l e 1 ) . T h u -

0 . 0 5 f o r t w o s p e c i e s ) . j o p s e n e was p r o d u c e d b y a l l A s p e r g i l l u s s p e c i e s b u t n o t b y

T h e e r g o s t e r o l c o n t e n t s , c a l c u l a t e d o n t h e b a s i s o f C O2 a n y o f t h e P e n i c i l l i u m s p e c i e s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t i t c a n b e u s e d

p r o d u c t i o n w e r e , o n a v e r a g e , o n l y 11% l o w e r t h a n m e a s u r e d t o d i s c r i m i n a t e b e t w e e n t h e t w o g e n e r a . H o w e v e r , H a l i m e t

v a l u e s . The c a l c u l a t i o n was b a s e d o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t a l . ( 7 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t P e n i c i l l i u m d e c u m b e n s p r o d u c e s t h u -

CO2 a n d b i o m a s s a r e p r o d u c e d i n e q u a l a m o u n t s ( o n a j o p s e n e . T h e r e f o r e , i t s e e m s more r e a s o n a b l e t o t r y a n d u s e

w e i g h t b a s i s ) d u r i n g f u n g a l g r o w t h a n d t h a t t h e b i o m a s s t h u j o p s e n e p r o d u c t i o n a s a n a d d i t i o n a l d i a g n o s t i c c h a r a c t e r

c o n t a i n s 0 . 2 % e r g o s t e r o l . i n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a t t h e s p e c i e s l e v e l . T h e o f t e n - c i t e d m e t a b -

T A B L E 3 . T o t a l p r o d u c t i o n o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s , C O 2 , a n d e r g o s t e r o l a n d l e v e l s o f C F U

P r o d u c t i o n o f :

S u b s t r a t e S p e c i e sS a m p l i n g A c c u m u l a t e d N o . o f C F U

t i m e M e t a b o l i t e s C O 2 E r g o s t e r o l C O 2 ( m g ) ( 1 0 5 / g [ d r y w t ] )( n g / h ) ( m g / h ) ( , u g / g [ d r y w t ] )

W h e a t P . b r e v i c o m p a c t u m E a r l y 7 , 4 0 0 " 9 . 4 5 . 1 a 3 3 0 1 1 . 6 aP . b r e v i c o m p a c t u m L a t e 2 4 , 0 0 0 a 3 3 7 . 9 a 1 , 6 0 0 7 9 "P . g l a b r u m E a r l y 5 8 a 8 2 . 8 a 3 3 0 5 6

P . g l a b r u m L a t e 1 0 0 2 7 1 0 . 3 a 1 , 7 0 0 3 9 0

P . r o q u e f o r t i E a r l y 4 2 a 7 . 8 4 . O a 3 9 0 4 0 a

P . r o q u e f o r t i L a t e 1 3 0 1 3 4 . 8 1 , 6 0 0 2 9 0

A . f l a v u s E a r l y 8 . 4 a 1 2 4 . 0 a 3 2 0 1 . 9 b

A . f l a v u s L a t e 6 7 6 0 8 . 3 1 , 8 0 0 6 . 3

A . v e r s i c o l o r E a r l y 6 . 6 a 8 . 3 4 . 3 a 2 4 0 2 5 a

A . v e r s i c o l o r L a t e 4 1 2 0 7 . 2 9 0 0 2 8 0

A . c a n d i d u s E a r l y 1 2 a 9 . 6 3 . 6 a 2 9 0 1 5 "A . c a n d i d u s L a t e 6 6 3 0 7 . 6 1 , 1 0 0 2 5 0

O a t sP . b r e v i c o m p a c t u m E a r l y 2 , 4 0 0 a 7 . 0 3 . 3 a 3 0 0 4 . 4

P . b r e v i c o m p a c t u m L a t e 1 5 , 0 0 0 2 4 1 5 1 , 9 0 0 1 0 0 WP . g l a b r u m E a r l y 1 0 0 " 6 . 6 4 . 9 a 3 5 0 1 2 0 "P . g l a b r u m L a t e 1 3 0 2 3 1 6 1 , 8 0 0 5 0 0 a

P . r o q u e f o r t i E a r l y 4 3 a 8 . 1 3 . 3 a 3 0 0 2 1

P . r o q u e f o r t i L a t e 1 4 0 a 1 1 6 . 1 1 , 5 0 0 2 1 0 a

A . f l a v u s E a r l y 9 . 2 b 8 . 8 4 . 1 a 2 6 0 0 . 6 4

A . f l a v u s L a t e 6 0 2 8 3 . 7 a 1 , 0 0 0 2 . 2

A . v e r s i c o l o r E a r l y 2 6 a 7 . 9 7 . 3 2 0 0 2 0 b

A . v e r s i c o l o r L a t e 6 2 2 4 1 3 1 , 3 0 0 6 1 0

A . c a n d i d u s E a r l y 1 6 6 . 6 4 . 0 a 2 1 0 1 6 a

A . c a n d i d u s L a t e 7 4 2 3 6 . 5 1 , 1 0 0 2 5 0 a

a C o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n > 5 0 % .b C o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n , > 1 0 0 % .

V O L . 5 8 , 1 9 9 2

8/2/2019 Gases Mold

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gases-mold 6/7

2 6 0 4 B OR JE S SO N E T AL.

T A B L E 4 . C o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s ( r ) b e t w e e n t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n o f

v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s a n d a c t u a l a n d a c c u m u l a t e d p r o d u c t i o n

o f C O 2 a

r b e t w e e n p r o d u c t i o n o f m e t ab o l i t es a n d :

S p e c i e s A c t u a l A c c u m u l a t e d

C O2 CO2

P . b r e v i c o m p a c t u m 0 . 7 8 0 . 7 9P . g l a b r u m 0 . 3 1 ( P > 0 . 0 5 ) 0 . 3 5 ( P > 0 . 0 5 )P . r o q u e f o r t i 0 . 6 3 0 . 7 7

A . f i a v u s 0 . 4 8 ( P > 0 . 0 5 ) 0 . 5 8A . v e r s i c o l o r 0 . 7 8 0 . 8 3A . c a n d i d u s 0 . 5 9 0 . 7 0

a n = 1 2 a n d P < 0 . 0 5 i f n o t s t a t e d o t h e r w i s e .

o l i t e 3 - m e t h y l - 1 - b u t a n o l showed l i t t l e p o t e n t i a l v a l u e a s a n

i n d i c a t o r i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I t was p r e s e n t i n l a r g eamounts i n u n i n o c u l a t e d c o n t r o l s , p o s s i b l y a s a r e s u l t o f p a s t

f u n g a l a c t i v i t y , w h i c h may h a v e o b s c u r e d t h e p r o d u c t i o n b yt h e i n o c u l a t e d f u n g i . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e a u t o c l a v i n g i n i t s e l f

m i g h t h a v e i n t r o d u c e d v o l a t i l e s s u c h as c a r b o n y l s . I n t e r e s t -i n g l y , most o f t h e e x a m i n e d s p e c i e s p r o d u c e d 2 - m e t h y l - i -

b u t a n o l b u t n o t 3 - m e t h y l - 1 - b u t a n o l . T h e s e compounds a r e

d i f f i c u l t t o s e p a r a t e b y ga s c h r o m a t o g r a p h y a n d h a v e s i m i l a r

mass s p e c t r a . T h u s , i n p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s w h e r e 3 - m e t h y l - i -

b u t a n o l was r e p o r t e d , b o t h may a c t u a l l y h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t .

Compared w i t h t h e r e s u l t s f r o m o ur e a r l i e r s t u d y ( 3 ) , t h e

c o r r e l a t i o n o b t a i n e d h e r e b e t w e e n v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s a n d

C O2 p r o d u c t i o n was p o o r . I n t e r s p e c i e s d i f f e r e n c e s i n pro-

d u c t i o n r a t e s o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s were p r o b a b l y respon-

s i b l e f o r t h e l o w c o r r e l a t i o n . The c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n pro-

d u c t i o n o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s a n d a c c u m u l a t e d p r o d u c t i o no f C O2 was h i g h e r , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e r a t i o o f v o l a t i l e

m e t a b o l i t e p r o d u c t i o n t o C O2 p r o d u c t i o n i n c r e a s e d o v e r

t i m e . At l e a s t some v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s , i . e . , t e r p e n e s , c o u l d

h a v e b e e n p r o d u c e d t h r o u g h s e c o n d a r y m e t a b o l i c p a t h w a y s .

I t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n was h i g h e r i n t h e l a t es a m p l i n g p e r i o d , b y w h i c h t i m e a s h o r t a g e o f g r o w t h f a c t o r s

h a d p r o b a b l y s t a r t e d t o d e v e l o p . T h i s phenomenon was

e s p e c i a l l y p r o n o u n c e d f o r P . r o q u e f o r t i , f o r w h i c h t h e r a t i oo f t e r p e n e p r o d u c t i o n t o C O2 p r o d u c t i o n i n cr ea s e d s u b s t an -

t i a l l y b e t w e e n t h e e a r l y a n d t h e l a t e s a m p l i n g o c c a s i o n s

( T a b l e s 1 a n d 3 ) . A s i m i l a r phenomenon was f o u n d i n o ur

p r e v i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n ( 3 ) , i n w h i c h t e r p e n e s p r o d u c t i o n

d u r i n g f u n g a l g r o w t h was h i g h e r on a r t i f i c i a l s u b s t r a t e s t h a n

on s u b s t r a t e s b a s e d on c e r e a l s . S i m i l a r l y , a s h o r t a g e o f

g r o w t h f a c t o r s would b e more l i k e l y t o d e v e l o p i n t h e

a r t i f i c i a l s u b s t r a t e s t h a n i n t h e c e r e a l - b a s e d on es. The pres-

e n c e o f v o l a t i l e s e c o n d a r y m e t a b o l i t e s s u g g e s t s t h a t e l e v a t e d

l e v e l s o f m y c o t o x i n s ca n occur.

O n l y m i n o r d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n o a t s a n d w h e a t were

f o u n d ,i n d i c a t i n g

t h a t v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s ca n b e u s e d t o

d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t f u n g i , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e c e r e a l

g r a i n u s e d a s a s u b s t r a t e . CFU counts a n d e r g o s t e r o l l e v e l si n c r e a s e d c o n t i n uo u s l y d u ri n g f u n g a l g r o w t h w i t h t h e e x c e p -

t i o n o f A . f l a v u s on o a t s , w h e r e e r g o s t e r o l l e v e l s d e c r e a s e ds l i g h t l y o v e r t i m e . F o r CFU c o u n t s , l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s b e -

tween s p e c i e s were f o u n d , r e s u l t i n g i n a l o w c o r r e l a t i o n w i t hm e t a b o l i c a c t i v i t y m e a s u r e d as C O2 p r o d u c t i o n . T h e c o r r e -

l a t i o n was much h i g h e r wh e n e a c h f u n g u s was a n a l y z e d

s e p a r a t e l y b e c a u s e o f t h e p r o n o u n c e d i n t e r s p e c i e s v a r i a t i o n

i n t h e d e g r e e o f s p o r u l a t i o n . S p e c i e s - r e l a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s i nt h e s t a g e a t w h i c h e x t e n s i v e s p o r u l a t i o n commences were

p r o b a b l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o i n t e r s p e c i e s d i f f e r e n c e s i n a d a p t a -

t i o n t o t h e g r o w t h m e d i u m . F o r e r g o s t e r o l , t h e d i f f e r e n c e sb e t w e e n f u n g a l s p e c i e s w e r e s m a l l e r a n d t h e c o r r e l a t i o n w i t hf u n g a l m e t a b o l i s m was h i g h e r . T h u s , f o r a s a m p l e c o n s i s t i n go f a m i x e d f u n g a l f l o r a , e r g o s t e r o l p r o d uc t i o n s h o ul d b e a

m o r e r e l i a b l e m e a s u r e o f p a s t m e t a b o l i c a c t i v i t y t h a n CFU.I n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n , f i v e c r i t e r i a t o b e t e s t e d i n t h i s

i n v e s t i g a t i o n w e r e g i v e n . T h e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g .

( i ) 3 - M e t h y l f u r a n c a n b e u s e d a s a g e n e r a l i n d i c a t o r o f f u n g a lg r o w t h . ( i i ) D i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n f u n g a l s p e c i e s a r e l a r g e rt h a n d i f f e r e n c e s r e l a t e d t o t h e t y p e o f g r a i n u s e d a s a

s u b s t r a t e . ( i i i ) T h e d u r at io n o f f u n g a l g r o w t h d o e s n o t

i n f l u e n c e t h e p r o f i l e o f t h e v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s p r o d u c e d . ( i v )T h e r e was a weak c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n CO2 p r o d u c t i o n a n d

t o t a l p r o d u c t i o n o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s . T h e p r o d u c t i o n o fv o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s was more s t r o n g l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a c c u -

m u l a t e d p r o d u c t i o n o f CO2 t h a n w i t h a c t u a l CO2 p r o d u c t i o n .( v ) T h e p r o d u c t i o n o f v o l a t i l e m e t a b o l i t e s was more s t r o n g l yc o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e e r g o s t e r o l c o n t e n t s o f t h e g r a i n s t h a n

w i t h t h e n u m b e r s o f CFU.We c o n c l u d e t h a t v o l a t i l e f u n g a l m e t a b o l i t e s c a n b e u s ed

t o d e t e c t a n d q u a n t i f y f u n g a l g r o w t h i n c e r e a l s . H o w e v e r ,b e f o r e t h i s t e c h n i q u e c a n b e i n t r o d u c e d o n a l a r g e s c a l e , t h e

e f f e c t s o f m i x e d b a c t e r i a l a n d f u n g a l f l o r a o n v o l a t i l e p r o -d u c t i o n w i l l h a v e t o b e d e t e r m i n e d . We a l s o n e e d i n f o r m a -

t i o n a b o u t t h e c a p a c i t y o f g r a i n s t o a c t a s a d s o r b e n t s f o rt h e s e m e t a b o l i t e s . I f t h i s c a p a c i t y i s h i g h , r e v o l a t i l i z a t i o n o f

a d s o r b e d m e t a b o l i t e s c o u l d b e u s e d t o d e t e c t e a r l i e r f u n g a lg r o w t h i n c e r e a l s . S u c h a m e t h o d c o u l d b e e m p l o y e d f o rq u a l i t y c o n t r o l .

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

T h i s w o r k was f i n a n c i a l l y s u p p o r t e d b y t h e S w e d i s h C o u n c i l f o rA g r i c u l t u r a l a n d F o r e s t r y R e s e a r c h .

We a r e i n d e b t e d t o P e t r Adamek f o r v a l u a b l e d i s c u s s i o n s a n d t o

M a t s E s k i l s o n f o r t e c h n i c a l s u p p o r t . We a r e a l s o g r a t e f u l t o M a r t i n

L i n d b e r g f o r c r i t i c a l l y r e v i e w i n g t h e m a n u s c r i p t .

R E F E R E N C E S

1 . A b r a m s o n , D . , R . N . S i n h a , a n d J . T . M i l l s . 1 9 8 0 . M y c o t o x i na n d o d o r f o r m a t i o n i n m o i s t c e r e a l g r a i n d u r i n g g r a n a r y s t o r a g e .C e r e a l C h e m . 5 7 : 3 4 6 - 3 5 1 .

2 . B o r j e s s o n , T . , U . S t o l l m a n , P . A d a m e k , a n d A . K a s p e r s s o n .

1 9 8 9 . A n a l y s i s o f v o l a t i l e c o m p o u n d s f o r d e t e c t i o n o f m o l d s i ns t o r e d c e r e a l s . C e r e a l C h e m . 6 6 : 3 0 0 - 3 0 4 .

3 . B o r j e s s o n , T . , U . S t o l l m a n , a n d J . S c h n u r e r . 1 9 9 0 . V o l a t i l em e t a b o l i t e s a n d o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s o f P e n i c i l l i u m a u r a n t i o g r i s e u mg r o w t h o n d i f f e r e n t s u b s t r a t e s . A p p l . E n v i r o n . M i c r o b i o l . 5 6 :3 7 0 5 - 3 7 1 0 .

4 . C o l l i n s , R . P . , a n d K . K a l n i n s . 1 9 6 6 . P r o d u c t i o n o f c a r b o n y l

c o m p o u n d s b y s e v e r a l s p e c i e s o f e n d o c o n i d i u m f o r m i n g f u n g i .M y c o l o g i a 5 8 : 6 2 2 - 6 2 8 .

5 . G a l l o i s , A . , B . G r o s s , D . L a n g l o i s , H . - E . S p i n n l e r , a n d P .B r u n e r i e . 1 9 9 0 . I n f l u e n c e o f c u l t u r e c o n d i t i o n s o n p r o d u c t i o n o ff l a v o u r c o m p o u n d s b y 2 9 l i g n i n o l y t i c b a s i d i o m y c e t e s . M y c o l .R e s . 9 4 : 4 9 4 - 5 0 4 .

6 . G r o s s , B . , A . G a l l o i s , H . - E . S p i n n l e r , a n d D . L a n g l o i s . 1 9 8 9 .V o l a t i l e c o m p o u n d s p r o d u c e d b y t h e l i g n i n o l y t i c f u n g us P h l e b i ar a d i a t a F r . ( B a s i d i o m y c e t e s ) a n d i n f l u e n c e o f s t r a i n s p e c i f i c i t yo n t h e o d o u r o u s p r o f i l e . J . B i o t e c h n o l . 1 0 : 3 0 3 - 3 0 8 .

7 . H a l i m , A . F . , J . A . N a r c i s o , a n d R . P . C o l l i n s . 1 9 7 5 . O d o r o u sc o n s t i t u e n t s o f P e n i c i l l i u m d e c u m b e n s . M y c o l o g i a 6 7: 1 1 5 8 -1 1 6 5 .

8 . H u b b a l , J . A . , a n d R . P . C o l l i n s . 1 9 7 8 . A s t u d y o f f a c t o r sa f f e c t i n g t h e s y n t h e s i s o f t e r p e n e s b y C e r a t o c y s t i s v a r i o s p o r a .M y c o l o g i a 7 0 : 1 1 7 - 1 2 9 .

9 . K a m i n s k i , E . , R . P r z y b y l s k i , a n d E . W a s o w i c z . 1 9 8 5 . S p e c t r o -

p h o t o m e t r i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n s o f v o l a t i l e c a r b o n y l c o m p o u n d s a s ar a p i d m e t h o d f o r d e t e c t i n g g r a i n s p o i l a g e d u r i n g s t o r a g e . J .C e r e a l S c i . 3 : 1 6 5 - 1 7 2 .

A P P L . E N V I R O N . M I C R O B I O L .

8/2/2019 Gases Mold

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/gases-mold 7/7

V O L A T I L E M E T A B O L I T E S PRODUCED BY SIX F U N G I ON G R A I N 2 6 0 5

1 0 . K a m i n s k i , E . , S . S t a w i c k i , a n d E . W a s o w i c z . 1 9 7 5 . V o l a t i l e

f l a v o r s u b s t a n c e s p r o d u c e d b y m o u l d s on w h e a t g r a i n . A c t a

A l i m e n t . P o l . 1 : 1 5 3 - 1 6 4 .

1 1 . L e g u e r i n e l , I . , P . M a f a r t , J . J . C l e r e t , a n d C . B o ur ge o is . 1 9 8 9 .

Y e a s t s t r a i n a n d k i n e t i c a s p e c t s o f t h e f o r m a t i o n o f f l a v o u r

compon ents i n c i d e r . J . I n s t . B r e w . 9 5 : 4 0 5 - 4 0 9 .

1 2 . N e w e l l , S . Y . , T . L . A r s u f f i , a n d R . D . F a l l o n . 1 9 8 8 . F u n d a m e n t a lp r o c e d u r e s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g e r g o s t e r o l c o n t e n t o f d e c a y i n g p l a n t

m a t e r i a l b y l i q u i d c h r o m a t o g r a p h y . A p p l . E n v i r o n . M i c r o b i o l .5 4 : 1 8 7 6 - 1 8 7 9 .

1 3 . S p r e c h e r , E . , a n d H . - P. H an s s e n . 1 9 8 2 . I nf l ue nc e o f s t r a i ns p e c i f i c i t y a n d c u l t u r e c o n d i t i o n s on t e r p e n e p r o d u c t i o n b y

f u n g i . P l a n t a M e d . 4 4 : 4 1 - 4 3 .

1 4 . Tuma, D . , R . N . S i n h a , W. E . M u i r , a n d D . Abramson. 1 9 8 9 .

Odor v o l a t i l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m i c r o f l o r a i n d a m p v e n t i l a t e d a n dn o n v e n t i l a t e d b i n - s t o r e d b u l k w h ea t . I n t . J . Food M i c r o b i o l .

8 : 1 1 - 1 7 .

1 5 . W u r z e n b e r g e r , M . , a n d W. G r o s c h . 1 9 8 2 . Th e e n z y m a t i c o x i d a -

t i v e b r e a k d o w n o f l i n o l e i c a c i d i n mushrooms ( P s a l l i o t a b i s -p o r a ) . Z . L e b e n s m . - U n t e r s . - F o r s c h . 1 7 5 : 1 8 6 - 1 9 0 .

V O L . 5 8 , 1 9 9 2