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GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION1

SCOPING THE TOPIC

A MILITARY PERSPECTIVE Dr. R.J.Williams

[Retired]  

 Updated  

 2013  

Prepared  as  an  information  paper  for  discussion  purposes  of  the  concept  of  a  Geospatial  Information  Infrastructure  which  underpins  national  research  objectives  –  a  military  perspective  

1997      The  core  components  of  this  paper  were  written  in  1997  as  an  information  paper  supplementing  a  Defence  capability  study.  The  information  was  used  for  general  distribution  to  a  broad  community.  

   

BIOGRAPHY OF AUTHOR

R.J.Williams, BA Computing Studies (Canberra CAE), MSc (Cartography) (U Wisconsin), PhD (UNSW)

Dr Bob Williams has forty-seven years experience in surveying and mapping. This experience extends from technician level as a topographic surveyor, through technical managerial level, to professional levels and as a senior research scientist.

 

   

 

SSGT  Bob  Williams  

Programming  a  military  symbol  overlay  on  a  Tektronix  4014  in  1978    

Dr  Bob  Williams  

2013  photo  

                                                                                                               1 Compiled from documents produced by Dr R.J.Williams using four decades of experience in computer mapping – December 2013

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INTRODUCTION The belief that a sound knowledge of natural and man-made features of a battlefield constitutes one of the most important factors in the process of military appreciation has long been recognised. Geography and the character of the ground bear a close and ever present relation to warfare. They have a decisive influence on the engagement, both to its course and to its planning and exploitation.

Geographic information is but a part of the overall requirement for intelligence by the military, along with strategic and economic intelligence to access the intentions of potential enemies and intelligence about an enemy’s capabilities.

Environmental and geographic information is used at all levels of operation and is particularly important in the following areas:

• intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance; • targeting and weapons employment; • command, control and communication; • navigation and guidance; • health and survival; and • mobility and manoeuvre.

JSP (AS) 101 (A), Glossary, Part 1 defines Military Geographic Information (MGI) as:

“The information concerning physical aspects, resources and artificial features necessary for planning and operations”.

CATEGORIES OF GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

This broad definition includes a range of information including:

• Infrastructure which is the substructure or underlying foundation on which the continuance and growth of a community, state and country depends. Infrastructure includes man-made structures and facilities, such as roads, schools, power plants, ports and airports, health and medical facilities, transportation and communication systems, etc and their locations.

• Natural terrain features which are composed of themes of information related to physiography, hydrography, and vegetation cover.

• Environmental information which includes oceanography, isogonic and ionospheric information, as well as descriptions of the atmosphere, climates, and weather conditions.

Infrastructure

Infrastructure is a substructure or underlying foundation on which the continuance and growth of a community, state and country depends. Infrastructure includes man-made structures and facilities, such as roads, schools, power plants, transportation and communication systems, and their locations. This group can logically be sub-divided into a number of themes such as administration and institution, population and habitation, road infrastructure, rail infrastructure, air infrastructure, sea infrastructure, telecommunications, power and fuel, water resources, industry and commerce, health and medical, and recreational themes.

Administration / institution. Information within the administration/ institution theme includes features ranging from those of international significance down to those having only local importance. Sub-components include:

• demarcations and administrative zones including political administration, such as countries, states, shires, cities and township limits, as well as economic

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management zones and territorial claims; • government administrative areas, such as regulated areas, national parks, state

forests, areas of legal jurisdiction, property ownership and parcel records, census zones, zoning and planning areas;

• regulated and restricted areas including military bases, ranges and controlled space;

• public service facilities such as postal, fire, and police; education such as schools, colleges and universities; a vast range of institutions including training establishments, gaols and corrective institutes, museums and libraries, and clubs and societies; and

• features having religious and commemorative characteristics such as churches, cathedrals, mosques, halls, and shrines, monuments and cemeteries.

Population/habitation. This theme contains information describing places of residence of both permanent and non-permanent status and includes such features as:

• cities, towns, suburbs and communities; • residential complexes such as apartments, units, condominiums, flats, duplexes,

dormitories and barrack blocks; • houses, dwellings, homesteads and huts; • demographic distribution such as those based on race, language, and socio-

economic status; and • regional descriptions of disease and health patterns.

Road infrastructure. The road infrastructure theme contains information describing the road transportation network from national and state levels of importance down to shire and local levels of importance and includes all related and associated features. The theme includes:

• freeways, tollways, highways, distributive roads, local access roads and cul-de-sacs;

• tracks, driveways, foot paths and cycle paths; • related features such as bridges, elevated roads, overpasses, tunnels and

culverts; as well as cuttings, embankments, levees, causeways, curbs, ramps, and safety ramps;

• associated features such as junctions including interchanges, intersections and points of change of road status; road and feature construction;

• impedances such as gates, grids, level crossings, toll plazas, rest areas, traffic lights and traffic signs; and

• civilian road transportation assets.

Rail infrastructure. In addition to the network, the rail infrastructure theme consists of related features and facilities that are directly related to the rail network and structures constructed of rail or cable. Features included in this theme are:

• railway and spur lines, marshalling yards, turntables and sidings; • stations, cargo handling facilities, maintenance facilities, and signalling systems; • bridges, culverts, cuttings and embankments, levees and causeways; • cable features including tramways and trolley bus routes, cable cars and chair

lifts; and • civilian rail transport assets/rolling stock/capabilities.

Air infrastructure. As a major departure from the current technique of representing airfields and aerodromes as primary features, this schema proposes that such features form only a part, albeit and essential part, of an international and national regulated air network system. As such, this theme includes:

• regulated air space and corridors, designated flight paths and controlled air space;

• airports, aerodromes and landing grounds, heliports and helipads, and drop

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zones and landing areas; • associated facilities and features such as radio navigation beacons and devices,

taxiways and tarmacs, passenger terminals, hangars, fuel supply facilities and carparks;

• supplemental information including critical elevations, obstacles and maximum elevation figures / lowest safe altitude; and

• civilian air transport capabilities/assets (eg aircraft tables).

Sea infrastructure. In a similar way that the air infrastructure theme transited the land to air interface, the sea infrastructure transits the land to sea interface and includes such features as:

• ports and harbours; • channels including buoys, beacons and critical depths; • wharves, docks, jetties and landings; • associated facilities such as passenger terminals, cargo handling facilities, and

drydock and maintenance facilities; • navigable rivers and canals, along with associated locks, as well as marine

navigation aids and lighthouses, and marinas and anchorages; and • civilian shipping assets (eg ship tables).

Telecommunications. The telecommunications theme contains information concerning transmittal and reception of communications and includes structures and networks. Features include:

• television stations, transmitters, and relay towers; • radio stations, transmitters relay towers; • telephone networks; and • associated facilities.

Power / fuel. The power and fuel theme could be viewed as a transitional theme, containing some features that link features within other views. Transitional characteristics can be demonstrated at one end by association with mines in the industry/commerce theme, or dams in the water resources theme, and at the other end with places of commerce in the industry/commerce theme, or population in the population/habitation theme. That is, features in the power/fuel theme connect or link features in other themes. Features in the power/fuel theme include:

• power stations; • dumps, storage piles and conveyor belts used by power stations; • penstocks and flumes used by power stations; • substations, powerlines, transformers, and distribution lines; • windpumps, solar collectors and other means of generating 'alternate' power; • fuel refineries and processing plants; • storage terminals and distribution pipelines; and • outlet facilities and service stations.

Water resources. The water resources theme contains some features that actually overlay features in other themes, as is the case when a reservoir/dam overlays the original stream (within the hydrology theme). Features within the water resources theme include:

• reservoirs, dams and dam walls; elevated reservoirs, tanks, wells and bores; • spillways and water outlets; • distribution channels and pipelines; valves and taps; and drains; • water potability; and • water treatment facilities.

Industry / commerce. The industry/commerce theme includes all features related to the manufacturing, mining and agriculture, and commerce sectors. The theme includes features such as:

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• factories, plants and warehouses, and storage yards; • mines and processing plants; including conveyor belts and storage dumps; • salt evaporators; • oil and gas platforms and wells; • shearing sheds, livestock pens and yards, dairies, poultry farms, sheds and

buildings; • greenhouses and nurseries; as well as • financial districts, buildings, banks, shopping complexes, malls and districts,

stores, shops and financial and retail outlets.

Health/medical. The health and medical theme consists of facilities and structures that contribute to maintenance of a community's health and well being. Features include:

• hospitals, health clinics, surgeries and aid posts; • research institutions; • refuse disposal complexes and dumps; • sewage treatment works and drains; • medical material support, drug and equipment warehousing and distribution

including pharmacies; • causality transportation including ambulance services; • disease vectors; and • dangerous animals.

Tourism/recreation/entertainment. These features include:

• tourist resorts, hotels, motels and campgrounds; • amusement parks, tourist attractions, ski slopes and lookouts; • swimming complexes and pools; • stadiums, sportsgrounds, ovals and tennis courts; • racecourses and equestrian complexes; • motor racing circuits; and • theatres and entertainment halls.

Terrain The second major grouping includes description of natural terrain features and includes themes related to physiography, hydrography and oceanography2.

Physiography. The physiography theme is concerned with the description of the terrain and part of the information for this theme can be determined from geo-referencing. For example, elevation models enable the description of elevation, slope, aspect, and so on. Features and characteristics of the physiography theme include regional physiographic descriptions including categorical areas such as:

• desert, plain, and tundra; • cliffs, gorges and escarpments; • sand dunes and ridges;

                                                                                                               2  The term 'hydrography' is used by both land and maritime communities. Hydrography is concerned with the study, description, and mapping of oceans, lakes and rivers, especially with reference to their navigational and commercial uses.

'Oceanography', on the other hand, is more restrictive and is concerned with the study of the environment in the oceans, including the waters, depths, beds, animals and plants, whilst 'bathymetry" is quite specific and is the science of measuring the depths of oceans and seas.  

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• peaks, ranges, ridges, mountains, hills, karst, plains and valleys; and • geology, soils, tectonics, and isogonic information.

Hydrologyy. The hydrologyy theme is concerned with the description of natural drainage systems and includes such features as:

• rivers, streams, creeks and gullies; and braided watercourses, channel country and deltas;

• falls and rapids; sinkholes and springs; and • lakes and waterholes; swamplands and inundated areas; and floodplains.

Hydrogography. As with the physiographic theme, the hydrography theme can be partially described using elevation data but from a subsurface perspective. The theme includes features such as:

• continental coastlines; • islands, islets and exposed rocks; reefs and ledges; and submerged rocks; • foreshore and marine flats and swamps; • straits, channels and passages; • tidal variation and currents; • bottom profile and roughness; and • wrecks.

Vegetation/cultivation. The vegetation theme includes natural and cultivated plant life. Features and characteristics include:

• jungles, forests, woodlands and scrublands; • savannah and grasslands; • plantations and orchards; and cultivated farmland; and • edible plants and plants that are a threat to health.

Environment The third grouping includes characteristics pertaining to the environment such as meteorological and oceanographic data.

Oceanography

• temperature gradients; • salinity, currents; • water quality / pollution; • turbidity; • biology; and • fisheries.

Atmospheric and weather conditions

• temperature • pressure; • humidity • precipitation; • wind; • solar radiation;

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• ionospheric conditions; and • air pollution.

Climate.

• previous climate conditions. Astronomy.

• sunrise / sunset; and • moon rise / moon set/ phases.

The schema above is from R.J.Williams Analysis of Geographic Information: A Cognitive Approach, A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The University of New South Wales, Australian Defence Force Academy, Canberra, 1989. The schema was also provided to US Defense Mapping Agency as Australian contribution to the Digital Chart of the World (DCW) Project - Agreement Between The Government Of Australia And The Government Of The United States Of America Concerning Cooperative Development Of The Digital Chart Of The World. Australian Treaty Series 1990 No 23 This schema was included in the original ‘requirements’ documentation for major project LAND 42 PARARE in 1990. (Due to a number of project amendments the schema was not implemented) The schema was later included in Defence Major Capability Study EGICS (Environmental and Geographic Information Capability Study) in 1997.

IMPORTANCE OF SCHEMA

A comprehensive schema, such as detailed above, would enable our world to be described in a logical manner. This model would be needed to create a , which I consider important for autonomous VIRTUAL WORLDapplications, e.g. unmanned vehicles operating autonomously, robots, etc – a 2020 vision!

THE DATABASE CONCEPT A database contains data items that must be stored in order to meet the information processing and retrieval needs of an organisation. The term implies integrated files of data used by many processing applications in contrast to an individual file for each specific application. This definition implies that a ‘Defence Geographic Database' requires more than just one large file, but, rather, a set of files containing different, but related, representations of themes of geographic information.

Observing the process of producing conventional maps, a separate flowline is required for each map product. Now while similar operations may be performed in the production of each different product, they are unique to the particular map series and must therefore be repeated for each series and scale produced. This procedure is time consuming, manpower intensive and expensive.

In order to meet the requirement to provide an expanded range of products, and particularly

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digital products, an alternative approach is required. One solution is to develop a multi-product database from which a range of geographic products, including maps, can be generated. To implement this model, the multi-product database might well consist of a number of scale related databases.

However, rather than use fixed scale, it seems appropriate to consider scale and resolution in terms of regional area requirements (let us say, for example, strategic, operational, tactical, and urban/target).

• Strategic level database - [Level 0]3. A strategic level database requires the information content to be suitable for national studies of the environment and infrastructure. Intuitively, the scale range for continental level applications range from 1:400,000 through to, say, 1:10,000,000 with the area of coverage encompassing the entire continental area and offshore zones of responsibility (as determined by strategic guidance).

• Operational level database - [Level 1]. An operational level database requires an information content adequate to meet the needs of regional planning and studies. The area of coverage should include the entire continent but incrementally populated with data commencing along transportation and communication lines and places having significant infrastructure facilities and military and developmental importance. The scale range for data in this level probably ranges from 1:80,000 through to 1:600,000.

• Tactical level database - [Level 2]. Typical applications for data within a tactical level database might include those relevant to decision support systems for command and control, terrain analysis and environmental impact assessments, and facilities and utilities management. This level database requires the information content for products such as urban maps, facilities maps, and terrain analysis displays (including route and corridor planning, natural resources, mobility and concealment, and infrastructure directories). The scale range for data in this level probably ranges from 1:20,000 through to 1:120,000.

• Urban/target level database - [Level 3]. The urban level could be considered as a detailed representation of parts of the tactical level database. The data should be suitable for detailed planning for applications such as facilities management, utilities management, special force and counter terrorism operations and disaster management applications. The scale range for data in this level probably ranges from 1:5,000 through to 1:25,000.

The content of a multi-product database must reflect the geographic information requirements of the existing graphical products of the primary ADF mapping and planning agencies as well as, and more importantly, the requirements of the various ADF command and control, intelligence, mission planning, surveillance and navigation systems. The range and extent of the geographic features and entities are diverse and, therefore, it seems appropriate to organise the geographic information methodically into logical groupings (Figure 1).

Describing Features

The ADF has formally recognised the importance of digital geographic data exchange and management processes involved in the management and use of the data through the publication of a Defence Instruction4 and a number of ‘strategic direction’ documents                                                                                                                3 Military organizations of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America use the concept of LEVELS which equate to conventional topographic mapping series scales. 4  Defence Instruction (General) OPS 20-3 'Digital Geographic Information Exchange Standards and Data Product Standards' issued pursuant to section 9 A of the Defence Act 1903 dated 6 May 1994.  

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including the preparation of an ADF Military Geographic Information Development Plan in 19945. The Instruction prescribes the standards which apply to digital geographic data exchange within Defence and the digital geographic data products used by Defence systems.

Figure 1 : Functional levels of representation

Describing Features

The ADF has formally recognised the importance of digital geographic data exchange and management processes involved in the management and use of the data through the publication of a Defence Instruction6 and a number of ‘strategic direction’ documents including the preparation of an ADF Military Geographic Information Development Plan in 19947. The Instruction prescribes the standards which apply to digital geographic data exchange within Defence and the digital geographic data products used by Defence systems.

Feature and Attribute Coding. Standards for MGI exchange require a standard scheme for documenting features and attributes necessary to distinguish those features commonly found in a GIS and for the orderly exchange of such data between MC&G organisations.

DIGEST’s Feature and Attribute Coding Catalog (FACC) provides a common menu along with

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               5 Using this specific reference demonstrates that policy documents on this topic have been developed for decades. 6  Defence Instruction (General) OPS 20-3 'Digital Geographic Information Exchange Standards and Data Product Standards' issued pursuant to section 9 A of the Defence Act 1903 dated 6 May 1994.    7 Using this specific reference demonstrates that policy documents on this topic have been developed for decades.

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a standardised coding system of features and attributes. Where particular applications require definition of a few specialised features and attributes not yet contained in the FACC, a Data Dictionary may be used. Otherwise, features and attributes shall be entered using the FACC standard.

FACC also provides guidance as to which attributes might typically be associated with each feature. It has not been developed to the requirements of any single application, or level of resolution, and in itself cannot support a digital product. For a product, the menu of features and attributes must be employed in concert with a product specification. The product specification determines which features and attributes will be collected as well as defining specific collection criteria such as positional accuracy and feature granularity.

FACC can be modified and updated to keep pace with the dynamic technology improvements and changing requirements, as it is not tied to any specific database or product line. In this way, it is intended that the FACC should be extended so as ultimately to meet requirements of every application.

Figure 2 shows a brief overview of FACC; giving an indication on the size and complexity of the schema; giving an example of reordering into Information Types; and showing a simple example of using the Catalog for an airport (at an operational level of description) (Figure 3).

Figure 2 : DIGEST FACC

DIGEST was designed to enable ‘profiles’ to be developed, as:

• Transport and Logistics Planning. The requirements for the Transport and Logistics Dataset (TLD) are those features and attributes to support logistics planning and movement of personnel and materiel. It is intended to provide detailed information on transportation routes, such as roads, railroads, canals and navigable waterways, air facilities, maritime ports, and so on, and may be combined with user supplied data to support additional logistics planning requirements.

• Terrain Analysis. The requirements for the Terrain Analysis Dataset (TAD) are those features and attributes needed to perform traditional military terrain analysis, including cross-country movement, line of sight and range and bearing calculations. TAD is actually a combination of several datasets - Background Display, Digital Nautical Chart (DNC) and Digital Terrain Elevation Data (DTED).

• Air Information. The requirements for the Air Information Dataset (AID) are to provide a graphic database of airspace structures and vertical obstructions on the terrain for low to very low altitude, Visual Flight Rules (VFR), and Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) for flight operation and planning use. AID comprises two subsets distributed separately: the AID-Aeronautical Information Subset (AID-Aero) and the

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AID-Obstruction Information Subset (AID-Obs). AID-Aero will contain all aeronautical information portrayed both on NATO designated aeronautical charts and on ICAO charts, particularly EnRoute Charts. AID-Obs will contain selected geographical features required for safety and reference in low to very low air navigation.

• Digital Nautical Chart containing maritime significant features essential for safe marine navigation

Figure 3 : Townsville Airport runway using FACC

Defence Instruction (General) OPS 20-3 'Digital Geographic Information Exchange Standards and Data Product Standards' dated 6 May 1994 identified three important principles:

• Data products and information exchanged within Defence systems should be DIGEST compliant;

• Exchange between the RAN Hydrographer and civilian agencies and products used by Navy in a non-Defence mode would comply with IHO/IMO requirements; and

• Exchange between Defence agencies and civilian bodies would comply with Australian Standards

Subsequent (to 1994) issues have altered these principles and included lists of legacy and system / vendor / company formats. This defeats the aim of managing geographical information in a controlled and standard manner. This practice will result in an

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information management problem of immense proportions!

IMPORTANCE OF INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

International standards, such as DIGEST and ISO, facilitate long term management of information as well as a means of CERTIFICATION.

Representing and Positioning Features

In order to model and represent 'real world' features, the phenomena has to be abstractly defined within functional categories, related via topological properties and spatially referenced. Furthermore, all objects need to be represented in a geometric form and functionally related. Data abstraction requires some form of symbolic representation for which there are three basic types:

• plan. In plan form, features are 'drawn to scale' within the constraint imposed by resolution.

• generalised. In the generalised form, features and objects have been deformed through cartographic processes such as smoothing, aggregation, simplification, and so on.

• symbolised. Symbolisation is the process whereby features are represented by an icon or arbitrary or abstract symbol.

The use of these forms of abstraction are determined by the size and importance of the feature and the scale of representation and it seems that all basic forms are applicable to the four levels of database; these being continental, regional, sub-regional and district. Reviewing the aspect of topology, there are a number of basic models for data structure with current commercial data models broadly falling into four main groups:

• unlinked vector model. In the unlinked vector model each map feature is encoded separately into point and line string form without reference to related or adjoining features. This model, commonly called the 'spaghetti model', has been adopted for routine map production by the major mapping agencies and is characteristic of the traditional 'computer-assisted mapping systems'.

• geo-relational model. The geo-relational model is characterised by the organisation of features into points, lines and areas which are related through 'topology' and with the features linked to attribute files. 'Topology' refers to non-metric spatial relationships among features, essentially those concerned with connectivity and adjacency. Topological structures permit the solution of geometric problems such as those pertaining to graph theory. See Figure 4.

• object-oriented data model. An object-oriented model is one which supports an abstract concept 'object' having existence independent of any attributes that entity may or may not have. This model contrasts the 'geo-relational model' which models only attributes.

• raster, or grid cell, data model. The raster model describes geometric elements as cells in an integer space. This model is particularly useful for terrain matrixes and remotely sensed data. See Figure 5.

Each of the data models has advantages and disadvantages for particular types of data and application and all have relevance in the representation of geographic data.

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IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURED GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

In addition to FACC, DIGEST (Digital Geographic Exchange STandard) includes a vector relational format [VPF (Vector Product Format)].

Data in this form is suitable for GIS-type applications – an ANALYSIS functionality.

Figure 4 : Geo-relational model

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Figure 5 : Grid cell and matrix models

Position / location. The characteristic that distinguishes geographic information from other information is spatial location on the earth's surface. Spatial location is more complex that just a simple cartesian coordinate pair, or triplet, but involves knowledge of reference systems and therefore the shape of the earth and datum.

Reference systems. To date, apart from digital terrain models, digital 'cartographic' data has been captured, by most mapping agencies in Australia, on the Australian Map Grid (AMG). As such AMG referencing has become a default system with the identification of the system only being inferred through common usage. It should be recognised, however, that with more diverse sources of data becoming available and new applications evolving, a more formalised approach to recording of reference is needed.

Reference systems are characterised by three interrelated aspects. These are earth shape, datum and coordinate system.

Earth shape. For different applications the shape of the earth can be defined as a sphere, an ellipsoid, or even a plane. To date, most data captured digitally (by mapping agencies) has been based on the Australian National Spheroid. It should be recognised, however, that other geodetic reference systems, including World Geodetic System and the now superseded Clarke 1858, may have relevance and structures need to be designed to incorporate and manipulate this information.

GEOID

(exaggerated)

IMPORTANCE OF GEODESY

Defence has few, IF ANY, FORMALLY QUALIFIED OFFICERS WITH SCIENTIFIC QUALIFICATIONS IN GEODESY - INTERNATIONALLY OR NATIONALLY RECOGNIZED.

As applications become more ‘PRECISE’ Geodesy will become increasingly important.

Specialist assistance from GA is important and scientific advice from the CRC-SI is

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also important. These requirements could have been achieved via JP2064 Phase 2.

Surveying - 1 Topo Svy Sqn

Processing – Geoscience Australia (GA)

The difference between the spheroidal height and elevation (relative to Mean Sea Level) is the Geoidal Separation

Datum. Up until now, the Australian Geodetic Datum has been used for the horizontal origin and the Australian Height Datum has been used for the datum for elevation data in the majority of implementations of computer assisted mapping and geographic information systems in Australia. But again, with the introduction of advanced positioning technologies, as well as the process of extracting data from 'historical' documents, other datums, such as earth centered datums, need consideration in an overall systems design.

Coordinate system. In most cases, map coordinates (for digital geographic mapping applications) are on the Australian Map Grid. System functionality needs to be developed and enhanced to include other gridded systems such as Universal Transverse Mercator on WGS84 and local referencing systems, as well as via reporting geographic location by latitude and longitude.

It should be observed that with existing digital data, the characteristics related to the Australian Map Grid are implied in that there has been, up until quite recently, no formal recording of that aspect in the data files. Some recent developments permit the inclusion of 'data quality statements', as, for example, in Vector Product Format.

Issues of Data Quality

Traditionally, standards for cartography have been primarily developed for the positional accuracy and the symbology on the printed map. Mapping agencies have traditionally used 'map specifications' and 'map accuracy standards' designed for conventional maps. Those standards have related to planimetric and vertical accuracy of well-defined points scaled from maps and coupled with specifications for map symbology, and emphasis on graphic quality, the result has been the production of series of maps that present an extremely uniform appearance. However, with increasing use being made of geographic data for 'analytical' and decision-making purposes, such 'quality' statements are now inadequate.

Digital processing of spatial data brings immense benefits in the form of rapid, precise and sophisticated analysis, but reveals weaknesses which may not otherwise be apparent. Computers are very precise machines, and errors and uncertainties in data can lead to serious problems, not only in the form of inaccurate results but in the consequences of decisions made on the basis of poor data. Capabilities that excite enthusiasm among potential users are the ability to change scale and the ability to overlay different themes of information at random. These capabilities are indeed exceedingly useful; they constitute much of the comparative advantage geographic information system technology (commonly referred to as GIS) holds over spatial analysis based on analogue maps.

These capabilities, however, can also mislead decision makers who are unaware of the imprecision inherent in all cartography and who are untutored in the ways errors compound when map scales are changed or when maps are merged. There is a false lure in the attractive, high quality cartographic products that cartographers, and now computer graphics specialists, provide for their colleagues in environmental survey and resource analysis. Many scientists and geographers know from field experience that carefully drawn boundaries and contour lines on maps are elegant misrepresentations of changes that are often gradual, vague or fuzzy.

Up until just a few years ago, the description of data quality and associated issues have been neglected topics. Fortunately, however, the topic is now being recognised as one of

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importance and the issue of the description of data quality is being addressed by a number of research organisations and professional bodies throughout the world. The catalyst for this work is because of incomplete coverage, variable accuracy, inconsistencies in standards and inadequate sources.

Consequently, there is a requirement to provide details of lineage, source and technique in representation, as well as the usual positional accuracies, in the data quality statement. The purpose of such a quality report is to provide detailed information for a user to evaluate fitness of data for a particular use. The general philosophy is characterised as 'truth-in-labelling', because the goal is to communicate information on the fitness for use rather than fixing arbitrary numerical thresholds of quality. Thus quality can be broadly subdivided into issues of:

• currency. Currency has two major components: those of lineage and age. Lineage concerns descriptions of source material, method of data acquisition or derivation, and transformation processes involved in the acquisition. Age relates to the date (or dates) of source material, date (or dates) of compilation, and date (or dates) of publication.

• accuracy. Accuracy has two major components: those of position and content. Position concerns location relevant to absolute and relative position and is measured by internal evidence, deductive estimates or independent sources of higher accuracy. Content concerns completeness of information, logical consistency and labelling or feature identification.

• resolution. Resolution is the minimum unit of measure used for a defined geographic region.

With the advances in digital systems, data quality has become a major issue and just as important as maintaining the data itself (if not more so) has become the concern for containing data about the content, quality, condition and other characteristics of the data. This description of the data is known as metadata.

IMPORTANCE OF DATA QUALITY AND METADATA

Whilst the concept of METADATA has generally been accepted, the concepts of TRUTH-IN-LABELLING and FITNESS FOR USE labels for digital data are still to be achieved.

The issue is “how do assign MEASURES OF TRUST to geographic information?

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APPLICATION OF MILITARY GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION An Example based on Strategic Concepts of Operation

Securing Oceania’s maritime approaches for the safe passage of shipping is a vital security requirement. In addition to a traditional role of security against military attack, there are needs for a range of non-traditional threats, including illegal entry of people, the smuggling of drugs or other contraband, unlicensed foreign fishing activity, disease, and in a worst case scenario, the entry of terrorists.

Illegal entry of people

CONCEPT of OPERATION - PROTECTION OF SHIPPING AND OFFSHORE

TERRITORIES, ASSETS AND RESOURCES - The Concept of Operation includes a number sub-tasks, e.g.

Monitor shipping and routes. - Executions of the tasks requires systems and assets, e.g. an

Infrastructure and Environmental Support System (IESS) - In turn the IESS requires operational information including

logistics support information and environmental data

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Logistics Support Information

Ports & Harbours Harbours Wharfage Anchorages Lifting Appliances Fuel Water Railways Helicopter Pads Container Park Facilities

Airfields Airfields & Airstrips Air Movements Facilities

Communications National Telecomms Local Facilities Civil Maritime Comms Other Govt Dept Comms Defence Data Networks

Transport Railways Roads Ships - Australian Major Transport Operations Transport Systems - National

Beaches Location Beach Surface Beach Approaches Back of Beach Terrain Beach Exits

Resources & Utilities Water Supply Power Supply Fuel Storage & Distribution Health/Medical

Civilian Stores/Repair & Maintenance Workshop & Repair Facilities

Environmental Data

Meteorological Forecast Data Meteorological Climatological Statistics Data Water Turbidity and Visibility Data Tidal Heights Prediction Data

Tidal Stream and Current Data Sound Velocity Profiles Data Marine Biological Noise Data Seabed Data Current and Surge Data

The figure below gives an example of environmental data described by using DIGEST FACC. As an aside, features such as a ‘seal sanctuary’ can be represented. This demonstrates just how ‘rich’ the schema is!

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IMPORTANCE OF MAJOR CAPABILITY STUDIES

Much of the information above compiled for the EGICS (Environmental and Geographic Information Capability Study). This study was suspended in 1997 as a consequence of the Defence Efficiency Review. (Then) Commodore Russ Shalders (then Director General Operations Policy and Doctrine) recommended continuing EGICS post-DER. This did not happen. [RADM Shalders became the inaugural Director General COASTWATCH]

Analysis of STRATCONCEPTS would provide details of information flows through organizations and systems – a STRATEGIC CAPABILITY assessment.

MANAGING AND USING MILITARY GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION Complexities in Capability Development

Making the transition from a traditional mapping and charting paradigm to a Geospatial Information Infrastructure (in which the management and use of Military Geographic Information is fundamental) paradigm has been a difficult process; and still to be achieved.

In the late 1990s policy initiatives and organizational change, probably initially intended to advance capabilities into a ‘digital world’, resulted in actually increasing complexities in capability development. Policy initiatives occurred in Australia and overseas. It was in the US DoD that initiatives would effect military organizations across the world.

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Circa 2000, there were several projects in the MGI capability in the Australian ADO. It was this situation that JP2064 was initiated.

The Geospatial Information Infrastructure is the collection of people, doctrine, policies, architectures, standards, and technologies necessary to create, maintain, and utilize a shared Geospatial Framework.

In 1997 a Defence Reform Program recommended the establishment of a Defence Geographic Support Agency (GSA). A GSA was NOT SUPPORTED. An option was that a ‘virtual agency’ could be created via networking the various geospatial agencies. This would be achieved via a phased project – JP2064 Geospatial Information Infrastructure and Service

• Phase One would, along with a number of capabilities, address imagery of non-sovereign regions

• Phase Two would, along with a number of capabilities, coordinate Defence agencies over a Defence network and include a Service Centre with a vast array of library functions to manage geospatial data

• Phase Three would, along with a number of capabilities, coordinate / collaborate

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with organisations external to Defence.

Phases 2 and 3 have been subject to continuous delays, alteration and funding cuts meaning that much of the functionality of the original requirements remain to be addressed.

JP2064 Phase 2 was intended to have a Service Centre having a vast array of specifications of new-generation products (such as Littoral Warfare Dataset), map projection formulae, datum information, analytical tools, etc and management tools to manage to depth and breadth of geographic information.

JP2064 Phase 2 was intended to have a Service Centre having a vast array of specifications of new-generation products (such as Littoral Warfare Dataset), map projection formulae, datum information, analytical tools, etc and management tools to manage to depth and breadth of geographic information.

It is highly unlikely that the requirements in JP2064 Phase 2 have been implemented. They probably haven’t been understood.

Whilst Defence geospatial projects have been modified, often simplified and (indeed) trivialized, the current state has much to do with what has happened in the US National Geospatial-Intelligence.

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In September 1995. the United States Defense Science Board presented a report titled Report of the Defense Science Board on Defense Mapping for Future Operations.

The Task Force concluded that the Department of Defense (DoD) should transition from emphasis on standard scale map and chart production to providing a readily accessible source of digital information which will satisfy military geospatial, mapping, charting and weapon systems requirements.

This repository of digital geospatial information should be accessible electronically for a large variety of worldwide customers via a distributed architecture designed to make a major contribution to battlefield information dominance and support the needs for modeling and simulation, war-gaming, training, exercising, rehearsal, operations and post strike analysis. The information contained in this architecture should serve as the foundation for all DoD information management systems. Its principle attributes should be geospatially referenced and temporally tagged using Global Positioning System (GPS) time and positional standard accuracies, whenever practicable

US DMA/NIMA (Defense Mapping Agency / National Imagery and Mapping Agency) produced the US Geospatial Information Infrastructure (GII) Master Plan with the Vision as Our national security can be enhanced by an “information edge” made possible through this new infrastructure for geospatial information. The infrastructure is the collection of people, doctrine, policies, architectures, standards, and technologies necessary to create, maintain, and utilize a shared geospatial Framework.

Information superiority is the key to success in economic, diplomatic, and military ventures. Working for peace, opportunity, and durable democratic systems in complex political, social, and cultural systems and stressed physical environments requires a full range of reliable information tools. Diplomacy must be grounded in social, political, economic, military, and geographic understanding. Information superiority is the pre-condition to a full C3ISTAR (Command, Control, Communications, Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition and Reconnaissance) capability

• No negotiations can be conducted, • no forces can move, • no weapons can be brought to bear, • no forces can be protected, and • no support and supplies can move

• without a sense of location, an understanding of the surroundings, and an understanding of the influence of mission space on the operation

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SIGNIFICANCE OF GEOSPTIAL INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE ORIGIN

The DSB Report and the GII Master Plan were produced when DMA was the lead agency. DMA should be credited with this development.

NIMA8's creation was clouded by the natural reluctance of cultures to merge and the fear that their respective missions – mapping in support of defense activities versus intelligence production, principally in support of national policymakers—would be subordinated, each to the other. Ultimately, the ‘intelligence’ culture subordinated the ‘mapping support’ [Engineering] culture. Observation of recent NGA publications and media items promoting their concept of GEOINT reveal that GEOINT is a confused and confusing term. NGA appears to not understand the GII concept developed by DMA.

GEOINT Definition:

The term “geospatial intelligence” means- “ the exploitation and analysis of imagery and geospatial information to describe, assess, and visually depict physical features and geographically referenced activities on the Earth. GEOINT consists of imagery, imagery intelligence, and geospatial information.” Title 10 U.S. Code §467

                                                                                                               8  NIMA combined the DMA, the Central Imagery Office (CIO), and the Defense Dissemination Program Office (DDPO) in their entirety, and the mission and functions of the NPIC. Also merged into NIMA were the imagery exploitation, dissemination, and processing elements of the Defense Intelligence Agency, National Reconnaissance Office, and the Defense Airborne Reconnaissance Office.

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Above is a clip from a US NGA Mission Video and DEMONSTRATES JUST HOW POOR THINGS ARE. NGA didn't even bother to undertake the photogrammetric process to adjust the image and the vector (line) detail

2013

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VZz5HBALMqE

Published on Feb 12, 2013 “NGA delivers world-class geospatial intelligence that provides a decisive advantage to warfighters, policymakers, intelligence professionals and first responders. This video provides information about NGA's mission and value to national security”.

Over the past decade, Australia, the UK, Canada and New Zealand have followed, or were obliged to follow, the US model of moving formerly strategic level assets and capabilities into the intelligence function. This process has, in effect, been a cultural one with a change from an engineering mode of practice to generalist (perhaps arts) practice.

MILITARY GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION A Core Fundamental Perspective

Surveying and mapping for the development of a nation and defence of a nation are core and fundamental capabilities.

The mapping capability was an early adopter of computer / digital mapping and applications. Throughout the 1980s and1990s there were a number of studies and reviews into capability development for an ADO perspective.

However, in recent years, instead for integrating organisations and harmonizing various systems, the opposite has occurred. So action is needed to remediate what can only be described as a poor state.

A Few Contemporary Issues - 2014 A common framework – common data model

Bodies, such as DGIWG, have been aware of the need for a data model that is a super-set of data models developed by allied bodies. This is not simple. For example what is an airport?

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What is needed is a Defence Geospatial Development and Service Centre at a Headquarters strategic level. Staffing needs to be a professional level and have skills to develop ‘profiles’ of the portfolio-wide community thereby allowing the various recipients to view information described in the forma and format required by the endorsed needs.

Action: A workshop with participants appropriately qualified, or skilled, in representation of geospatial information and having an awareness and understanding of the various national and international activities should be held as a matter of urgency. Outcomes: A handbook describing recognized data models, methodology to convert geographic information between endorsed standards/models and a demonstration.

Geographic information data flows

The military geographic information flows should between data centres, command support systems and identified assets (e.g. weapons, platforms, etc).

This concept was outlined in a number of previous studies. For example, “A Defence Geographic Information Command Information Requirements Consultancy”, EASAMS (Aust) Ltd 9214/00/0002 Issue 2.0 dated 11 June 1993 sponsored by Directorate of Operational Information Systems, Force Development (Joint) Branch.

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Action: A study, similar to EASAMS, needs to be undertaken by a small specialist group. The scope of activities need to address Defence portfolio-wide issues and go beyond Defence to include:

• Electronic access into other Federal, state, and local government GI sources. • Electronic access into industry GI data sources. • Electronic access to UK, US, CA, and NZ military GI data sources. • Provision of access by other Federal security, intelligence, and surveillance

organisations. • Provision of controlled access by Federal, state, and local emergency

organisations.

Outcomes: A report on system / organisations relationships and interdependency; and recommendation on implementation.

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Military geographic information dissemination

RFI (Request for Information) is an intelligence term. A number of previous studies have discussed the issue in broader terms.

For example, EGICS9 identified activities as: collect, process. Manage, disseminate, access, transfer and exchange. Each activity would include instructions, directives, specifications, and so on.

Action: A major capability study needs to be undertaken to formally describe the Defence capability Outcomes: A joint capability!!!.

                                                                                                               9 From memory