GENERAL HUMAN GENERAL HUMAN ANATOMYANATOMY

Biology 220Professor Sharon

Daniel

PERSPECTIVES

The Classification of Humans

The Definition of Anatomy

Structural Levels of Organization

The Relationship of Structure to Function

The Systems of the Human Body

CLASSIFICATION OF HUMANS

Classification Scheme Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Mammalia Order: Primate Family: Hominidae Genus: Homo Species: Sapiens

Scientific Binominal: Homo sapiens

KINGDOM

6 Recognized Kingdoms Eubacteria Archaebacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia

EUBACTERIACharacteristics

Prokaryotes Unicellular Microscopic

Kinds Decomposers Parasites Some Photosynthetic Some recycle nitrogen

ARCHAEBACTERIA

Characteristics Prokaryotes Unicellular microscopic Differ biochemically

from EubacteriaKinds

Methanogens Halophiles Thermophiles

PROTISTA

Characteristics• Eukaryotes• Mostly

unicellular

Kinds• Protozoa,

Algae and Slime Molds

FUNGICharacteristics

Eukaryotes Heterotrophic Absorb nutrients,

do not photosynthesize

Kinds Decomposers;

some parasitic

PLANTAE

Characteristics Eukaryotes Multicellular Photosynthetic

Kinds Primary producers;

important source of oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere

ANIMALIA

Characteristics Eukaryotes Multicellular Organisms Must eat other organisms for nourishment High degree of tissue and body

organization in complex animals• Motility• Complex Sense Organs• Nervous Systems• Muscular Systems

PHYLA of the Animal Kingdom

Range from Simple (Phylum Protozoa) to complex (Phylum Chordata)

Phylogeny = the study of PhylaOntogeny = the study of individual

developmentEmbryology = the study of prenatal

developmentClassification requires the study of all

phases of the life cycle

Phylum: Chordata Characteristics

Dorsal hollow Nerve Cord

Notochord Pharyngeal

Pouches

Seen in all Chordates In some, only

present in the embryo

Must study embryology to properly classify

Dorsal hollow Nerve Cord See in human

embryos Lies dorsal to the

Notochord Develops into the

Brain and Spinal Cord of adults

NotochordFlexible rod of

tissueMid-dorsalPosition later

occupied by the vertebral column

In adult, only remnants are inside intervertebral discs

Pharyngeal Pouches

Envaginations of pharyngeal walls

Gill slits in fishIn human adults,

become: Eustachian tube Middle ear cavity Tympanic

membrane

Subphylum: Vertebrata

Characteristics Animals with backbones

• Forms a vertebral column• In most animals, largely replaces the

notochord

Endoskeleton Closed circulatory system Paired kidneys that regulate fluid balance Complete digestive system Sexes typically separate

Subphylum: Vertebrata

Other Characteristics Bilateral Symmetry

• An animal can be sectioned into right and left haves; one the mirror image of the other

Segmentation Tube-within-a-tube

body plan Body Cavities

Subphylum: Vertebrata

Other Characteristics Bilateral

Symmetry Segmentation: Tube-within-a-

tube body plan Body Cavities

Subphylum: VertebrataOther

Characteristics Bilateral

Symmetry Segmentation Tube-within-a-

tube body plan:• Tube formed by

digestive organs within the body

Body Cavities

Subphylum: VertebrataOther

Characteristics Bilateral Symmetry Segmentation Tube-within-a-tube

body plan Body Cavities:

• Closed to the external environment

• Contain internal organs

Body Cavities: Dorsal

Cranial Cavity Houses the

BrainVertebral

Canal Houses the

Spinal Cord

Body Cavities: Ventral(Lateral View)Thoracic CavityAbdominopelvic

Cavity (contains the “viscera”) Abdominal

Cavity Pelvic Cavity

Lined by serous membranes

Body Cavities: Thoracic(Anterior View)

Mediastinum: a potential space that contains the heart, great vessels, trachea, esophagus, etc

Plural Cavities: contain the lungs

Pericardial Cavity: contains the heart

Serous CavitiesVentral Body CavityLined by a serous membrane, or

Serosa Parietal serosa: forms outer wall of

cavity Visceral serosa: covers the visceral

organsSerous fluid

Secreted by the membranes Is slick; reduces friction

Serous Pericardium

Around the HeartParietal PericardiumVisceral PericardiumPericardial Cavity

Filled with serous fluid

The Plural Cavities

Around the LungsParietal Pleura:

lines walls of thoracic cavityVisceral Pleura:

covers each lung

The Peritoneal CavityAround some abdominopelvic

organsContained within the

abdominopelvic cavityParietal Peritoneum

Covers wall of abdominopelvic cavityVisceral Peritoneum

Covers organs of the peritoneal cavitySome organs are retroperitoneal

Abdominal Divisions

Quadrants: 4 Right Upper

Quadrant Right Lower

Quadrant Left Upper

Quadrant Left Lower

Quadrant

Abdominal DivisionsRegions: 9

Rt Hypochondriac region Rt Lumbar region Rt Iliac (Inguinal) region Epigastric region Umbilical region Hypogastric (Pubic)

region Lt Hypochondriac region Lt Lumbar region Lt Iliac (Inguinal) region

Other Cavities

Oral cavityNasal cavityOrbital cavitiesMiddle ear cavitiesSynovial cavities

Classes

OsteichthyesAmphibiaReptiliaAvesMammalia

Class OsteichthyesCharacteristic

Bony fish Marine and

fresh water Gills Swim bladder Cold-blooded Generally

oviparous

Class AmphibiaAquatic larva typically

metamorposize into terrestrial adults

Gas exchange through lungs and/or moist skin

Heart consists of two atria and one ventricle

Systemic and pulmonary circulations

Class ReptilaTetrapodsMainly terrestrialBody covered with hard scalesReproduction adapted for land

(internal fertilization, leathery shell, amnion)

LungsVentricles of the heart partially

divided

Class Aves

Tetrapods with feathersAnterior limbs modified into wingsCompact, streamlined bodyLungsFour-chambered heartCompleted separation of oxygen-rich

and oxygen-poor bloodEndothermsVocal calls and complex songs

Class Mammalia

Characteristics Hair Mammary glands Differentiation of teeth Muscular diaphragm Endotherms Four-chambered heart with systemic and

pulmonary circuits Red blood cells without nuclei Complex nervous system Internal fertilization

Order Primates

Five digitsNailsUsually an

opposable thumbCerebrum

Family Hominidae

Large cerebrumHighly

developed eyesight

Terrestrial biped

Genus Homo

Steep facial angle

Prominent noseProminent chinLess prominent

supraorbital ridges

Species Sapiens

Largest CerebrumIncreasing Brain SizeIncreasing Skeletal sizeIncreasing tool useDecreasing tooth sizeDecreasing Skeletal robustness

PERSPECTIVES

The Classification of Humans

The Definition of Anatomy

Structural Levels of Organization

The Relationship of Structure to Function

The Systems of the Human Body

THE DEFINITION OF ANATOMY

Anatomy Greek=to cut up, or dissect The science that deals with the structure of

the body

Kinds: Gross Anatomy Microscopic Anatomy Developmental Anatomy Comparative Anatomy

Gross Anatomy

Definition: That which can be seen with the

naked eyeKinds:

Regional: • body studied by area

Systematic:• body studied by system

Microscopic Anatomy

Definition: That which can be seen with the assisted

eye

Kinds: Cytology:

• The study of cells

Histology:• The study of tissues

Organology:• The study of organs

Developmental Anatomy

Definition: The study of anatomical changes in a life

cycle

Kinds: Embryology:

• The study of prenatal development

Postnatal development:• The study of structures after birth

Ontogeny:• Total development of an individual

Comparative Anatomy

Definition: Comparison of structures between

organismsKinds:

Vertebrate: • Comparison of structures among the

vertebrate classes

Phylogeny:• The study of phyla, and their relationships

Physiology

The scientific discipline that studies the function of body structures.

Structure and function cannot be completely separated.

Form is related to function

History of AnatomyIn Western Civilization: began around

the Mediterranean Sea Mesopotamia

The Greeks Hippocrates (~400 B.C.): Father of Medicine Aristotle (384-322 B.C.): structure and

functionAlexandria in Egypt

First Medical School, cadaver dissection Herophilus (300 B.C.): Father of Anatomy

Rome (after Alexandria fell) Galen (A.D. 130-201): “the supreme

authority”

History After the Fall of Rome (476 A.D.): the dark ages

Medical knowledge saved by Byzantium and the Islamic world

monasteries 1200’s

Out of the dark ages Medical schools in Solerno, Bologna Italy

1400’s: Renaissance Leonardo de Vinci (1452-1519)

Vesalius: the “Reformer of Anatomy” (1514-1564) Based on cadaver dissection again; corrected Galen The father of modern anatomy

The emergence of modern medicine

50

Tashrih al-badan

manuscript

Ca 1400-1500

By Mansur ibn

Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn

Yusuf ibn Faqih LLyas

Persian Anatomist

51

Tibb al-Akbar manuscript

Female figure

Ca 1650-1700

by

Muhammad Akbar

Persian Physician

52

Leonardo’s Sketches

De Humani Corporis Fabrica

Albinus

Tabulae Sceleti e Musculorum Corporis

Humani(London, 1749).

Copperplate engraving with etching. National Library of Medicine

Plastination: Gunter von Hagen

PERSPECTIVES

The Classification of Humans

The Definition of Anatomy

Structural Levels of Organization

The Relationship of Structure to Function

The Systems of the Human Body

STRUCTURAL LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

ChemicalCellularTissueOrganSystemOrganism

PERSPECTIVES

The Classification of Humans

The Definition of Anatomy

Structural Levels of Organization

The Relationship of Structure to Function

The Systems of the Human Body

MAJOR FUNCTIONS

Metabolism: sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body Anabolism: building; requires energy Catabolism: break-down; releases

energyExcitability/Conductivity:ContractilityGrowth and DevelopmentReproduction

PERSPECTIVES

The Classification of Humans

The Definition of Anatomy

Structural Levels of Organization

The Relationship of Structure to Function

The Systems of the Human Body

Integumentary System

Components Skin Hair, nails

Function External covering Protection Synthesis of Vitamin D Location of Sense receptors

Skeletal SystemComponents

Bones Joints and adjacent cartilages

Function Support Protection Movement Blood cell production (red bone

marrow) Mineral storage (calcium and

phosphorus)

Muscular SystemComponents

Skeletal Muscles Associated Connective

Tissues (tendons)Function

Locomotion Manipulation of the

environment Facial expression

(communication) Maintain posture Produce heat

Circulatory System

Components Cardiovascular System Lymphatic System

Function Transportation of materials Within the body To and from internal and external

environments

Cardiovascular SystemComponents

Heart Vessels

Function Transportation of blood Blood contains O2 and

CO2, nutrients, wastes, etc.

Blood composed of plasma and cells

Lymphatic SystemComponents

Lymphatic Organs (spleen, lymph nodes, thymus, etc.)

Lymphatic VesselsFunction

Transportation of lymph Lymph is derived from

tissue fluid Houses white blood cells

Immune SystemComponents

Immune Organs (red bone marrow, thymus, etc.)

White blood cells (lymphocytes, macrophages, etc.)

Function Defense (Immune

response)

Nervous SystemComponents

Brain, Spinal cord (CNS) Nerves (PNS), sense

receptorsFunction

Control system (fast, “hard wired”)

Response to external and internal environments

Endocrine SystemComponents

Glands that secrete hormones

E.g.:Pituitary, pancreas, thyroid

Function Control system (slow,

“chemical”) Regulates processes such

as growth, reproduction and nutrient use

Respiratory SystemComponents

Lungs Tubing ( trachea, bronchus,

etc.) Larynx (vocal cords)

Function Exchange of respiratory

gases (O2 and CO2) Between blood and

atmosphere Voice production

Digestive SystemComponents

Alimentary canal (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine)

Accessory structures(liver, salivary glands, etc.)

Function Break down food into

small, absorbable pieces Between blood and lumen Eliminate waste

Urinary SystemComponents

Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary bladder, Urethra

Function Eliminate waste

(nitrogen) from blood Between blood and

external environment Regulates water,

electrolytes, acid/base

Reproductive SystemComponents

Male Reproductive System Female Reproductive

System

Function Perpetuation of the species Hormones influence

structure and function Sexually bimorphic species

AnatomicalTerminology

Anatomic position is a specific body position in which an individual stands upright with the feet parallel and flat on the floor.

The head is level, and the eyes look forward toward the observer.

The arms are at either side of the body with the palms facing forward and the thumbs pointing away from the body.

Anatomical Terminology

A plane is an imaginary surface that slices the body into specific sections.

The three major anatomic planes of reference are the coronal, transverse, and sagittal planes.

Sectionsand Planes

A coronal plane, also called a frontal plane, is a vertical plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

Sectionsand Planes

A transverse plane, also called a cross-sectional plane or horizontal plane, cuts perpendicularly along the long axis of the body or organ separating it into both superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts.

Sectionsand Planes

A sagittal plane or median plane, extends through the body or organ vertically and divides the structure into right and left halves.

Sections and Planes

A sagittal plane in the body midline is a midsagittal plane.

A plane that is parallel to the midsagittal plane, but either to the left or the right of it, is termed a parasagittal (or sagittal) plane.

A minor plane, called the oblique plane, passes through the specimen at an angle.

Directional Terms of the Body

Directional terms are precise and brief, and for most of them there is a correlative term that means just the opposite.

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body

Relative to front (belly side) or back (back side) of the body : Anterior = In front

of; toward the front surface

Posterior = In back of; toward the back surface

Dorsal =At the back side of the human body

Ventral = At the belly side of the human body

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body

Relative to the head or tail of the body: Superior = Toward

the head or above Inferior = Toward

feet not head Caudal = At the rear

or tail end Cranial = At the head

end

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body

Relative to the midline or center of the body: Medial = Toward the

midline of the body Lateral = Away from

the midline of the body

Deep = On the inside, underneath another structure

Superficial = On the outside

Relative and Directional Terms of the Body

Relative to point of attachment of the appendage: Proximal =

Closest to point of attachment to trunk

Distal = Furthest from point of attachment to trunk

Body Regions

The human body is partitioned into two main regions, called the axial and appendicular regions. the axial region includes the head,

neck, and trunk which comprise the main vertical axis of our body

our limbs, or appendages, attach to the body’s axis and make up the appendicular region

THE END