Genealogy 1

Genealogy

The family tree of Ludwig Herzog von Württemberg (ruled 1568–1593)

Genealogy (from Greek: γενεά, genea,"generation"; and λόγος, logos,"knowledge"), also known as familyhistory, is the study of families and thetracing of their lineages and history.Genealogists use oral traditions, historicalrecords, genetic analysis, and other recordsto obtain information about a family and todemonstrate kinship and pedigrees of itsmembers. The results are often displayed incharts or written as narratives.

The pursuit of family history tends to beshaped by several motivations, including thedesire to carve out a place for one's familyin the larger historical picture, a sense ofresponsibility to preserve the past for futuregenerations, and a sense of self-satisfaction in accurate storytelling.[1]

Overview

Hobbyist genealogists typically pursue their own ancestry and that of their spouses. Professional genealogists mayalso conduct research for others, publish books on genealogical methods, teach, or produce their own databases.They may work for companies that provide software or produce materials of use to hobbyist and other professionalgenealogists. Both try to understand not just where and when people lived, but also their lifestyles, biographies, andmotivations. This often requires—or leads to—knowledge of antiquated laws, old political boundaries, migrationtrends, and historical socioeconomic or religious conditions.

Genealogists sometimes specialize in a particular group, e.g. a Scottish clan; a particular surname, such as in aone-name study; a small community, e.g. a single village or parish, such as in a one-place study; or a particular, oftenfamous, person. Bloodlines of Salem is an example of a specialized family-history group. It welcomes members whocan prove descent from a participant of the Salem Witch Trials or who choose simply to support the group.Genealogists and family historians often join family history societies, where novices can learn from moreexperienced researchers. Such societies may also index records to make them more accessible, and engage inadvocacy and other efforts to preserve public records and cemeteries.The benefits of family history projects may vary according to the people who pursue the hobby. Some schoolsengage students in such projects as a means to reinforce lessons regarding immigration and history.[2] Other benefitsinclude family medical histories with families with serious medical conditions that are hereditary.

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MotivationIn communitarian societies, one's identity is defined as much by one's kin network as by individual achievement, andthe question "Who are you?" would be answered by a description of father, mother, and tribe. New Zealand Māori,for example, learn whakapapa (genealogies) to discover who they are.[citation needed]

Family history plays a part in the practice of some religious belief systems. For example, The Church of Jesus Christof Latter-day Saints have a doctrine of baptism for the dead, which necessitates that members of that faith engage infamily history research.Until the late 19th century, family histories were almost exclusively of interest to persons who had obtained theirwealth or rank by inheritance. Other people, who had inherited nothing, might, in extreme cases, suppress theirfamily history as a matter of shame.In societies such as the United States or Australia, there was by the 20th century growing pride in the pioneers andnation-builders. Establishing descent from these was a concern in groups such as the Daughters of the AmericanRevolution, and helped differentiate those descendants from later immigrants with lower status.In Nazi Germany, family histories were compiled to affirm individuals' affiliation with the "master race" and toadhere to legal requirements for marriage. In Germany today, family history is still often perceived as a threat toprivacy rather than as a source of self-esteem.[citation needed] Most 20th-century sources remain unavailable to thepublic on privacy grounds. Funding of support for family history at archives is limited. German family historiansthus tend to emphasize instead how family history can contribute to learning and science.[citation needed]

Modern family history explores new sources of status, such as celebrating the resilience of families that survivedgenerations of poverty or slavery, or the success of families in integrating across racial or national boundaries. Somefamily histories even emphasize links to celebrity criminals, such as the bushranger Ned Kelly in Australia.The growing interest in family history in the media coupled with easier access to online records has allowed peoplewith a curiosity to start to investigate their ancestry. This curiosity can be particularly strong for those with lostfamily histories, for example, because of adoption or separation from family, perhaps as a result of bereavement.

HistoryHistorically, in Western societies the focus of genealogy was on the kinship and descent of rulers and nobles, oftenarguing or demonstrating the legitimacy of claims to wealth and power. The term often overlapped with heraldry, inwhich the ancestry of royalty was reflected in their coats of arms. Modern scholars consider many claimed nobleancestries to be fabrications, such as the Anglo-Saxon chronicles that traced the ancestry of several English kings tothe god Woden.Some family trees have been maintained for considerable periods. The family tree of Confucius has been maintainedfor over 2,500 years and is listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the largest extant family tree. The fifth editionof the Confucius Genealogy was printed in 2009 by the Confucius Genealogy Compilation Committee (CGCC).[3][4]

Modern timesIn modern times, genealogy became more widespread, with commoners as well as nobility researching andmaintaining their family trees.[5] Genealogy received a boost in the late 1970s with the television broadcast of Roots:The Saga of an American Family, Alex Haley's account of his family line.[6]

With the advent of the Internet, the number of resources readily accessible by genealogists has vastly increased,resulting in an explosion of interest in the topic.[7] According to some sources, genealogy is one of the most populartopics on the Internet.[8] The Internet has become not only a major source of data for genealogists, but also ofeducation and communication.

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United StatesGenealogical research in the United States was first systematized in the early 19th century, especially by JohnFarmer (1789–1838).[9] Before Farmer's efforts, tracing one's genealogy was seen as an attempt by colonists tosecure a measure of social standing within the British Empire, an aim that was counter to the new republic'segalitarian, future-oriented ethos.[9] As Fourth of July celebrations commemorating the Founding Fathers and theheroes of the Revolutionary War became increasingly popular, however, the pursuit of 'antiquarianism,' whichfocused on local history, became acceptable as a way to honor the achievements of early Americans.[citation needed]

Farmer capitalized on the acceptability of antiquarianism to frame genealogy within the early republic's ideologicalframework of pride in one's American ancestors. He corresponded with other antiquarians in New England, whereantiquarianism and genealogy were well established, and became a coordinator, booster, and contributor to thegrowing movement. In the 1820s, he and fellow antiquarians began to produce genealogical and antiquarian tracts inearnest, slowly gaining a devoted audience among the American people. Though Farmer died in 1839, his efforts ledto the creation of the New England Historic Genealogical Society (NEHGS), one of New England's oldest and mostprominent organizations dedicated to the preservation of public records.[10] NEHGS publishes the New EnglandHistorical and Genealogical Register.

The Genealogical Society of Utah, founded in 1894, later became the Family History Department of the Church ofJesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS). The department's research facility, the Family History Library, which hasdeveloped the most extensive genealogical record-gathering program in the world,[citation needed] was established toassist in tracing family lineages for special religious ceremonies that Mormons believe will seal family units togetherfor eternity. Mormons believe that this fulfilled a biblical prophecy stating that the prophet Elijah would return to'turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers.'[11]

Research processGenealogical research is a complex process that uses historical records and sometimes genetic analysis todemonstrate kinship. Reliable conclusions are based on the quality of sources, ideally original records, theinformation within those sources, ideally primary or firsthand information, and the evidence that can be drawn,directly or indirectly, from that information. In many instances, genealogists must skillfully assemble indirect orcircumstantial evidence to build a case for identity and kinship. All evidence and conclusions, together with thedocumentation that supports them, is then assembled to create a cohesive genealogy or family history.[12]

Genealogists begin their research by collecting family documents and stories. This creates a foundation fordocumentary research, which involves examining and evaluating historical records for evidence about ancestors andother relatives, their kinship ties, and the events that occurred in their lives. As a rule, genealogists begin with thepresent and work backward in time. Historical, social, and family context is essential to achieving correctidentification of individuals and relationships. Source citation is also important when conducting genealogicalresearch.[13] To keep track of collected material, family group sheets and pedigree charts are used. Formerlyhandwritten, these can now be generated by genealogical software.

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Genetic analysis

Variations of VNTR allele lengths in 6individuals.

Because a person's DNA contains information that has been passeddown relatively unchanged from early ancestors, analysis of DNA issometimes used for genealogical research. Three DNA types are ofparticular interest: mitochondrial DNA that we all possess and that ispassed down with only minor mutations through the matrilineal (directfemale) line; the Y-chromosome, present only in males, which ispassed down with only minor mutations through the patrilineal (directmale) line; and the Autosomal DNA, which is found in the 22non-gender specific chromosomes (autosomes) inherited from bothparents, which can uncover relatives from any branch of the family.

A genealogical DNA test allows two individuals to find the probability that they are, or are not, related within anestimated number of generations. Individual genetic test results are collected in databases to match people descendedfrom a relatively recent common ancestor. See, for example, the Molecular Genealogy Research Project. These testsare limited to either the patrilineal or the matrilineal line.

CollaborationMost genealogy software programs can export information about persons and their relationships in a standardizedformat called GEDCOM. In that format it can be shared with other genealogists, added to databases, or convertedinto family web sites. Social networking service (SNS) websites allow genealogists to share data and build theirfamily trees online. Members can upload their family trees and contact other family historians to fill in gaps in theirresearch.

VolunteerismVolunteer efforts figure prominently in genealogy.[14] These range from the extremely informal to the highlyorganized.On the informal side are the many popular and useful message boards such as Rootschat and mailing lists onparticular surnames, regions, and other topics. These forums can be used to try to find relatives, request recordlookups, obtain research advice, and much more.Many genealogists participate in loosely organized projects, both online and off. These collaborations take numerousforms. Some projects prepare name indexes for records, such as probate cases, and publish the indexes, either onlineor off. These indexes can be used as finding aids to locate original records. Other projects transcribe or abstractrecords. Offering record lookups for particular geographic areas is another common service. Volunteers do recordlookups or take photos in their home areas for researchers who are unable to travel.Those looking for a structured volunteer environment can join one of thousands of genealogical societies worldwide.Most societies have a unique area of focus, such as a particular surname, ethnicity, geographic area, or descendancyfrom participants in a given historical event. Genealogical societies are almost exclusively staffed by volunteers andmay offer a broad range of services, including maintaining libraries for members' use, publishing newsletters,providing research assistance to the public, offering classes or seminars, and organizing record preservation ortranscription projects.

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Software

GRAMPS is an example of genealogy software

Genealogy software is used to collect, store, sort, anddisplay genealogical data. At a minimum, genealogysoftware accommodates basic information aboutindividuals, including births, marriages, and deaths.Many programs allow for additional biographicalinformation, including occupation, residence, andnotes, and most also offer a method for keeping trackof the sources for each piece of evidence.

Most programs can generate basic kinship charts andreports, allow for the import of digital photographs andthe export of data in the GEDCOM format (short forGEnealogical Data COMmunication) so that data canbe shared with those using other genealogy software. More advanced features include the ability to restrict theinformation that is shared, usually by removing information about living people out of privacy concerns; the importof sound files; the generation of family history books, web pages and other publications; the ability to handle samesex marriages and children born out of wedlock; searching the Internet for data; and the provision of researchguidance.

Programs may be geared toward a specific religion, with fields relevant to that religion, or to specific nationalities orethnic groups, with source types relevant for those groups.

Records and documentation

A family history page from an Antebellum era family Bible.

Genealogists use a wide variety of records in theirresearch. To effectively conduct genealogical research,it is important to understand how the records werecreated, what information is included in them, and howand where to access them.

List of record types

Records that are used in genealogy research include:•• Vital records

•• Birth records•• Death records• Marriage and divorce records

• Adoption records• Biographies and biographical profiles (e.g. Who's

Who)• Census records•• Church records

• Baptism or christening•• Confirmation• Bar or bat mitzvah•• Marriage• Funeral or death

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•• Membership• City directories[15] and telephone directories• Coroner's reports•• Court records

• Criminal records•• Civil records

• Diaries, personal letters and family Bibles• Emigration, immigration and naturalization records• Hereditary & lineage organization records, e.g. Daughters of the American Revolution records• Land and property records, deeds• Medical records• Military and conscription records• Newspaper articles•• Obituaries• Occupational records•• Oral histories• Passports• Photographs• Poorhouse, workhouse, almshouse, and asylum records• School and alumni association records• Ship passenger lists• Social Security (within the US) and pension records• Tax records• Tombstones, cemetery records, and funeral home records• Voter registration records• Wills and probate recordsTo keep track of their citizens, governments began keeping records of persons who were neither royalty nor nobility.In England and Germany, for example, such record keeping started with parish registers in the 16th century.[16] Asmore of the population was recorded, there were sufficient records to follow a family. Major life events, such asbirths, marriages, and deaths, were often documented with a license, permit, or report. Genealogists locate theserecords in local, regional or national offices or archives and extract information about family relationships andrecreate timelines of persons' lives.In China, India and other Asian countries, genealogy books are used to record the names, occupations, and otherinformation about family members, with some books dating back hundreds or even thousands of years. In the easternIndian state of Bihar, there is a written tradition of genealogical records among Maithil Brahmins and KarnaKayasthas called "Panjis", dating to the 12th century CE. Even today these records are consulted prior tomarriages.[17][18][19]

In Ireland, genealogical records were recorded by professional families of senchaidh (historians) until as late as themid-17th century, when Gaelic civilization died out. Perhaps the most outstanding example of this genre is Leabharna nGenealach/The Great Book of Irish Genealogies, by Dubhaltach MacFhirbhisigh (d. 1671), published in 2004.

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FamilySearch collections

The Family History Library, operated by the LDSChurch, is the world's largest library dedicated to

genealogical research

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) hasengaged in large-scale microfilming of records of genealogical value.Their Family History Library in Salt Lake City, Utah, houses over 2million microfiche and microfilms of genealogically relevant material,which are also available for on-site research at over 4500 FamilyHistory Centers worldwide.[20]

FamilySearch's website includes many resources for genealogists. Thelatest product, FamilyTree, is a publically-editable, lineage-linkeddatabase built on the foundation of three FamilySearch legacycollections: the International Genealogical Index, Ancestral File, andPedigree Resource File. FamilySearch is digitizing its microfilm andbook collections. Historical records, such as the 1940 U.S. Census, arebeing indexed by volunteers in an effort known as FamilySearch Indexing [21]. Between 2006 and 2013,1,000,000,000 names have been indexed, at a current rate of 200,000,000 per year.[22] 100,000 family history books[23] have been digitized from major U.S. genealogical libraries.[24] FamilySearch also hosts a Wiki [25], built on thefoundation of the Family History Library's research outlines, currently offering more than 70,000 research guidancearticles for conducting family history searches in nations around the globe.[26]

Legacy collectionsThe International Genealogical Index, or IGI, which includes both data extracted from filmed civil and ecclesiasticrecords from various worldwide locales and member-submitted information; the Ancestral File, or AF, whichincludes the contributions of church members; and the Pedigree Resource File, or PRF, compiled from member andnon-member submissions. The IGI contains indexes to millions of records of individuals who lived between 1500and 1900, primarily in the United States, Canada and Europe. Although independent of the IGI, the AF and PRFoften contain duplications of IGI records. All three of these indexes are available free on their website,FamilySearch.

Types of informationGenealogists who seek to reconstruct the lives of each ancestor consider all historical information to be"genealogical" information. Traditionally, the basic information needed to ensure correct identification of eachperson are place names, occupations, family names, first names, and dates. However, modern genealogists greatlyexpand this list, recognizing the need to place this information in its historical context in order to properly evaluategenealogical evidence and distinguish between same-name individuals. A great deal of information is available forBritish ancestry[27] with growing resources for other ethnic groups.[28]

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Family names

Lineage of a family, c1809

Family names are simultaneously one of the mostimportant pieces of genealogical information, and asource of significant confusion for researchers.[29]

In many cultures, the name of a person refers to thefamily to which he or she belongs. This is called thefamily name, surname, or last name. Patronymics arenames that identify an individual based on the father'sname. For example, Marga Olafsdottir is Marga,daughter of Olaf, and Olaf Thorsson is Olaf, son ofThor. Many cultures used patronymics before surnameswere adopted or came into use. The Dutch in NewYork, for example, used the patronymic system ofnames until 1687 when the advent of English rulemandated surname usage.[30] In Iceland, patronymicsare used by a majority of the population.[31] InDenmark and Norway patronymics and farm nameswere generally in use through the 19th century andbeyond, though surnames began to come into fashiontoward the end of the 19th century in some parts of thecountry. Not until 1856 in Denmark[32] and 1923 inNorway[33] were there laws requiring surnames.

The transmission of names across generations,marriages and other relationships, and immigrationmay cause difficulty in genealogical research. For instance, women in many cultures have routinely used theirspouse's surnames. When a woman remarried, she may have changed her name and the names of her children; onlyher name; or changed no names. Her birth name (maiden name) may be reflected in her children's middle names; herown middle name; or dropped entirely.[34] Children may sometimes assume stepparent, foster parent, or adoptiveparent names. Because official records may reflect many kinds of surname change, without explaining theunderlying reason for the change, the correct identification of a person recorded identified with more than one nameis challenging. Immigrants to America often Americanized their names.[35]

Surname data may be found in trade directories, census returns, birth, death, and marriage records.

Given namesGenealogical data regarding given names (first names) is subject to many of the same problems as are family namesand place names. Additionally, the use of nicknames is very common. For example Beth, Lizzie or Betty are allcommon for Elizabeth, and Jack, John and Jonathan may be interchanged.Middle names provide additional information. Middle names may be inherited, follow naming customs, or be treatedas part of the family name. For instance, in some Latin cultures, both the mother's family name and the father'sfamily name are used by the children.Historically, naming traditions existed in some places and cultures. Even in areas that tended to use namingconventions, however, they were by no means universal. Families may have used them some of the time, amongsome of their children, or not at all. A pattern might also be broken to name a newborn after a recently deceasedsibling, aunt or uncle.An example of a naming tradition from England, Scotland and Ireland:

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Child Namesake

1st son paternal grandfather

2nd son maternal grandfather

3rd son father

4th son father's oldest brother

1st daughter maternal grandmother

2nd daughter paternal grandmother

3rd daughter mother

4th daughter mother's oldest sister

Another example is in some areas of Germany, where siblings were given the same first name, often of a favouritesaint or local nobility, but different second names by which they were known (Rufname). If a child died, the nextchild of the same gender that was born may have been given the same name. It is not uncommon that a list of aparticular couple's children will show one or two names repeated.Personal names have periods of popularity, so it is not uncommon to find many similarly named people in ageneration, and even similarly named families; e.g., "William and Mary and their children David, Mary, and John".Many names may be identified strongly with a particular gender; e.g., William for boys, and Mary for girls. Othersmay be ambiguous, e.g., Lee, or have only slightly variant spellings based on gender, e.g., Frances (usually female)and Francis (usually male).

Place namesWhile the locations of ancestors' residences and life events are core elements of the genealogist's quest, they canoften be confusing. Place names may be subject to variant spellings by partially literate scribes. Locations may haveidentical or very similar names. For example, the village name Brockton occurs six times in the border area betweenthe English counties of Shropshire and Staffordshire. Shifts in political borders must also be understood. Parish,county and national borders have frequently been modified. Old records may contain references to farms and villagesthat have ceased to exist. When working with older records from Poland, where borders and place names havechanged frequently in past centuries, a source with maps and sample records such as A Translation Guide to19th-Century Polish-Language Civil-Registration Documents can be invaluable.Available sources may include vital records (civil or church registration), censuses, and tax assessments. Oraltradition is also an important source, although it must be used with caution. When no source information is availablefor a location, circumstantial evidence may provide a probable answer based on a person's or a family's place ofresidence at the time of the event.Maps and gazetteers are important sources for understanding the places researched. They show the relationship of anarea to neighboring communities and may be of help in understanding migration patterns. Family tree mapping usingonline mapping tools such as Google Earth (particularly when used with Historical Map overlays such as those fromthe David Rumsey Historical Map Collection) assist in the process of understanding the significance of geographicallocations.

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DatesIt is wise to exercise extreme caution with dates. Dates are more difficult to recall years after an event, and are moreeasily mistranscribed than other types of genealogical data.[36] Therefore, one should determine whether the date wasrecorded at the time of the event or at a later date. Dates of birth in vital records or civil registrations and in churchrecords at baptism are generally accurate because they were usually recorded near the time of the event. FamilyBibles are often a source for dates, but can be written from memory long after the event. When the same ink andhandwriting is used for all entries, the dates were probably written at the same time and therefore will be less reliablesince the earlier dates were probably recorded well after the event. The publication date of the Bible also provides aclue about when the dates were recorded since they could not have been recorded at any earlier date.People sometimes reduce their age on marriage, and those under "full age" may increase their age in order to marryor to join the armed forces. Census returns are notoriously unreliable for ages or for assuming an approximate deathdate. Ages over 15 in the 1841 census in the UK are rounded down to the next lower multiple of five years.Although baptismal dates are often used to approximate birth dates, some families waited years before baptizingchildren, and adult baptisms are the norm in some religions. Both birth and marriage dates may have been adjusted tocover for pre-wedding pregnancies.Calendar changes must also be considered. In 1752, England and her American colonies changed from the Julian tothe Gregorian calendar. In the same year, the date the new year began was changed. Prior to 1752 it was 25 March;this was changed to 1 January. Many other European countries had already made the calendar changes beforeEngland had, sometimes centuries earlier. By 1751 there was an 11 day discrepancy between the date in England andthe date in other European countries.For further detail on the changes involved in moving from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar, see: Gregoriancalendar.The French Republican Calendar or French Revolutionary Calendar was a calendar proposed during the FrenchRevolution, and used by the French government for about 12 years from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days in 1871in Paris. Dates in official records at this time use the revolutionary calendar and need "translating" into the Gregoriancalendar for calculating ages etc. There are various websites which do this.[37]

When recording dates for genealogical purposes, traditionally they are written first day, then the first three letters ofthe month, then all four digits of the year.[citation needed]

OccupationsOccupational information may be important to understanding an ancestor's life and for distinguishing two peoplewith the same name. A person's occupation may have been related to his or her social status, political interest, andmigration pattern. Since skilled trades are often passed from father to son, occupation may also be indirect evidenceof a family relationship.It is important to remember that a person may change occupations, and that titles change over time as well. Someworkers no longer fit for their primary trade often took less prestigious jobs later in life, while others moved upwardsin prestige.[38] Many unskilled ancestors had a variety of jobs depending on the season and local trade requirements.Census returns may contain some embellishment; e.g., from labourer to mason, or from journeyman to mastercraftsman. Names for old or unfamiliar local occupations may cause confusion if poorly legible. For example, anostler (a keeper of horses) and a hostler (an innkeeper) could easily be confused for one another. Likewise,descriptions of such occupations may also be problematic. The perplexing description "ironer of rabbit burrows" mayturn out to describe an ironer (profession) in the Bristol district named Rabbit Burrows. Several trades haveregionally preferred terms. For example, "shoemaker" and "cordwainer" have the same meaning. Finally, manyapparently obscure jobs are part of a larger trade community, such as watchmaking, framework knitting orgunmaking.

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Occupational data may be reported in occupational licenses, tax assessments, membership records of professionalorganizations, trade directories, census returns, and vital records (civil registration). Occupational dictionaries areavailable to explain many obscure and archaic trades.[39]

Reliability of sourcesInformation found in historical or genealogical sources can be unreliable and it is good practice to evaluate allsources with a critical eye. Factors influencing the reliability of genealogical information include: the knowledge ofthe informant (or writer); the bias and mental state of the informant (or writer); the passage of time and the potentialfor copying and compiling errors.The quality of census data has been of special interest to historians, who have investigated reliability issues.[36][40]

Knowledge of the informantThe informant is the individual who provided the recorded information. Genealogists must carefully consider whoprovided the information and what he or she knew. In many cases the informant is identified in the record itself. Forexample, a death certificate usually has two informants: a physician who provides information about the time andcause of death and a family member who provides the birth date, names of parents, etc.When the informant is not identified, one can sometimes deduce information about the identity of the person bycareful examination of the source. One should first consider who was alive (and nearby) when the record wascreated. When the informant is also the person recording the information, the handwriting can be compared to otherhandwriting samples.When a source does not provide clues about the informant, genealogists should treat the source with caution. Thesesources can be useful if they can be compared with independent sources. For example, a census record by itselfcannot be given much weight because the informant is unknown. However, when censuses for several years concuron a piece of information that would not likely be guessed by a neighbor, it is likely that the information in thesecensuses was provided by a family member or other informed person. On the other hand, information in a singlecensus cannot be confirmed by information in an undocumented compiled genealogy since the genealogy may haveused the census record as its source and might therefore be dependent on the same misinformed individual.

Motivation of the informantEven individuals who had knowledge of the fact, sometimes intentionally or unintentionally provided false ormisleading information. A person may have lied in order to obtain a government benefit (such as a military pension),avoid taxation, or cover up an embarrassing situation (such as the existence of a non-marital child). A person with adistressed state of mind may not be able to accurately recall information. Many genealogical records were recordedat the time of a loved one's death, and so genealogists should consider the effect that grief may have had on theinformant of these records.

The effect of timeThe passage of time often affects a person's ability to recall information. Therefore, as a general rule, data recordedsoon after the event is usually more reliable than data recorded many years later. However, some types of data aremore difficult to recall after many years than others. One type especially prone to recollection errors is dates. Alsothe ability to recall is affected by the significance that the event had to the individual. These values may have beenaffected by cultural or individual preferences.

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Copying and compiling errorsGenealogists must consider the effects that copying and compiling errors may have had on the information in asource. For this reason, sources are generally categorized in two categories: original and derivative. An originalsource is one that is not based on another source. A derivative source is information taken from another source. Thisdistinction is important because each time a source is copied, information about the record may be lost and errorsmay result from the copyist misreading, mistyping, or miswriting the information. Genealogists should consider thenumber of times information has been copied and the types of derivation a piece of information has undergone. Thetypes of derivatives include: photocopies, transcriptions, abstracts, translations, extractions, and compilations.In addition to copying errors, compiled sources (such as published genealogies and online pedigree databases) aresusceptible to misidentification errors and incorrect conclusions based on circumstantial evidence. Identity errorsusually occur when two or more individuals are assumed to be the same person. Circumstantial or indirect evidencedoes not explicitly answer a genealogical question, but either may be used with other sources to answer the question,suggest a probable answer, or eliminate certain possibilities. Compilers sometimes draw hasty conclusions fromcircumstantial evidence without sufficiently examining all available sources, without properly understanding theevidence, and without appropriately indicating the level of uncertainty.

Primary and secondary sourcesIn genealogical research, information can be obtained from primary or secondary sources. Primary sources arerecords that were made at the time of the event, for example a death certificate would be a primary source for aperson's death date and place. Secondary sources are records that are made days, weeks, months, or even years afteran event.

References[1] Ronald Bishop, "In the Grand Scheme of Things: An Exploration of the Meaning of Genealogical Research," Journal Of Popular Culture

2008 41(3): 393–412.[5] Elizabeth Shown Mills, "Genealogy in the 'Information Age': History's New Frontier?" (http:/ / www. ngsgenealogy. org/ galleries/

Ref_Researching/ NGSQVol91Pg26077GenealogyHistory. pdf) National Genealogical Society Quarterly 91 (December 2003): 260–77.[6] Michelle Hudson, "The Effect of 'Roots' and the Bicentennial on Genealogical Interest among Patrons of the Mississippi Department of

Archives and History," Journal of Mississippi History 1991 53(4): 321–336[7] Grow Your Family Tree in Salt Lake City – Genealogy is the Fastest Growing Hobby in North America (http:/ / genealogy. about. com/

library/ weekly/ aa011502a. htm)[8] Genealogy.com: Recent Maritz Poll Shows Explosion in Popularity of Genealogy (http:/ / www. genealogy. com/ press-051600. html)[9] François Weil, Family Trees: A History of Genealogy in America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2013), Chapter 1.[10] François Weil, "John Farmer and the Making of American Genealogy," New England Quarterly 2007 80(3): 408–434.[11] James B. Allen et al. "Hearts Turned To The Fathers," BYU Studies 1994–1995 34(2): 4–392[12] Board for Certification of Genealogists, The BCG Genealogical Standards Manual (Provo, Utah: Ancestry, 2000); National Genealogical

Society, American Genealogy (Arlington, Virginia: 2005); Val D. Greenwood, The Researcher's Guide to American Genealogy, 3d ed.(Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 2000)"

[13] Elizabeth Shown Mills, Evidence Explained: Citing History Sources from Artifacts to Cyberspace, (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co.,2007).

[15] Peter R. Knights, "City Directories as Aids to Ante-Bellum Urban Studies: A Research Note," Historical Methods Newsletter, Sept. 19692:1–9

[16] Thea Miller, "The German registry: The evolution of a recordkeeping model," Archival Science Volume 3, Number 1 / March, 2003 pp43–62; Michael Drake, "An Elementary Exercise in Parish Register Demography," Economic History Review Vol. 14, No. 3 (1962), pp.427–445 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 2591886)

[20] Donald Harman Akenson, Some Family: The Mormons and How Humanity Keeps Track of Itself Montreal: McGill-Queen's UniversityPress, 2007; Johni Cerny and Wendy Elliott, The Library: A Guide to the LDS Family History Library. Salt Lake City: Ancestry Pub., 1988.

[21] http:/ / familysearch. org/ volunteer/ indexing[22] "Thanks A Billion," (http:/ / familysearch. org/ node/ 2125) FamilySearch Press Release. Retrieved 4-22-2013; "News and Press: Official

FamilySearch.org News and Press Releases," (http:/ / familysearch. org/ news/ ) FamilySearch. Retrieved 2013-5-26.[23] http:/ / books. familysearch. org/

Genealogy 13

[24] "FamilySearch Family History Books Reaches a New Milestone," (http:/ / familysearch. org/ blog/ en/familysearch-family-history-books-reaches-milestone/ ) FamilySearch, 5 August 2013. Retrieved 2013-8-5.

[25] http:/ / familysearch. org/ learn/ wiki/ en/ Main_Page[26] "Research Wiki," (http:/ / www. familysearch. org/ learn/ wiki/ en/ Main_Page) FamilySearch. Retrieved 2013-5-26; FamilySearch Wiki

contributors, "Research Outlines," (http:/ / www. familysearch. org/ learn/ wiki/ en/ Research_Outlines) FamilySearch Wiki. Retrieved2013-5-26.

[27] Mark D. Herber, Ancestral Trails: The Complete Guide to British Genealogy and Family History 2nd ed. Baltimore: GenealogicalPublishing Company, 2006; David Hey, Family History and Local History in England. London: Longman, 1987; Sherry Irvine, ScottishAncestry: Research Methods for Family Historians, 2nd ed. Provo, UT: Ancestry, 2003; David Moody, Scottish Family History. Baltimore:Genealogical Pub. Co., 1990.

[28] Trafford R. Cole, Italian Genealogical Records: How to Use Italian Civil, Ecclesiastical & Other Records in Family History Research SaltLake City, Utah: Ancestry, 1995; Cruise, M. T. W., Guidelines For Ancestry Research With an Emphasis on African-American GenealogyDublin, VA: Author, 2007; Jessie Carney Smith, Ethnic Genealogy: A Research Guide, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1983.

[29] G. J. A. Guth, "Surname Spellings and Computerised Record Linkage," Historical Methods Newsletter, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 10–19, 1976.[31][31] Surnames made their way into the language in the 19th and 20th century, but are not widely used. In order to protect the patronymics

system, in Iceland it is forbidden by law to introduce a new surname.[32][32] An earlier law was in effect in 1828, but was largely ignored in the rural areas.[34] E. A. Wrigley, English population history from family reconstitution, 1580–1837 (1997); Catherine Quantin et al, "Which are the best

identifiers for record linkage?," Informatics for Health and Social Care 2004, Vol. 29, No. 3-4, Pages 221–227[35] Marc Picard, "Genealogical Evidence and the Americanization of European Family Names," Names: American Name Society 2009 57(1):

30–51[36] Peter R. Knights, "The Accuracy of Age Reporting in the Manuscript Federal Census of 1850 and 1860," Historical Methods Newsletter, 4

(1971), 79–83; Karen Oppenheim Mason and Lisa G. Cope, "Sources of Age and Date-of-Birth Misreporting in the 1900 U.S. Census,"Demography vol. 24, no. 4 (Nov., 1987), pp. 563–573.

[38] Robert M. Hauser, "Occupational Status in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries" (http:/ / www. ssc. wisc. edu/ wlsresearch/ publications/files/ public/ Hauser_Occupational. Status. N. T. C. pdf), Historical Methods (1982) vol. 15, no. 3, 111–126.

[39] For example, United States Bureau of Employment Security, The Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1939)[40] Richard H. Steckel, "The Quality of Census Data for Historical Inquiry: A Research Agenda," Social Science History, vol. 15, no. 4 (Winter,

1991), pp. 579–599.

Further reading• Adams, Suzanne Russo. Finding Your Italian Ancestors: A Beginner's Guide. Provo, UT: Ancestry, 2008.• Ching, Frank. Ancestors: 900 Years in the Life of a Chinese Family. (1988).• Chorzempa, Rosemary A. Polish roots = Korzenie polskie. Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1993.• Christian, Peter. The Genealogist's Internet. 4th ed. Kew, England: National Archives, 2009. ISBN

978-1-905615-39-1• Durie, Bruce. Scottish Genealogy. Stroud, England: History Press, 2009.• Eales, Anne Bruner & Robert M. Kvasnicka, eds. Guide to Genealogical Research in the National Archives of the

United States. Washington, DC: National Archives, 2000.• Greenwood, Val. D. The Researcher's Guide to American Genealogy. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing

Co., 2000.• Grenham, John. Tracing Your Irish Ancestors. 3rd ed. Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 2006.• Herber, Mark D. Ancestral Trails: The Complete Guide to British Genealogy and Family History. 2nd ed.

Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing Co., 2004.• Hey, David. The Oxford Companion to Family and Local History. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

2008.• McClure, Rhonda (2002). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Online Genealogy (2nd ed.). Indianapolis: Alpha.

ISBN 0-02-864267-8.• Malka, Jeffrey S. Sephardic Genealogy: Discovering Your Sephardic Ancestors and Their World. 2nd ed.

Bergenfield, NJ: Avotaynu, 2009.• Merriman, Brenda Dougall. Genealogical Standards of Evidence: A Guide for Family Historians. 2nd ed.

Toronto: Ontario Genealogical Society, 2010.• Morgan, George G. How to Do Everything: Genealogy. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009.

Genealogy 14

• Riemer, Shirley J. & Roger Minert. The German Research Companion. 3rd ed. Sacramento, CA: Lorelei Press,2010.

• Rose, Christine. Courthouse Research for Family Historians: Your Guide to Genealogical Treasures. San Jose,CA: CR Publications, 2004. ISBN 0-929626-16-8

• Ryan, James G. Irish Records: Sources for Family and Local History. Salt Lake City, UT: Ancestry, 1997.• Simpson, Jack. Basics of Genealogy Reference: A Librarian's Guide. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited, 2008.

ISBN 978-1-59158-514-5• Smith, Marian L. "American Names: Declaring Independence" (http:/ / www. ilw. com/ articles/

2005,0808-smith. shtm) – article on immigrant name changes by the former senior historian for the U.S.Immigration and Naturalization Service (now CIS)

• Szucs, Loretto Dennis, & Luebking, Sandra Hargreaves. The Source: A Guidebook of American Genealogy. 3rdrev. ed. Provo, UT: Ancestry, 2006.

• Taylor, Robert M., and Ralph S. Crandall. Generations and Change: Genealogical Perspectives in Social History.Mercer University Press, 1986.

• Weil, François. Family Trees: A History of Genealogy in America. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,2013.

External links• Association of Professional Genealogists (http:/ / www. apgen. org/ ), Non-profit striving to promote the highest

standard of ethics and professionalism among genealogists.• Board for Certification of Genealogists (http:/ / www. bcgcertification. org/ ), certification body for genealogists• Cyndi's List (http:/ / www. cyndislist. com/ ), a directory of genealogy links, with links to resources about dozens

of nations.• Family Genealogy & History Internet Education Directory - Wiki (http:/ / academic-genealogy. com/ ),

Comprehensive Portal to all Countries and Nations of the World.• FamilySearch (http:/ / www. familysearch. org), a collection of databases and research guidance provided by The

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints• Genealogy (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Society/ Genealogy/ ) at the Open Directory Project• Genealogy and Family History (http:/ / www. collectionscanada. gc. ca/ 022/ index-e. html) at Library and

Archives of Canada• GenerousGenealogists (http:/ / generousgenealogists. com)• GENUKI (http:/ / genuki. org. uk), a portal for genealogical information in the British Isles• Gjenvick-Gjønvik Archives (http:/ / www. gjenvick. com/ ) a site that has historical ephemera and unique

immigration records (such as steamship voyage contracts) useful for supplementing your genealogy or familyhistory research

• Guide to Family History Resources at the National Archives of the UK (http:/ / www. nationalarchives. gov. uk/familyhistory/ default. htm?homepage=fr-more), information about records of interest to genealogists

• Resources for Genealogists at the National Archives of the USA (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ research/genealogy/ index. html), information about federal records of interest to genealogists

• RootsWeb (http:/ / www. rootsweb. com), free genealogy resources, including WorldConnect, a database withover 480,000,000 surnames

• Royal Genealogy (http:/ / www. monarchgenealogy. com/ ), a site that presents genealogy of various monarchs ofEurope

• WorldGenWeb Project (http:/ / www. worldgenweb. org/ ), a directory of genealogy websites maintained byvolunteers covering genealogical research worldwide

• Ancestry.com Genealogy (http:/ / www. ancestry. com/ ), more than 11 billion historical records

Article Sources and Contributors 15

Article Sources and ContributorsGenealogy  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=568579060  Contributors: .:Ajvol:., 1freethinker, A bit iffy, ARTEST4ECHO, Abune, Acadienne, Acjelen, Acroterion, AdrianComollo, Afasmit, Agricolae, Ahoerstemeier, Akrabbim, Alanm6, Alexd321, Alffan2, Alison Ceney, Amandaea129, Andre Engels, AndreasJS, Andrejj, Andres, Andrew Gray, Andrew Higgs,AndrewL, Andrewpmk, Andyjsmith, Angel ivanov angelov, AnonUser, Anwar saadat, Aotway, Appraiser, Arcalife, Archivare, Argento, Arthur3030, Asdfgbnmkiuytfv, AstroNomer,Astronautics, Austincc, Avraham, Barefootguru, Barneca, Baronnet, Bedivere, Beland, Belovedfreak, Ben Tibbetts, Bentogoa, Betswiki, BiT, Biker JR, BizGooRoo, Bloodshedder, Bmds,Bobblewik, Bogger, Boongie, Boothy443, BradPatrick, Brenont, Brian1979, Brianhass, Brianwiki, Bryanlharris, BullRangifer, Bwissinger, CDijkgraaf, COGDEN, California Autodidact, Caltas,CapitalR, Cataplin, Cccourt, Cecil R. Humphery-Smith, Ceyockey, Charvex, Che829, Cherkash, Chesslover96, Chevin, Chris edits, Chris the speller, Chris55, Chtrout, ClaudineChionh, Cliogen,Clivehenly, Cmethod, Comes.amanuensis, Commonbrick, CommonsDelinker, Constructive, Conversion script, Corpx, Cranslock, Cray4348, Cribbswh, Crwth, Cs-wolves, Cuirassier, DHN, DV82XL, Dahliarose, Dallan, DancesWithBikers, Daniel, Danieljackson, Dapang, Darcij, Darksecretz, Dav4is, David Nelson, DePiep, Derek Ross, Deviathan, DianaGaleM, Dino, Dmadeo,DopefishJustin, Doremítzwr, DougBarry, Dougweller, Dquiring, Dr Fredrik Haeffner, Dsmurat, Dustinasby, DutchmanInDisguise, Dwo, ERcheck, Ed Poor, Edwinstearns, Eillo, Ekabhishek,Elaineclay, Eleassar777, Elfguy, Emerson7, Erebus555, Eregli bob, Eric Herriman, ErinHowarth, Eshown, Espoo, Estevoaei, Eu.stefan, EurekaLott, Eustress, Evadb, Everyking, Evrik, Evyn,Fabiform, Familytreeclimber, Feedmecereal, FeldmanR, Felix Folio Secundus, Fergananim, FinishFirst, Flatterworld, Foeyshell, Fortdj33, Fourohfour, Fraulein451, Freakofnurture, Frecklefoot,Free Software Knight, Fvaureal, G.-M. Cupertino, GRBerry, GUllman, Gabylaws, Gaius Cornelius, Galoubet, Gatkinso, Gavroche42, Genealogy99, Genealogyguy, Geneaphile, GeoHistorian,Ghigna, Gioto, Glenn, Gmaxwell, GoingBatty, Goodhelp, Graemedavis, Graham87, Gryphn, Guardian of the Rings, Gwhodges, Halloweenhead, Harrisonlatour, Hawstom, Hayk.ghazaryan,Heather MacAlister, Heavy2, Hippophaë, Hmains, Hollymount1, Hordaland, Husnock, Icairns, Illyad, Ilmari Karonen, Ilpandrino, Indon, Irpen, Isolder, Itai, Ivan Bajlo, IvanLanin, J04n, JDP90,JLaTondre, Jade Knight, Jakro64, Janbell54, JanetColvin, Jason Quinn, JasonSmith12, JaxsSunflower14, Jdinflectionw, Jdlh, Jeepday, Jeff Billard, Jheald, Jlmartin2008 fw, Jmath666, Jmb,JohnAlbertRigali, Johnpeter1234, Johnuniq, Jonathan W, JorgeGG, Jorjones, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josh Parris, Jrcrin001, Jrinaldi, Juraj cisarik, JustDerek, Justwalkawayrenee, Juzeris,Jxb311, Kaiwen1, Kajek, Kansas Bear, Kasgan, Kchishol1970, Ken Gallager, Khatru2, Kiltannen, Kim Bruning, Kintetsubuffalo, Kittybrewster, Kizmiaz, Kjellstrom, Kmaclea, Kman543210,Kpalion, Kralizec!, Kristoguy, Krupski Oleg, Kuru, Kyle Barbour, L Kensington, Lancevortex, Lars Washington, Leeirons, Leifbk, Leszek Jańczuk, Levenbach, Liftarn, Lisaa610, Lklundin,Lokys dar Vienas, Lovegenealogy, Lquilter, MK8, Mactographer, Madaboutgenealogy, Madereugeneandrew, Malcolm Farmer, Marek69, MarnetteD, MatthewWilcox, Mattwrite, McGeddon,Mdd4696, Melaniejk, Meredov, Meters, Mhockey, Michael A. White, Michael Hardy, MichaelMaggs, MicheleFloyd, MidnightSwinga, Mike Rosoft, Mike V, Mikemenelaus, Mikkel, Miletus1,Mirv, MissTree, Mitc1681, Mjs072, Modulatum, MonkeyTimeBoy, MorganaFiolett, Morphh, Mozzerati, Mr. Billion, Mrbenba, Mrschris1, Muffyrock, Murphynw, Murray Langton, MyrrhR,Nachfahre, Nanaimo12, Nehrams2020, NerdyKid7, Neutrality, NextExit, Nhgenealogy, Nightjar, Nihonjoe, Nintendo, Nivix, Norkus007, NuclearWarfare, Num1scot, Numbo3, Nunh-huh, Nurg,O'Dea, Obscure dj, Odud, Ohnoitsjamie, OlEnglish, Oldontarian, Oliver Pereira, Ollieplatt, Onionmon, Onlinefamilytree, Only, Op. Deo, Open2universe, PMHauge, PamD, Paul Bedson, PavelVozenilek, Pcat2, Penbat, Peter Karlsen, Pfold, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phe, Philippefraser, Pichote, PinkAmpersand, Pleasantville, Plrk, Political vet, Ponder, Porthos3, Poul Steen, Pratiksps,Primaler, Qaz, Quebec99, Quintin Publications, R'n'B, R. S. Shaw, RHaworth, Rabideau, Racklever, RainbowCrane, RainbowOfLight, RashersTierney, Rcollman, Reed, Reedy, Reinyday,Rellis1067, Ricardo630, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Rjensen, Rjm at sleepers, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Robbiegiles, Robin Patterson, Robinsfamily06, Rockhall, Roddin,Rohitcadz, Roleplayer, Ronz, Rosser1954, Royalhistorian, Rtol, Ryantcook, S dali, S. 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