gujarat

A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY OF THE REGIONAL CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES OF GUJARAT

Volume I

A Thesis Submitted to

The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda

for the Award of the Degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in Archaeology

By

RAJESH S.V.

Guiding Teacher

PROFESSOR K. KRISHNAN

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND ANCIENT HISTORY FACULTY OF ARTS

THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAO UNIVERSITY OF BARODA VADODARA - 390002, GUJARAT

JULY 2011

Department of Archaeology and Ancient HistoryFaculty of Arts

The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda

Vadodara 390 002. Ph.: 0265-2792436

Date: 08-07-2011

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Comprehensive Study of the Regional

Chalcolithic Cultures of Gujarat incorporates the results of the original research

work carried out by Rajesh S. V. under my supervision. The indebtedness to other

works has been duly acknowledged at relevant places.

K Krishnan K. Krishnan Guiding Teacher Head, Department of Archaeology

and Ancient History

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that all the information in the thesis entitled A Comprehensive

Study of the Regional Chalcolithic Cultures of Gujarat has been obtained and

presented in accordance with the academic rules and ethical conduct. To the best

of my knowledge no part of this thesis has been submitted for any Degree or

Diploma to this University or any other University or Institute. Any errors in fact

or interpretation in the thesis are purely the fault of the researcher.

08-07-2011 Rajesh S. V.

All probabilities are fifty percentages.

Either a thing will happen or it won't.

(Anonymous)

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my father-A. Sasidharan, an exceptional self-made man who, single-handedly and single-mindedly, dedicated himself to the objective of providing his children with an opportunity, which he himself never had, to enter a world of learning and far horizons and also to my mother- M. Vasantha

Also dedicated with profound respect to the genius of Late Professor Bendapudi Subbarao

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Wilson Mizner, American playwright, who coined so many brilliant aphorisms,

once said, When you steal from one author, its plagiarism; if you steal from

many, its research. By Mizners definition this work must be considered research.

As researchers we shield ourselves from charges of plagiarism by careful

documentation of data and concepts but even the most extensive and replete notes

cannot adequately convey the immense intellectual and personal debts that one

often incurs in bringing a piece of research to a successful conclusion. I am happy

that I can acknowledge some of those debts here. The accounting, I fear, will not

be total; there are undoubtedly several whose names should appear here but

whose contribution now lies so far back in time and unfortunately, in my mind

that it eludes memory. From them, I beg forgiveness.

First and foremost I offer my sincerest gratitude to my research supervisor, Head,

Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Professor (Dr.) K. Krishnan,

who has supported me throughout my research at The Maharaja Sayajirao

University of Baroda with his knowledge whilst allowing me the room to work in

my own way. He with his vibrant knowledge of Harappan Culture in Gujarat and

strong theoretical base; through numerous discussions significantly altered many

of the arguments put forth in the thesis. He taught me to read, think and helped a

lot in developing the reasoning skills. I attribute the thesis to his encouragement

and effort and without him this thesis would not have seen its final form.

People become really quite remarkable when they start thinking that they can do

things. When they believe in themselves they have the first secret of success. In

the various departmental excavations and exploration, I have been aided for many

years by Professor (Dr.) Kuldeep Kumar Bhan, former Head, Department of

Archaeology and Ancient History, who professed immense knowledge and helped

me throughout my research.

ii

Professor (Dr.) P. Ajithprasad, the most dynamic tutor in the Department of

Archaeology and Ancient History, who I hold in the highest esteem. His vast

knowledge regarding the Harappan and Regional Chalcolithic cultures in Gujarat

and other parts of Greater Indus region, which he readily shared proved very

helpful and significant. His perseverance, energetic leadership and strict discipline

during explorations and excavations, many of which I was a part of, enabled me to

learn a lot. Under him I grew as an excavator, one of the traits that make an

archaeologist. As well as keeping me stocked with general supplies of data and also

inadvertently, without fail, provided something much greater in all the years I've

known him: a friendly smile and a hello every time we met.

Life can be wonderful for some of us and for others, extremely tough. It is actually

the tough part, our problems and challenges that will define who we eventually

become. The role models of this world can play a major part in our lives because

we can learn from them and be inspired by their qualities, traits and challenges.

Dr. Ambika Bipin Patel, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History proved

to be a true role model in real sense for providing utmost help in my research

since the beginning to the end. I am indebted to her for allowing me to use her

office room and computer; providing me with the opportunity to understand the

museum displays and techniques; locating various materials in the cellar of

department and also by providing financial help and helping me in all problems.

Her company will be cherished forever.

I am thankful to Dr. Preeti A. Panjwani, Department of Archaeology and Ancient

History for her continuous encouragement during my research work. She offered

all possible help to finish the thesis.

I am also thankful to Mr. Pratapchandran, Department of Archaeology and

Ancient History for his help during the various stages of this research, particularly

during the identification of ceramics.

iii

I am indebted to Dr. Sushmita Sen, Department of Archaeology and Ancient

History for her timely assistance in difficult times of my research work.

If I have been able to see further than others, it was because of Retired Professor

V. H. Sonawane. He provided me with a lot of articles and books relevant with my

research and constantly updated me with the latest findings in Indian

Archaeology; introduced me to leading scholars, taught me the secret of exposing

the dilapidated stone fortification at Jaidak and gave me the opportunity to

participate in the excavation at Bagasra under his direction.

A strong positive attitude will create more miracles than any wonder drug. Retired

Professor V. S. Parekh also needs special thanks. Though he was not a Harappan

specialist he gave me many articles and showed keen interest in my research. At

the time of his retirement he provided a number of books; gratitude is the only

way I can thank him.

The librarian in the Department Mr. Bhupesh Pathak also deserves special thanks

to issuing any books at any time and showing interest in my research. Similarly I

am thankful to Dr. Indira Bhagya, the former librarian for providing me with

resources pertaining to my research work.

Having a positive mental attitude is asking how something can be done rather

than saying it can't be done. I have been blessed with a friendly and cheerful

faculty staff Salimbhai, Somabhai, Lalabhai, Hansaben, Vinay Bhatt, Anil Rathod,

Sukhram Rathwa, Piyush Khatri, Arun Pawar, Bhagubhai, Kantilal Parmar, Rajesh

Brahmbhatt and Rajasekhar Shirke with whom I share many treasured moments.

I convey special acknowledgement to Nitin Vaidya, Faculty of Arts and

Chiragbhai at GCU Section, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda for their

indispensable help while dealing with administration and bureaucratic matters.

iv

Attitude is more important than ones aptitude. I am indebted to Mr. Ramesh

Khatri and Mr. Radhakrishnan for helping me by preparing drawings whenever

needed.

The Department of Archaeology and Ancient History has provided support and

assistance that I have needed to complete the thesis and also thank the University

Grant Commission for providing JRF and SRF for my research during these years.

I would also acknowledge Team Anna whose crew members included Vrushab

Mahesh, Dr. Salim Shaik, Prabhin Sukumaran, Dr. J. Dinakaran, Hemant Mande,

Harish Talele, Mayur Patel, Jaymin Ray, Tatagata Ghosh, Parimal Patel, Somraj S.

Nair, Dr. Bhanu Prakash Sharma, Dr. N. Koiremba Singh, Vishal Zambare, Palash

Pal, Nimesh Muraleedharan, Anoop Markande, Dr. Sunil Shah, S. Sujata Devi and

Charusmita Gadekar for spending many sleepless nights in helping me to complete

my thesis particularly during the last few days prior to submission.

I gratefully acknowledge Dr. Brad Chase for his advice, supervision, and crucial

contribution, which made him a backbone of this research and so to this thesis.

His involvement with his originality has triggered and nourished my intellectual

maturity that I will benefit from, for a long time to come. Brad, I am grateful in

every possible way and hope to keep up our collaboration in the future.

I would like to record my gratitude to Dr. M. Madella, Professor J. M. Kenoyer,

Professor G. L. Possehl, Professor M. Tosi, Professor M. Cattani, Late Professor S.

Cleuziou, Dr. T. Osada, Dr. J. Truncer, Dr. J. Kantner, Professor S. Kowalewski,

Dr. S. Atalay, Dr. J. S. Kharakwal, Dr. Anoop Mishra, Dr. A. L. Balbo, Dr. B.

Rondelli and Dr. C. Lancelotti for their advice from the very early stage of this

research as well as giving me extraordinary experiences throughout the work.

I will be failing in my duty if I do not express my sense of gratitude to seniors and

fellow researchers Dr. Kajal Shah, Dr. Kishore Raghubans, Dr. Kiran Dimri, Dr.

v

Abhijit Majumdar and Dr. Bratati Sen at the Department of Archaeology for their

support and constructive criticism.

Special thanks to colleagues Vinod V., Sunita Lakhani, Vidhatri Patel, Arunima

Pati, Abha Tripati, Arun Mallik, Dileep Kushvaha, Smitha S Kumar and Oishi Roy.

Life without a friend is like death without a witness. I am thankful to Dr. Bhanu

Prakash Sharma, Thomson K. Alex and Unnikrishnan for being good friends and

never failing to accompany me during explorations and ungrudgingly providing

the necessary critics.

Many thanks go in particular to Dr. Randall Law, Katie Lindstrom, Gregg Jamison,

Neha Gupta, Susan Harris, Dr. Mark Manual, August Costa, Dennis, Dr. A. Uesugi

and Dr. H. Teramura. I am much indebted for their valuable advice during

archaeological discussions and being good colleagues.

Collective and individual acknowledgments are also owed to my friends whose

presence somehow perpetually refreshed and helped. The memories of working

with them will be ever cherished. Thanks to Dr. Vivek Dangi, K. P. Singh, Rajesh

Meena, Hansmukh Seth and Suresh Kumar for various discussions.

I was extraordinarily fortunate in having Dr. B. Sobhanan for initiating into

Archaeological studies, without whom I would never have embarked upon this

wonderful journey.

Change has a considerable psychological impact on the human mind. To the

fearful it is threatening because it means that things may get worse. To the hopeful

it is encouraging because things may get better. To the confident it is inspiring

because the challenge exists to make things better. I am very grateful to Dr.

Ajitkumar and Dr. Preeta Nayar, my teachers at the master level in Kerala for their

vi

stimulating discussions and above all inciting a young brain to think differently

and choose a path different from the usual.

Many thanks go in particular to Professor and Joint Director DCPRI, V. Shinde,

Professor R. Mohanty and Dr. P. P. Joglekar. Gratitude is due to them for their

academic input, never ending comments and ever ready discussions.

In everyone's life, at some time, our inner fire goes out. It then bursts into flame

by an encounter with another human being. We should all be thankful for those

who rekindle the inner spirit. I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude

towards my friends at Deccan College, Dr. P. Shirvalkar, Pankaj Goyal, Dr. Amol

Kulkarni, Shantanu Vaidya and Nilesh Jadhav for their diligent efforts and

guidance during my research work. Its been a pleasure attending conferences

with you all.

I have also benefited by advice and guidance from Director of State Archaeology

Department of Gujarat, Mr. Y. S. Rawat and his knowledge on Gujarat archaeology

is ever rewarding.

I convey special acknowledgement to Dr. Sivanandan former Superintending

Archaeologist (Vadodara) and Dr. Rajeev Panda Assistant Archaeologist (Lothal)

for their indispensable help with regards to travel, administration and bureaucratic

matters.

Friendship makes prosperity more shining and lessens adversity by dividing and

sharing it. I am indebted to my friends Subrahmanyam, Vinod Bhoi, Ikbal, Chetan,

Roshan, Santhosh Thakur, Niken, Nitesh, Vishal, Sidharth, Asish Mishra, Vishal

Patel, Nileshbhai, Riyaz Tamboli, Mohan Marugaraja, Prem Lal, Anand Mantri,

Yogesh Honnawala, Abhishek Pathak, Rakesh Sonawane, Nidhish, Sakesh, Sam,

Gopal, Dipak Adhikari, Murali and Tushar at Dr. V. S. Hall, Halls of Residence,

The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda for their constant moral support.

vii

The shifts of Fortune test the reliability of friends. Friends were like clothes: fine

while they lasted but eventually they wore thin or you grew out of them. I

acknowledge my love and affection to my friends Dr. Fenil Shah, Dr. Padmasree,

Rajbir Singh and Ratna Sharma for their moral support during my research period.

Nobody sees a flower - really - it is so small it takes time - we havent the time -

and to see takes time, like to have a friend takes time. I would take this

opportunity to acknowledge my friends for me they were everything- Shri.

Bhanwarlal Gurjar, Shri. Rajesh Porwal and Shri. Sandeep Paliwal.

Life is too short. Live every moment as if there is no tomorrow. Life ends and one

leaves the world physically but leaves lasting memories in the heart of loved ones

as well as leaves a little smile and sweet memories on clean few friends` face and

in their hearts. I take this opportunity to acknowledge Dr, Subhash Bhandari, Dr.

William Numes, Dr. Rikesh Joshi, Dr. R. B. Yadav, Dr. Hitendra Maurya, Dr.

Ramajayam, Dr. Mukesh Chandrakar, Dr. Hrudanand Mishra, Dr. Khangenbam

Romesh, Dr. Shajil Madhavan, Dr. Vikas Sharma, Dr. Sushil Chaudary, Dr.

Anshuman Pal, Dr. Indrajit Shaun, Dr. Sudeep Banerjee, Dr. Krishna Moorti, Dr.

Anand Mehta, Dr. Gautam Bishnu, Dr. Khem Raj, Dr. Koirala, Mr. Rajendran, Mr.

Gigi George and Mr. Khangenbam Mangal for being with me through thick and

thin.

I am thankful to Dr. Janardhana, Manu and Kumaran for their unselfish and noble

actions which were the most radiant pages in the biography of souls.

I convey special acknowledgement to Chetanbhai for his indispensable help by

arranging travel and other facilities during my exploration at Talaja and also

Lakhabhai the rikhshaw driver for rendering his services. Without Lakhabhai

accessing the sites located in far flung corners of the districts would have been

near to impossible. Local and timely help was always at hand due to the helpful

nature of these people.

viii

I would take this moment to write a note to thank Narayan, Samudrakam, Madan

and Ambalal (V. S. Hostel Staff) for the wonderful service provided to me during

my stay in Baroda. I am so grateful for their love and truly appreciate the time

they spent. We always have a great time whenever we met. They really mean a lot

to me!

It is a pleasure to express my gratitude whole heartedly to Bipin Patel, Drishti

Patel, Bindu Krishnan, Kim Kyoungae, Shridevi and Prabhins family for their

kind hospitality during my stay in Baroda.

Quality in a service or product is not what you put into it. It is what the client or

customer gets out of it. I would take this privilege and opportunity to thank Aum

Copy Point, Ravechi Collection and their entire unit. Special thanks to Aswin,

Sailesh, Yogesh, Prakash, Sanau, Sagar, Kuldeep, Natvarlal, Praveen, Dinesh,

Mahida, Mahendra, Nanjibhai, Veljibhai, Mansukh, Sanjay, Jonty and Babu for

providing the best service during the last hours of submission of this thesis.

My heartfelt thanks to Prof. P. Ajithprasad and Dr Marco Madella for allowing me

to use the recent data from the excavations of NoGAP team at Loteshwar and

Datrana and for their time and patience shown for my seemingly never ending list

of questions.

A ring is round and has no ends. It keeps us together in a circle of friends. Our

circle of friends will never break. It will only grow with future friends we make.

True friendship binds this ring together and it will keep us close forever.

Therefore, with this I pass to you to show you that our friendship is true. I feel

proud and take this opportunity to acknowledge my friends J. Balachandran,

Gireesh, Suresh, Rajesh, Satheesh, Ratheesh, Binu and Aneesh.

Having someone wonder where you are when you do not come home at night is a

very old human concern. Trouble is part of everybodys life and if you don't share

ix

it you don't give the person who loves you enough chance to love you enough. I

am grateful to Aji (Cousin), Baiju (Cousin), A. Vasundharan (Uncle), Prasad, M. V.

(Brother in Law), who made me happy who were the charming gardeners to

blossom my soul in times of crisis.

Where would I be without my family? My parents deserve special mention for

their inseparable support. My Father, A Sasidharan, in the first place is the person

who built the framework of my character, showing me the joy of intellectual

pursuit ever since I was a child. My Mother, M. Vasantha, is the one who

sincerely raised me with care and love. I express my gratitude to my sister

Rajeswari and my brother Chetak for being supportive. I thank the almighty for

giving me the strength to plod on despite piling troubles and continuing tensions.

Finally, I am indebted to time and many people who showed me various colours of

life and made me stronger and tougher day by day.

Rajesh S.V.

x

CONTENTS

VOLUME I Page No.

Acknowledgement i-ix

Contents x-xxvi

List of Maps xxvii-xxix

List of Figures xxx-xxxiv

List of Tables xxxv-xxxvi

List of Charts xxxvii-xlvii

Synopsis xlviii-lxvii

Chapter - I INTRODUCTION 1-46

Anarta Tradition 3

Padri Ware/Padri Culture 4

Pre-Prabhas Assemblage 5

Pre Urban Harappan Sindh Type Pottery 5

Black and Red Ware 6

Micaceous Red Ware 7

Classical Harappan 8

Sorath Harappan 9

Prabhas Assemblage 10

Lustrous Red Ware 10

Malwa Ware 11

Jorwe Ware 12

Problem of Study 13

Key Definitions and Concepts 15

Chalcolithic 15

Region 16

Culture 19

xi

Tradition 20

Pre Urban Harappan (c. 3700-2600 BC) 22

Urban Harappan (c. 2600-1900 BC) 23

Post Urban Harappan (c. 1900-900 BC) 24

Environmental Background of Gujarat 26

Geomorphology 27

Mainland Gujarat 29

Saurashtra 30

Kachchh 31

Drainage 32

Mainland Gujarat 32

Saurashtra 34

Kachchh 34

Geology 34

Minerals 35

Soils 35

Climate 38

Rainfall 38

Ground Water 39

Flora 40

Fauna 42

Agriculture 43

Livestock 44

Palaeo-environment 45

Chapter - II PRE URBAN HARAPPAN TO POST URBAN

HARAPPAN: AN APPRAISAL

47-130

Introduction 47

Excavations 47

xii

Vallabhipur 48

Bet Dwarka 48

Rangpur 48

Langhnaj 49

Machiala-Mota 50

Kanasutaria 50

Lothal 50

Lakhabaval 51

Amra 52

Prabhas Patan/Somnath 52

Bhagatrav 53

Megham 53

Telod 53

Rojdi 53

Adkot 54

Pithadia/Pitharia 55

Motidharai 55

Kanjetar 55

Randaliyo 55

Nagal 56

Warthan 56

Andhi 57

Desalpur 57

Jokha 57

Dhatva 58

Malvan 58

Surkotada 59

Khanpur 60

Zekhada 60

xiii

Kanewal 61

Pabumath 61

Taraghda 62

Valabhi 62

Dwarka 62

Oriyo Timbo 63

Vagad 63

Nageshwar 64

Ratanpura 65

Nagwada 65

Shikarpur 66

Kuntasi 67

Dholavira 68

Babar Kot 69

Padri 70

Loteshwar 70

Jaidak 71

Moti Pipli 72

Santhli 73

Datrana 73

Mathutra 74

Bagasra 74

Juni Kuran 75

Bokhira 76

Kanmer 76

Khirsara 77

Kotada Bhadli 78

Explorations 78

Period of Chance Findings 78

xiv

Decade of Nationalism and Beginning of Village

to Village and River Valley Surveys

79

Decade of the Entry of Foreign Schools 79

Decade of the Beginning of District Surveys 80

Decade of the Introduction of Grid Surveys 80

Decade of surveys for Regional Chalcolithic

Sites and Introduction of GPS Surveys

81

Decade of the Beginning of Digital

Documentation and Transect Survey of Sites

81

Architectural Studies 82

Artifact Analysis 86

Ceramics 86

Terracotta Objects 90

Stone Objects 91

Faience Objects 94

Shell Objects 97

Bone Objects 100

Metal Artefacts 101

Burials 105

Faunal Analysis 109

Floral Studies 113

Pastoralism 115

Language and Script 117

Ethno Archeology/Ethnography 118

Religion and Ritual 122

Dating in Gujarat 123

Radiocarbon Dating 123

Thermo-luminescence Dating 124

Contextual Dating 124

xv

Typological Dating/Seriation 125

Geo-archeology 127

Archaeological Heritage and Tourism 128

Field Documentation 129

Chapter - III METHODS OF STUDY 131-153

Stages of Research 131

Literature Survey 132

Selection of Representative Sites and Type Site

Identification

133

Loteshwar 133

Datrana 135

Vagad 136

Padri 137

Cleaning and Documentation of Artifacts 138

Participation in Excavations 142

Field Survey/Exploration 142

Methods of Exploration 143

Classification of Ceramics 149

Periodization of Sites 149

Preparation of Site Data Base and Maps 150

Preparation of Chronological sequence and

Regional Stratigraphy

152

Preparation of Database of Antiquities and

Graphs

152

Compilation of Data and Thesis Writing 152

Chapter - IV RESULTS 154-604

Section I Distribution of Chalcolithic Sites in Gujarat 154

xvi

Introduction 154

Sites and Location Details 155

Pre Urban Harappan Sites 166

Anarta Tradition 168

Padri Ware 170

Pre Urban Harappan Sindh Type Pottery 170

Pre-Prabhas Assemblage 172

Black and Red Ware 174

Reserved Slip Ware 177

Urban Harappan (Classical/Sorath Harappan)

Sites

177

Micaceous Red Ware 179

Prabhas Ware 181

Post Urban Harappan Sites 184

Lustrous Red Ware 184

Malwa Ware 188

Jorwe Ware 188

Chalcolithic Sites Having Microliths 188

Observations 191

Chronological Synopsis of Chalcolithic Gujarat 256

Introduction 256

Relative Dates 256

Rangpur Phase Sequence 257

Rojdi Phase Sequence 258

Sites Having Relative Dates 258

Chronometric Dates 258

Babarkot 259

Bagasra 259

Bet Dwarka 260

xvii

Dholavira 260

Jaidak/Pithad 261

Kanmer 261

Kuntasi 261

Langhnaj 262

Loteshwar 262

Lothal 263

Malvan 263

Nageshwar 263

Nagwada 263

Oriyo Timbo 264

Rojdi 264

Padri 264

Ratanpura 265

Somnath 265

Surkotada 265

Vagad 266

Bokhira 266

Chronological Sequences 266

North Gujarat 267

South Gujarat 269

Kachchh 270

Saurashtra 271

Chronological Synopsis of Gujarat (Mesolithic

Onwards)

272

Section II Anarta Tradition: Evidence from Loteshwar 307

Archaeological Context 307

Size of Potsherds 308

Vessel Parts 308

xviii

Vessel Shapes 309

Diameter of Vessel Parts 309

Manufacturing Technique 311

Indicators of Manufacturing/Finishing

Technique

312

Carinations and Wide Shallow Groove Like

Depressions

312

Slip 313

Burnish/Polish 313

Surface Feel 313

Decoration 314

Texture 314

Condition of Core 315

Colour of Ceramics 315

Graffiti 316

Surface Condition 316

Marks on Ceramics 316

Fracture 317

Inclusions and Impurities 317

Other Features 317

Structural Remains 318

Other Finds 318

Ornaments 318

Household Objects 319

Tools 319

Figurines and other Terracotta Objects 319

Burials 320

Organic Remains 320

Chronology 320

xix

Observations 320

Padri Culture 377

Introduction 377

Archaeological Context and Wares 378


Vessel Parts 379

Vessel Types 379

Diameter of Vessels 379

Manufacturing Technique and Indicators 380

Perforations 381

Corrugation and Carination 381

Slip 381

Burnish/Polish 382

Surface Feel 382

Type of Decoration 383

Decorative Pattern 384

Position of Decoration 384

Texture 385



Graffiti 386



Fracture 388


Other Features 389


Other Artefacts 390

Organic Remains 390

xx

Observations 391

Pre-Prabhas Assemblage from Datrana - IV 433

Introduction 433

Archaeological Context 433


Vessel Parts 435

Vessel Shapes 437

Diameter of Vessel Parts 438

Manufacturing Technique 440

Indicators of Manufacturing/Finishing

Technique

440

Perforation 444

Corrugation and Carination 445

Slip 445

Burnish/Polish 448

Surface Feel 448

Decoration 452

Texture 453



Graffiti 461



Fracture 466


Other Features 469

Other Artefacts 469

Ornaments 469

Household Objects 470

xxi

Tools 470

Organic Remains 471

Observations 471

Micaceous Red Ware from Vagad 481

Archaeological Context and Wares 481


Diameter of Vessels 491

Manufacturing Technique and Indicators,

Texture, Surface Treatment, Surface Feel and

Surface Condition

492

Type of Decoration, Decorative Pattern and

Position of Decoration

493



Fracture 500



Faunal Remains 501

Other Artefacts 502

Copper Objects 502

Faience 502

Stone Objects 504

Terracotta Objects 504


Chronology 508

Observations 508

Section III Archaeological Exploration Around Padri,

Bhavnagar District

511

Introduction 511

xxii

Padri 518

Lilivav 522

Sakhavadar 524

Vejodhari 526

Khandera/Sakhavadar 528

Sultanpur/Sartanpur I 530

Sultanpur/Sartanpur II 531

Hamirpara 533

Borla 535

Bhalar 537

Datravad/Dantred 539

Talli 541

Observations 544

Archaeological Exploration Around Lothal,

Ahmedabad District

551

Introduction 551

Lothal 561

Vadgam I 565

Vadgam II 568

Jalampar 570

Koth 572

Rojka 575

Panasina 577

Padana 580

Balgamada 582

Kharad I 585

Kharad II 588

Kotadiya 590

Rangpur 593

xxiii

Observations 596

Chapter -V DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 605

Introduction 605

Regional Cultures/Traditions in Gujarat 605

Origin of Regional Cultures/Traditions 606

Beginning of Cultural Contact 610

Need for Contact 611

Impact of Contact 612

Towards Integration 612

Emergence of New Cultures/Traditions/Wares 613

Transformation of Cultures 614

Towards Extinction 615

Features of Regional Chalcolithic Cultures 615

Anarta Tradition: History of Discovery 616

Anarta Tradition from Loteshwar 616

Similarities and Differences 617

Faunal Remains 618


Anarta Burial 619

Spatial Distribution 620

Cultural Contacts 620

Proposition of Seasonal Encampments 621

Chronology 621

Anarta Tradition/Anarta Culture/Ceramic Type 622

Padri Culture 622

Padri Ware vs. Sorath Harappan Ceramics 623

Similarities 624

Differences 625

xxiv

Other Artefacts 626

Organic Remains 626


Proposition of Salt Manufacturing Centre 627

Chronology of Padri Culture 627

Chronometric Dates vs. Relative Dates from

Padri

628

Chronologically Placing the Sorath Harappan 629

Data from Explored Sites 629

Resolving the Problem 630

Padri Ware vs. Padri Culture vs. Padri/Anarta

Cultural Complex

630

Pre-Prabhas Assemblage from Somnath 631

Pre-Prabhas Assemblage from Datrana IV 632

Faunal Remains 633

Similarities 634

Distribution of Pre-Prabhas Assemblage 634

Occurrence of Pre-Prabhas Assemblage in

North Gujarat and Saurashtra: An Explanation

635

Cultural Contacts 637

Economy 637

Chronology 638

Micaceous Red Ware: History of Discovery 638

Features of Micaceous Red Ware 639

Scientific Studies 641

Occurrence in Burials 641

Similarities and Differences 642

Spatial Distribution: Within Gujarat 643

Spatial Distribution: Outside Gujarat 644

xxv

Indigenous vs. Foreign Origin 645

Relative Abundance in Excavated and

Explored/Revisited Sites

645

Micaceous Red Ware: Observations 646

Temporal Distribution 647

Micaceous Red Ware: Ceramic

Type/Culture/Tradition

648

Regional Distribution of Chalcolithic

Cultures/Traditions

649

Chronological Synopsis of Chalcolithic

Cultures/Traditions

649

Results of Exploration In and Around Padri 650

Results of Exploration In and Around Lothal 651

Sorath Harappan 652

Conclusion 653

Future Scope of Research 658

REFERENCES 659-714

VOLUME II

Appendix 1 Pottery: Macroscopic Description Chart 1-4

Appendix 2 Site Survey Record 5

Appendix 3 Loteshwar Ceramics: Macroscopic Description

Form and Digitised Data

6-387

Appendix 4 Ceramics from Padri: Macroscopic Description


388-489

Appendix 5 Ceramics from Datrana IV: Macroscopic

Description Form and Digitised Data (Detailed

Analysis)

490-555

xxvi

Appendix 6 Ceramics from Datrana IV: Macroscopic

Description Form and Digitised Data (A

Sketchy Analysis)

556-710

Appendix 7 Ceramics from Vagad: Macroscopic Description

Form and Digitised Data : Micaceous Red Ware

711-717

Appendix 8 Ceramics from Vagad: Macroscopic Description

Form and Digitised Data (A Sketchy Analysis)

718-745

Appendix 9 Ceramics Recovered from the Exploration In

and Around Padri: Macroscopic Description


746-830

Appendix 10 Ceramics Recovered from the Exploration In

and Around Lothal: Macroscopic Description


831-923

xxvii

LIST OF MAPS

Map No. Page No.

1.1 Geomorphic Map of Gujarat 28

1.2 Drainage Map of Gujarat 33

1.3 Geological and Mineral Map of Gujarat 36

1.4 Soil Map of Gujarat 37

1.5 Major Climatic Zones of Gujarat 39

1.6 Rainfall Map of Gujarat 40

4.1 District wise Distribution of All Reported Chalcolithic

Sites in Gujarat

159

4.2 District wise Distribution of Excavated Chalcolithic

Sites in Gujarat

161

4.3 District wise Distribution of Fortified Chalcolithic

Settlements in Gujarat

163

4.4 District wise Distribution of Burial Sites in Gujarat 164

4.5 District wise Distribution of Chalcolithic sites Having

Absolute Dates in Gujarat

165

4.6 District wise Distribution of Pre Urban Harappan

Sites in Gujarat

167

4.7 District wise Distribution of Anarta Sites in Gujarat 169

4.8 District wise Distribution of Padri Ware Sites in

Gujarat

171


Sindh Type Pottery in Gujarat

173

4.10 District wise Distribution of Pre Prabhas Sites in

Gujarat

175

4.11 District wise Distribution of Black and Red Ware Sites

in Gujarat

176

xxviii

4.12 District wise Distribution of Resreved Slip Ware Sites

in Gujarat

178

4.13 District wise Distribution of Classical/Sorath

Harappan (Urban Harappan) Sites in Gujarat

180

4.14 District wise Distribution of Micaceous Red Ware

Sites in Gujarat

182

4.15 District wise Distribution of PrabhasWare Sites in

Gujarat

183

4.16 District wise Distribution of Post Urban Harappan

Sites in Gujarat

186

4.17 District wise Distribution of Lustrous Red Ware Sites

in Gujarat

187

4.18 District wise Distribution of Malwa Ware Sites in

Gujarat

189

4.19 District wise Distribution of Jorwe Ware Sites in

Gujarat

190

4.20 District wise Distribution of Chalcolithic Sites

Yielding Microliths in Gujarat

192

4.21 All the Newly Explored/Revisited Sites In and Around

Padri, General Map

514


Padri, Detailed Map

515

4.23 Newly Explored/Revisited Sorath Harappan Sites In

and Around Padri

516

4.24 Newly Explored/Revisited Late Sorath Harappan Sites

In and Around Padri

517


Lothal, General Map

556

xxix

4.26 All the Newly Explored/Revisited Sites around Lothal,

Detailed Map

557

4.27 Newly Explored/Revisited Classical/Sorath Harappan

Sites around Lothal

558

4.28 Newly Explored/Revisited Late Sorath Harappan Sites

around Lothal

559

4.29 Newly Explored/Revisited Micaceous Red Ware Sites

around Lothal

560

4.30 Newly Explored/Revisited Lustrous Red Ware Sites

around Lothal

561

xxx

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page No.

3.1 Jawan Flint/Sand Paper Chart 141

4.1 Chronological Synopsis of North Gujarat 275

4.2 Chronological Synopsis of South Gujarat 276

4.3 Chronological Synopsis of Kachchh 277

4.4.1 Chronological Synopsis of Saurashtra 278

4.4.2 Chronological Synopsis of Saurashtra 279

4.4.3. Chronological Synopsis of Saurashtra 280

4.5 General View of Mound at Loteshwar 364

4.6 Contour Map of Archaeological Mound at Loteshwar 364

4.7 Digital Elevation Model of Archaeological Mound at Loteshwar

365

4.8 Plan of Chalcolithic Pits in Trench I, Loteshwar 365

4.9 Plan of Chalcolithic Pits in Trench II, Loteshwar 366

4.10 Gritty Red Ware Bowls from Loteshwar 366

4.11 Gritty Red Ware Bowls from Loteshwar 367

4.12 Gritty Red Ware Pots from Loteshwar 367

4.13 Gritty Red Ware Pots from Loteshwar 367

4.14 Gritty Red Ware Basins from Loteshwar 368

4.15 Gritty Red Ware Basins from Loteshwar 368

4.16 Coarse Red Ware Pots with Matt Surface from Loteshwar

369

4.17 Coarse Red Ware Pots with Matt Surface from Loteshwar

369

4.18 Fine Red Ware Vessels from Loteshwar 370

4.19 Burnished Red/Gray Ware, Black and Red Ware, Reserved Slip Ware, Harappan Red Ware and Coarse Red/Gray Ware Vessels with Matt Surface from Loteshwar

370

xxxi

4.20 Black and Red Ware Vessels from Loteshwar 371

4.21 Painted, Incised and Reserved Slip Ware Sherds from Loteshwar

371

4.22 Burnish Red and Gray Ware Sherds from Loteshwar 372

4.23 Reserved Slip Ware and Incised Sherds from Loteshwar

372

4.24 Bichrome Painted Pots from Loteshwar 373

4.25 Microliths from Loteshwar 373

4.26 Shell and Copper Object from Loteshwar 374

4.27 Beads from Loteshwar 374

4.28 Animal Figurine from Loteshwar 375

4.29 Pottery Discs, Terracotta Pellets, Beads and Rings from Loteshwar

375

4.30 Pinched Terracotta Cakes from Loteshwar 376

4.31 Human Burial from Loteshwar 376

4.32 Padri Ware Bowls from Padri 427

4.33 Padri Ware Pots from Padri 428

4.34 Sorath Harappan Bowls from Padri 430

4.35 Sorath Harappan Vessels from Padri 431

4.36 Late Sorath Harappan Vessels from Padri 432

4.37 Painted Sherds of Padri Ware 429

4.38 Sorath Harappan Sherds Having Graffiti from Padri 432

4.39 General View of Archaeological Mound at Prabhas Patan/Somnath

472

4.40 Pre Prabhas Ceramics from Prabhas Patan/Somnath 473

4.41 Pre Prabhas Ceramics from Prabhas Patan/Somnath 473

4.42 General View of Archaeological Mound at Datrana IV 474

4.43 Features of Artefact Concentration at Datrana IV 474

4.44 Pre Prabhas Ceramics from Datrana IV 475



xxxii


4.48 Incised and Corrugated Ceramics from Datrana IV 477

4.49 Incised Ceramics from Bagor 477

4.50 Incised Ceramics from Bagor 478

4.51 Stone Artefacts from Datrana IV 478

4.52 Stone Artefacts (Cores) from Datrana IV 479

4.53 Chalcedony Blades from Datrana IV 479

4.54 Carnelian Beads and Bead Roughouts from Datrana IV 480

4.55 Carnelian Bead, roughouts and Drills from Datrana IV 480

4.56 Copper Punch Point from Datrana IV 480

4.57 General View of the Archaeological Mound at Vagad 510

4.58 General View of the Disturbed Archaeological Mound at Vagad

510

4.59 Micaceous Red Ware from Vagad 510

4.60 General View of the Disturbed Archaeological Mound at Padri Gohilini

520

4.61 Exposed Section Showing Bones, Stones and Ceramics at Padri Gohilini

521

4.62 Surface Showing Broken in situ Pot at Padri Gohilini 521

4.63 Ceramics of Different Periods from Padri Gohilini 547

4.64 Chalcolithic Site at Lilivav, General View 523

4.65 Concentration of Ceramic Scatter in the Chalcolithic Site at Lilivav

524

4.66 Ceramics of Different Periods from Lilivav 547

4.67 Chalcolithic Site at Sakhavadar, General View 525

4.68 Ceramics of Different Periods from Sakhavadar 548

4.69 Chalcolithic Site at Vejodhari, General View 527

4.70 Ceramics from Different Periods of Sultanpur I, Sultanpur II and Vejodhari

548

4.71 Chalcolithic Site at Khandera/Sakhavadar, General

View

529

xxxiii

4.72 Ceramics of Different Periods from Khandera 548

4.73 Chalcolithic Site at Sultanpur/Sartanpur I, General View

530

4.74 Chalcolithic Site at Sultanpur/Sartanpur II, General View

532

4.75 Chalcolithic Site at Hamirpara, General View 534

4.76 Ceramics of Different Periods from Hamirpara 549

4.77 Chalcolithic Site at Borla, General View 536

4.78 Ceramics of Different Periods from Borla 549

4.79 Chalcolithic Site at Bhalar, General View 538

4.80 Ceramics of Different Periods from Bhalar 549

4.81 Chalcolithic Site at Datravad/Dantred, General View 540

4.82 Ceramics of Different Periods from Datravad 550

4.83 Chalcolithic Mound at Talli, General View 542

4.84 The Piled Up Structural Remains, Talli 542

4.85 Ceramics of Different Periods from Talli 550

4.86 Chalcolithic Settlement at Lothal 562

4.87 The So Called Dockyard at Lothal, General View 563

4.88 Ceramics of Various Periods from Lothal 600

4.89 General View of Disturbed Archaeological Site, Vadgam I

565

4.90 Ceramics of Various Periods from Vadgam II 600

4.91 General View of Disturbed Archaeological Site, Vadgam II

568

4.92 General View of Disturbed Archaeological Site at Jalampar

571

4.93 Ceramics of Various Periods from Jalampar Talavadi and Koth

600

4.94 General View of Disturbed Archaeological Site at Koth

573

4.95 General View of Disturbed Archaeological Site at Rojka

575

4.96 Ceramics of Various Periods from Rojka 601

xxxiv

4.97 General View of the Disturbed Archaeological Site at Panasina

578

4.98 Ceramics of Various Periods from Panasina 6014.99 General View of Disturbed Archaeological Site at

Padana 580

4.100 Ceramics of Various Periods from Padana 6024.101 General View of Disturbed Archaeological Site at

Balgamada 583

4.102 Ceramics of Various Periods from Balgamada 602

4.103 General View of Disturbed Archaeological Site - Kharad I

585

4.104 Ceramics of Various periods from Kharad I 603

4.105 General View of Disturbed Archaeological Site - Kharad II

588

4.106 Ceramics of Various periods from Kharad II 603

4.107 General View of Disturbed Archaeological Site at Kotadiya

591

4.108 Ceramics of Various periods from Kotadiya 603

4.109 General View of Disturbed Archaeological Site at Rangpur

594

4.110 General View of Present Village Located over Rangpur Mound

594

4.111 Ceramics of Various periods from Rangpur 604

xxxv

LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

1.1 Various Cultures/Traditions of Indus Civilization in

Gujarat

25

4.1 All the Reported Chalcolithic Sites in Gujarat 195

4.2 Excavated Chalcolithic Sites in Gujarat Dated through

Relative Techniques

281

4.3 Radio Carbon Dates from Babar Kot 285

4.4 Radio Carbon Dates from Bagasra 286

4.5 Radio Carbon and Thermo-luminescence Dates from

Bet Dwarka

286

4.6 Radio Carbon Dates from Dholavira 288

4.7 Radio Carbon Dates from Pithad/Jaidak 289

4.8 Radio Carbon Dates from Kanmer 289

4.9 Radio Carbon Dates from Kuntasi 295

4.10 Radio Carbon and Thermo-luminescence Dates from Langhnaj

296

4.11 Radio Carbon Dates from Loteshwar 296

4.12 Radio Carbon Dates from Lothal 297

4.13 Radio Carbon Dates from Malvan 298

4.14 Radio Carbon Dates from Nageshwar 298

4.15 Radio Carbon Dates from Nagwada 299

4.16 Radio Carbon Dates from Oriyo Timbo 299

4.17 Radio Carbon Dates from Padri 300

4.18 Radio Carbon Dates from Ratanpura 301

4.19 Radio Carbon Dates from Rojdi 301

4.20 Radio Carbon Dates from Somnath/Prabhas Patan 304

4.21 Radio Carbon Dates from Surkotada 305

xxxvi

4.22 Radio Carbon Dates from Vagad 306

4.23 Radio Carbon Dates from Bokhira 306

4.24 Excavated Ceramics from Vagad 482

4.25 Newly Explored and Revisited Sites in and around

Padri

512

4.26 Newly Explored and Revisited Sites in and around Lothal

554

xxxvii

LIST OF CHARTS

Chart No. Page No.

4.1 Sub-region wise Distribution of All Reported

Chalcolithic Sites in Gujarat

157

4.2 District wise Distribution of All Reported


158

4.3 Sub-region wise Distribution of Excavated


160

4.4 District wise Distribution of Fortified Settlements in

Gujarat

162

4.5 District wise Distribution of Burial Sites in Gujarat 162

4.6 District wise Distribution of Sites Having

Chronometric Dates in Gujarat

162

4.7 District and Sub-region wise Distribution of Pre

Urban Harappan Sites in Gujarat

166

4.8 District and Sub-region wise Distribution of Sites of

Anarta Tradition in Gujarat

168


Sindh Type Pottery in Gujarat

172

4.10 District wise Distribution of Black and Red Ware in

Gujarat

174

4.11 District and Sub-region wise Distribution of Reserved

Slip Ware in Gujarat

177

4.12 District wise Distribution of Classical/ Sorath

Harappan Sites in Gujarat

179

4.13 District wise Distribution of Micaceous Red Ware in

Gujarat

181

xxxviii

4.14 District wise Distribution of Prabhas Ware Sites in

Gujarat

184

4.15 District wise Distribution of Post Urban Harappan

Sites in Gujarat

185

4.16 District wise Distribution of Lustrous Red Ware in

Gujarat

185

4.17 District wise Distribution of Microliths Yielding


188

4.18 Number of Chalcolithic Sites in Gujarat 191

4.19 Trench-Wire Distribution of Ceramics at Loteshwar 321

4.20 Sub Square-wise Distribution of Ceramics at

Loteshwar

322

4.21 Layer wise Distribution of Ceramics in Various

Trenches at Loteshwar

323

4.22 Maximum Size of Vessel Parts from Loteshwar in Cm 324

4.23 Diagnostic and Non-diagnostic Vessel Parts from

Loteshwar

325

4.24 Various Vessel Forms from Loteshwar 326

4.25 Classification of Pots from Loteshwar Based on

Diameter

327

4.26 Classification of Basins from Loteshwar Based on

Diameter

327

4.27 Classification of Bowls from Loteshwar Based on

Diameter

327

4.28 Classification of Dishes from Loteshwar Based on

Diameter

328

4.29 Diameter of Rims of Pot/Basin from Loteshwar 328

4.30 Classification of Dish on Stand from Loteshwar Based

on Diameter

328

xxxix

4.31 Diameter of Stems of Dish on Stand from Loteshwar 329

4.32 Manufacturing Techniques of Vessels from Loteshwar 329

4.33 Indicators of Manufacturing/Finishing Technique on

External Surface of Ceramics from Loteshwar

330

4.34 Indicators of Manufacturing/Finishing Technique on

Internal Surface of Ceramics from Loteshwar

331

4.35 Carinations and Wide Grooves on Ceramics from

Loteshwar

332

4.36 External Surface Treatment of Vessels from

Loteshwar

333

4.37 Internal Surface Treatment of Vessels from Loteshwar 334

4.38 External Surface Feel of Ceramics from Loteshwar 335

4.39 Internal Surface Feel of Ceramics from Loteshwar 336

4.40 Type of External Decoration on Ceramics from

Loteshwar

337

4.41 Type of Internal Decoration on Ceramics from

Loteshwar

337

4.42 Condition of Preservation of Painting on Ceramics

from Loteshwar

338

4.43 Decorative Pattern on the External Surface of

Ceramics from Loteshwar

339

4.44 Decorative Pattern on the Internal Surface of


340

4.45 Position of Decoration on the External Surface of


341

4.46 Position of Decoration on the Internal Surface of


342

4.47 Texture of Ceramics from Loteshwar 343

4.48 Condition of the Core of Ceramics from Loteshwar 344

xl

4.49 Surface, Core, Slip and Paint colour of Pots from

Loteshwar

345

4.50 Surface, Core, Slip and Paint colour of Basins from

Loteshwar

346

4.51 Surface, Core, Slip and Paint colour of Dishes/Basins

from Loteshwar

347

4.52 Surface, Core, Slip and Paint colour of Bowls/Basins

from Loteshwar

348

4.53 Surface, Core, Slip and Paint colour of Lids/Dishes

from Loteshwar

349

4.54 Surface, Core, Slip and Paint colour of Pots/Bowls

from Loteshwar

350

4.55 Surface, Core, Slip and Paint colour of Pots/Basins

from Loteshwar

351

4.56 Surface, Core, Slip and Paint colour of Dish on Stand

from Loteshwar

352

4.57 Surface, Core, Slip and Paint colour of Dishes from

Loteshwar

353

4.58 Surface, Core, Slip and Paint colour of Lids and

Dishes/Bowls from Loteshwar

354

4.59 Surface, Core, Slip and Paint colour of Bowls from

Loteshwar

355

4.60 Graffiti on the Ceramics from Loteshwar 356

4.61 External Surface Condition of Ceramics from

Loteshwar

357

4.62 Internal Surface Condition of Ceramics from

Loteshwar

358

4.63 Various Marks on the External Surface of Ceramics

from Loteshwar

359

xli

4.64 Various Marks on the Internal Surface of Ceramics

from Loteshwar

360

4.65 Nature of the Fracture of Ceramics from Loteshwar 361

4.66 Presence of Inclusion and Impurities in the Ceramics

from Loteshwar

362

4.67 Presence of Mica Particles in the Ceramics from

Loteshwar

363

4.68 Various Features of Ceramics from Loteshwar 363

4.69 Distribution of Different Wares at Padri 392

4.70 Maximum Size of Potsherds from Padri 393

4.71 Different Vessel Parts from Padri 394

4.72 Ware-wise Division of Different Vessel Parts from

Padri

395

4.73 Different Vessel Shapes from Padri 396

4.74 Diameter of Red Ware Vessels from Padri in Cm 397

4.75 Diameter of Vessels Other than Red Ware from Padri 398

4.76 Indicators of Ceramic Manufacturing Technique from

Padri

399

4.77 Presence of Corrugation, Carination and Projected

Shoulder in the Ceramics from Padri

400

4.78 Evidence of Surface Treatment of Ceramics from

Padri

401

4.79 Surface Feel of Ceramics from Padri 402

4.80 Types of Decoration on Ceramics from Padri 403

4.81 Presence of Decorations on Different Surfaces of

Ceramics from Padri

404

4.82 Condition of Paintings on Ceramics from Padri 405

4.83 Type of Decorations on External Surface of Potsherds

from Padri

406

xlii

4.84 Type of Decorations on Internal Surface of Potsherds

from Padri

407

4.85 Position of Decorations on the External Surface of

Ceramics from Padri

408

4.86 Position of Decorations on the Internal Surface of

Ceramics from Padri

409

4.87 Texture of Ceramics from Padri 410

4.88 Condition of the Core of Ceramics from Padri 411

4.89 Colour of the Surface and Slip of Red Ware Pots from

Padri Based on Munsell Soil Chart

412

4.90 Colour of the Decoration on Red Ware Pots from


413

4.91 Colour of the Red Ware Bowls from Padri Based on

Munsell Soil Chart

414

4.92 Colour of the Red Ware Dish and Dish on Stand from


415

4.93 Colour of the Red Ware Perforated Jar and Lid from


416

4.94 Colour of the Red Ware Basin and Lamp from Padri

Based on Munsell Soil Chart

417

4.95 Colour of the Buff Ware Vessels from Padri Based on

Munsell Soil Chart

418

4.96 Colour of the Gray Ware Vessels from Padri Based on

Munsell Soil Chart

419

4.97 Colour of the Black and Red Ware Vessels from Padri

Based on Munsell Soil Chart

420

4.98 Features of Graffiti on Ceramics from Padri 421

4.99 Surface Condition of Ceramics from Padri 422

4.100 Various Marks on Ceramics from Padri 423

xliii

4.101 Condition of Fracture of Ceramics from Padri 424

4.102 Inclusions in the Ceramics from Padri 425

4.103 Other Features of Ceramics from Padri 426

4.104 Trench-wise Distribution of Various Wares at

Datrana IV

434

4.105 Variation in the Size of Potsherds from Datrana IV 435

4.106 Distribution of Vessel parts of Various Pre-Prabhas

Wares at Datrana IV

436

4.107 Distribution of Various Vessel Types at Datrana IV 437

4.108 Diameter of Bases of Basins from Datrana IV 438

4.109 Diameter of the Rims of Bowls from Datrana IV 438

4.110 Diameter of the Rims of Dishes from Datrana IV 439

4.111 Diameter of the Bases of Pots from Datrana IV 440

4.112 Diameter of the Pot Rims from Datrana IV 441

4.113 External Finishing Technique of Ceramics from

Datrana IV

442

4.114 Internal Finishing Technique of Ceramics from

Datrana IV

443

4.115 Presence of Corrugation and Carination in Vessels

from Datrana IV

445

4.116 External Finishing Technique of Ceramics from

Datrana IV

446

4.117 Internal Finishing Technique of Ceramics from

Datrana IV

447

4.118 External Feel of Various Wares from Datrana IV 449

4.119 Internal Feel of Various Wares from Datrana IV 450

4.120 Decorations on Various Wares from Datrana IV 451

4.121 Type of Decorations on Vessels from Datrana IV 451

xliv

4.122 Position of Decorations on Various Wares from

Datrana IV

452

4.123 Texture Variation in Various Wares from Datrana IV 453

4.124 Texture Variation in Red Ware Vessel Types from

Datrana IV

454

4.125 Texture Variation in Black and Red Ware Vessel

Types from Datrana IV

454

4.126 Texture Variation in Gray Ware Vessel Types from

Datrana IV

455

4.127 Condition of the Core of Ceramics from Datrana IV 456

4.128 Colour of Gray Ware Potsherds from Datrana IV

Based on Munsell Chart

458

4.129 Colour of Black and Red Ware Potsherds from

Datrana IV Based on Munsell Chart

459

4.130 Colour of Red Ware Potsherds from Datrana IV Based

on Munsell Chart

460

4.131 External Surface Condition of the Potsherds from

Datrana IV

462

4.132 Internal Surface Condition of the Potsherds from

Datrana IV

463

4.133 Different Marks on the Ceramics from Datrana IV 464

4.134 Features of the Fracture of Potsherds from Datrana IV 465

4.135 Presence of Inclusions and Impurities in Potsherds

from Datrana IV

467

4.136 Other features of the Potsherds from Datrana IV 468

4.137 Layerwise Distribution of Ceramics from Vagad 482

4.138 Various Ceramic Wares from Vagad 483

4.139 Layer wise Distribution of Various Ceramic Wares

from Vagad

483

xlv

4.140 Vessel Parts of Various Wares from Vagad 484

4.141 Red Ware Sherds and Vessels from Vagad 485

4.142 Buff Ware Sherds from Vagad 486

4.143 Black and Red Ware Sherds from Vagad 487

4.144 Gray Ware Sherds from Vagad 488

4.145 Micaceous Red Ware Sherds from Vagad 489

4.146 Trench and Sub-square wise Distribution of

Micaceous Red Ware at Vagad

489

4.147 Layer wise Distribution of Micaceous Red Ware

Vessel Parts at Vagad

490

4.148 Layer wise Distribution of Micaceous Red Ware

Vessel Shapes at Vagad

490

4.149 Size Ratio of the Micaceous Red Ware Sherds from

Vagad

491

4.150 Diameter of Micaceous Red Ware Vessels from Vagad 492

4.151 Surface Condition of Micaceous Red Ware Vessels

from Vagad

493

4.152 Presence of Decoration on Micaceous Red Ware

Vessels from Vagad

494

4.153 Type of Design on Micaceous Red Ware Vessels from

Vagad

494

4.154 Position of Design on Micaceous Red Ware Vessels

from Vagad

495

4.155 External Surface Colour of Micaceous Red Ware

Vessels from Vagad

496

4.156 Internal Surface Colour of Micaceous Red Ware

Vessels from Vagad

496

4.157 Core Colour of Micaceous Red Ware Vessels from

Vagad

497

xlvi

4.158 External Slip Colour of Micaceous Red Ware Vessels

from Vagad

497

4.159 Internal Slip Colour of Micaceous Red Ware Vessels

from Vagad

498

4.160 External Paint Colour of Micaceous Red Ware Vessels

from Vagad

498

4.161 Internal Paint Colour of Micaceous Red Ware Vessels

from Vagad

499

4.162 Condition of the Core of Micaceous Red Ware Vessels

from Vagad

499

4.163 Fracture/Breakage of Micaceous Red Ware Vessels

from Vagad

500

4.164 Various Marks on Micaceous Red Ware Vessels from

Vagad

501

4.165 Trench and Phase wise Distribution of Shell and Shell

Objects at Vagad

503

4.166 Trench and Phase wise Distribution of Faience

Objects at Vagad

504

4.167 Stone Objects from Vagad 506

4.168 Terracotta Objects from Vagad 507

4.169 Variation in the Size of Sites in the Study Area

Around Padri

546

4.170 Variation in the Probable Maximum Deposit of Sites

in the Study Area Around Padri

546

4.171 Cultural Affiliation of Newly Explored/Revisitied

Sites Around Lothal

557

4.172 Distribution of Various Wares at Lothal 563

4.173 Distribution of Various Wares at Vadgam I 566

4.174 Distribution of Various Wares at Vadgam II 569

xlvii

4.175 Distribution of Various Red Ware Vessel Parts at

Jalampar

571

4.176 Distribution of Various Wares at Koth 573

4.177 Distribution of Various Red Ware Potsherds at Rojka 576

4.178 Distribution of Various Wares at Panasina 578

4.179 Distribution of Various Wares at Padana 581

4.180 Distribution of Various Wares at Balgamada 583

4.181 Distribution of Various Wares at Kharad I 586

4.182 Distribution of Various Wares at Kharad II 589

4.183 Distribution of Various Wares at Kotadiya 592

4.184 Distribution of Various Wares at Rangpur 595

4.185 Distribution of Micaceous Red Ware in Different Sites

in the Study Area Around Lothal

597

4.186 Variation in the Size of Sites in the Study Area

Around Lothal

598

4.187 Variation in the Probable Maximum Deposit of Sites


598

5.1 Animal Remains from Nagwada 619

5.2 Animal Remains from Somnath 633

5.3 Distribution of Micaceous Red Ware in Various Sites


646

xlviii

SYNOPSIS

Introduction

The main aim of this thesis is to bring out the origin, existence, characteristic

features, extent and dispersal of regional Chalcolithic cultures/traditions in Gujarat

in a comprehensive way. It further deals with identifying the similarities and

differences between Regional Chalcolithic cultures/traditions and Sindhi/Sorath

Harappans in Gujarat to understand the role played by these communities from

the Pre Urban Harappan Phase to the Post Urban Harappan Phase through the

Urban Harappan Phase. This study is based on the data acquired through

explorations carried out by the researcher in different sub-regions of Gujarat

followed by its analysis and reanalysis of the existing data generated by various

researchers (Sonawane and Mehta 1985; Dhavalikar and Possehl 1992; Shinde and

Bhagat-Kar 1992; Herman and Krishnan 1994; Dimri 1994; Sonawane and

Ajithprasad 1994; Bhan 1994; Shinde 1998; Ajithprasad 2002; Yadav 2005).

Besides, it also incorporates a comparison of the finds of the investigator with

those from various excavated sites in Gujarat.

Present State of Research

The beginning of Chalcolithic studies in Gujarat was an upshot of the

archaeological discoveries made at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro in modern Pakistan

during 1920s. Excavation at Vallabhipur in 1930 by Father Henry Heras marked

the beginning of Chalcolithic studies in Gujarat (Anderson and Afonso 1990;

Possehl 2008). Other Chalcolithic and Chalcolithic affiliated sites excavated prior

to 1947 in Gujarat include Bet Dwarka (Gaur and Sundaresh 2003), Rangpur (Vats

1936; Ghurye 1939; Dikshit 1950; Rao 1963) and Langhnaj (Sankalia 1965). After

the partition of India, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, the urban centers of Indus

Valley Civilization along with several other sites became the part of Pakistan

leaving two small excavated Harappan sites (Rangpur and Kotla Nihang Khan) in

India (Possehl 2002). This motivated various archaeological departments and

xlix

institutions to initiate frequent explorations along the northwestern parts of the

newly formed India to verify if there are more sites/settlements of the

contemporary period. This resulted in the discovery of several Chalcolithic sites

(more than 750 in Gujarat) having Harappan affiliation. As most of these sites in

Gujarat had elements of Harappan culture, without any doubt or second thought

they were labeled under the same and until the first half of 1980s all Chalcolithic

settlements of Gujarat were synonymous with the Harappan culture.

Regional Chalcolithic Cultures/Traditions

Excavations at Lothal (Rao 1985), Vagad (Sonawane and Mehta 1985), Nagwada

(Hegde et al. 1988), Loteshwar (Sonawane and Ajithprasad 1994; Bhan 1994),

Padri (Shinde 1992 a, 1992 b, 1998; Shinde and Bhagat-Kar 1992) Datrana

(Ajithprasad 2002) and Bagasra (Sonawane et al. 2004; Bhan et al. 2004);

explorations in North Gujarat and Saurashtra (Sonawane and Ajithprasad 1994;

Majumdar 1999; Paul et al. 1997; Paul and Shinde1998-99; Dimri 1999; Krishnan

and Dimri 2005) and re-analysis of ceramics from excavated sites of Saurashtra and

North Gujarat (Dhavalikar and Possehl 1992; Herman and Krishnan 1994) clearly

indicated the possibility of existence of regional Chalcolithic cultures/traditions

represented by Pre-Prabhas Assemblage (3000-2500 BC), Prabhas Ware (2299-

1769 BC), Anarta Tradition (3700-1700 BC), Padri Ware (3600-2000 BC) and

Micaceous Red Ware (2500-1600 BC) in Gujarat.

Problem of Study

Though, the indigenous Chalcolithic communities existed independently in early

stages of Pre Urban Harappan Phase (3700-3000 BC), archaeological data from

various excavated sites in Gujarat reveal their coexistence with Pre Urban

Harappans, Urban Harappans and Post Urban Harappans. Interestingly, co-

existence of various regional cultures in Gujarat with that of different stages of

Indus Civilization is not well explained yet. As per the current understanding,

cultural relations between Gujarat, Sindh and Baluchistan (Majumdar 1999)

l

started during later stage of Pre Urban Harappan Phase (circa. 3000 BC). The

evidences of these relations are reflected in the burial pottery. However, it is

difficult to find the roots of regional cultures within its contemporary cultural

communities in Sindh and Baluchistan. At the same time there is lack of evidence

to support the origin of indigenous Chalcolithic cultures or traditions within

Gujarat. Ceramics, the key artifact of regional Chalcolithic cultures/traditions are

different from those of Pre Urban Harappan Burial pottery (Majumdar 1999;

Ajithprasad 2002), Sindhi and Sorath Harappan (Possehl 1992) and Post Urban

Harappan Phase pottery (Bhan 1992) in Gujarat. In all studies till date, regional

cultures/traditions of Gujarat were defined in terms of pottery whereas several

other cultural aspects remain undefined. Therefore, it is imperative to have a

detailed study in these lines. To understand the regional Chalcolithic

cultures/traditions properly, it is necessary to assess their preceding and

contemporary cultures; its geographical and chronological extent and

characteristic features in Gujarat.

The major objectives of study are:

1. To systematically locate and record sites belonging to regional Chalcolithic

cultures through explorations in selected sub-regions.

2. To identify the distribution pattern of indigenous Chalcolithic sites in

Gujarat within specific geographical sub-regions.

3. To understand the chronological position of regional cultures/traditions in

Gujarat and to reconstruct cultural sequence and regional stratigraphy.

4. To define the nature of regional Chalcolithic settlements and investigate into

various aspects of its people and then compare them with various excavated

Harappan sites in Gujarat.

5. To investigate whether pottery types and associated finds from Chalcolithic

li

sites in Gujarat represent any regional cultures/traditions and define each

Chalcolithic ceramic types from typological point of view.

Organization of Thesis

The organization of the thesis is as follows:

Chapter 1: Introduction

This chapter briefly introduces the Chalcolithic cultures/traditions of Gujarat. This

includes the definition of title, key concepts, scope and meaning of present work.

A discussion of the present environmental condition of Gujarat incorporating a

detailed account of the geology, geomorphology, soils, drainage pattern, rainfall,

climate, mineral resources, flora and fauna will also be presented in this chapter.

This will finally define the objectives of thesis.

Chapter 2: Pre Urban Harappan to Post Urban Harappan: An Appraisal

This chapter incorporates a review of Chalcolithic studies in Gujarat since 1930s.

The aspects to be discussed here would include a review of various excavations,

explorations and a variety of studies conducted in Gujarat during the last 80 years.

This chapter will also look into various dating methods employed in Chalcolithic

Archaeology of Gujarat; its merits and demerits.

Chapter 3: Methods of Study

This chapter discusses various methods adopted during the study. It incorporates

details of exploration techniques, other data collection methods, macroscopic

studies and techniques of data analysis. The methods used for the classification and

periodization of sites will also form a part of this chapter.

Chapter 4: Results

This chapter comprises of three sections and presents the results of explorations,

re-analysis of ceramics and other artifacts from selected excavated sites and its

lii

comparison with those of other excavated sites. Different characteristic features of

Anarta Tradition, Pre-Prabhas Assemblage, Prabhas Assemblage, Padri Ware and

Micaceous Red Ware are discussed. Pottery and other artifacts from Loteshwar,

Datrana, Somnath, Padri and Vagad are studied in detail to understand regional

Chalcolithic people and recognize the changes underwent by them from the Pre

Urban Harappan Phase to the Urban Harappan Phase through the Urban

Harappan Phase. This chapter also deals with the distribution pattern of the

Chalcolithic sites in Gujarat along with its relative chronology as derived from the

data of previous researchers.

Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion

This chapter discusses the data given in the previous chapters with an aim to

resolve the objectives of research mentioned in the introductory chapter. In other

words, this chapter deals with fixing of chronology, identifying regional elements

and defining Chalcolithic cultures/traditions. A general outline of the important

observations made from the discussion and significant results of the present work

along with future scope for further work are also enumerated under conclusion.

Appendices

Volume Two contains various tables or data that will support the arguments and

propositions made in different chapters.

References

Ajithprasad, P. 2002. The Pre Harappan Cultures of Gujarat. S. Setter and R.

Korisetter (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect, Volume II:

Protohistory -Archaeology of the Harappan Civilization: 129-58.

New Delhi: Manohar Publishers and Distributors.

Anderson, B. and J. C. Afonso. 1990. H. Heras Indological Studies. New Delhi:

Promilla and Co.

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Bhan, K. K. 1992. Late Harappan Gujarat. The Eastern Anthropologist 45 (1-

2):173-92.

Bhan, K. K. 1994. Cultural Development of the Prehistoric period in North Gujarat

with Reference to Western India. South Asian Studies 10: 71-90.

Bhan, K. K., V. H. Sonawane, P. Ajithprasad and S. Pratapachandran. 2004.

Excavations of an Important Harappan Trading and Craft

Production Center at Gola Dhoro (Bagasra) on the Gulf of Kutch,

Gujarat, India. Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies in History and

Archaeology 1 (2): 153-58.

Dhavalikar, M. K. and G. L. Possehl. 1992. The Pre-Harappan Period at

PrabhasPatan and the Pre-Harappan Phase in Gujarat. Man and

Environment XVII (1): 72-78.

Dikshit, M. G. 1950. Excavations at Rangpur: 1947. Bulletin of the Deccan College

Research Institute 11 (1): 3-35.

Dimri, K. 1994. Ceramic Variability at Vagad with Special Emphasis to Micaceous

Red Ware: A Petrographic Approach. Unpublished M. A.

Dissertation, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History,

Vadodara: The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.

Dimri, K. 1999. Chalcolithic Settlements in the Bhogava and Sukha Bhadar Valley.

Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Archaeology and Ancient

History, Vadodara: The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.

Gaur, A. S. and Sundaresh. 2003. Onshore Excavation at Bet Dwarka Island, in the

Gulf of Kachchh, Gujarat. Man and Environment XXVIII (1): 57-66.

liv

Ghurye, G. S. 1939. Two Sites in Kathiawar. Journal of the University of Bombay 8

(1): 3-12.

Hegde, K.T.M., V.H. Sonawane, D.R. Shah, K.K. Bhan, P. Ajithprasad, K. Krishnan

and S. Pratapchandran. 1988. Excavation at Nagwada 1986 and 87:

A preliminary Report. Man and Environment XII: 55-65.

Herman, C. F. And K. Krishnan. 1994. Micaceous Red Ware: A Gujarat Proto-

Historic Cultural Complex or Just Ceramic?. A. Parpola and P.

Koskikallio (eds.), South Asian Archaeology 1993: 225-43. Helsinki:

Suomalainen Tiedaekatemia. Helsinki.

Krishnan, K. and K. Dimri. 2005. Exploration in the Lilka River-basin in

Saurashtra, Gujarat: A Preliminary Report. K. K. Chakravarty and

G.L. Badam (eds.), River Valley Cultures of India: 199-204. Bhopal

and New Delhi: Indira Gandhi Rshtriya Manav Sangrahalaya and

Aryan Books International.

Majumdar, A. 1999.A Ceramic Study of the Harappan Burials from North Gujarat.

Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Archaeology and Ancient

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Paul, A. B. and V. Shinde.1998-1999. Archaeological Investigations in the Lower

Shetrunji River Basin, District Bhavnagar, Gujarat. Bulletin of the

Deccan College 58-59: 141-48.

Paul, A. B., B. Tripathy and V. Shinde. 1997. New Archaeological Discoveries in

the Lower Shetrunji River Basin, Bhavnagar District, Gujarat. V. M.

Khanduri and V. Nautiyal (eds.). Him-Kanti: Archaeology, Art and

History, Prof. K. P. Nautiyal Felicitation Volume: 53-63. Delhi:

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Possehl, G. L. 1992. The Harappan Civilization in Gujarat: The Sorath and Sindhi

Harappans. The Eastern Anthropologist Volume 45: Indus

Civilization Special Number 1 and 2: 117-153.

Possehl, G. L. 2002. Fifty Years of Harappan Archaeology: The Study of the Indus

Civilization Since Indian Independence. S. Setter and R. Korisetter

(eds.) Indian Archaeology in Retrospect, Volume II: Protohistory -

Archaeology of the Harappan Civilization: 1-46. New Delhi:

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Possehl, G. L. 2008. The Harappan Settlement of Gujarat. E. C. Stone (ed.).

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India 18 and 19: 5-207.

Rao, S. R. 1985. Lothal A Harappan Port Town (1955-62). Memoirs of the

Archaeological Survey of India 78 Volume II. New Delhi:

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Sankalia, H. D. 1965. Excavations at Langhnaj 1944-63. Archaeology (Part

I).Poona: Deccan College Post-Graduate Research Institute.

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Envitronment XVII (1): 79-86.

Shinde, V. 1992 b. Padri and the Indus Civilization. South Asian Studies 8: 55-66.

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Shinde, V. 1998. Pre-HarappanPadri Culture in Saurashtra. South Asian Studies

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Shinde, V. and S. Bhagat-Kar. 1992. Padri Ware: a New Painted Ceramic Found in

the Harappan Levels at Padri in Gujarat. Man and Environment

XVII (2): 105-10.

Sonawane, V. H. and R. N. Mehta. 1985. Vagad A Rural Harappan Settlement in

Gujarat. Man and Environment IX: 38-44.

Sonawane, V. H. and P. Ajithprasad. 1994. Harappa Culture and Gujarat. Man and

Environment XX (1-2): 37-49.

Sonawane, V. H., P. Ajithprasad, K. K. Bhan, K. Krishnan, S. Pratapchandran, A.

Majumdar, A. K. Patel and J. Menon. 2004. Excavations at Bagasra

1996-2003: A Preliminary Report. Man and Environment XXVIII

(2): 21-50.

Vats, M. S. 1936. Trial Excavations at Rangpur, Limbdi State, Kathiawar. Annual

Report of the Archaeological Survey of India1934-35: 34-38.

Yadav, M. 2005. A Typological Study of Chalcolithic Ceramic Assemblage from

Loteshwar, North Gujarat. Unpublished M. A. Dissertation,

Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Vadodara: The

Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda.

lvii

STATEMENT I

(Statement showing the particulars, on which the work is based, the discovery of

new facts and of new relationships between facts observed by others and how the

work tends to help the general advancement of knowledge.)

Regional Chalcolithic cultures/traditions of Gujarat were mainly understood

through the ceramic data generated from explorations and excavations carried out

at different parts of Gujarat. However, a complete picture of these cultures could

not be reconstructed as the discussions of the previous researchers were based only

on one artifact type. With the changing perception and the recent trends in

Chalcolithic research in Gujarat, it was necessary to carry out a systematic study to

verify the identity of regional Cultures in Gujarat. This led to fresh explorations in

various parts of Gujarat, re-analysis of artifacts and compilation of all available

data. This has brought to light various results regarding regional Chalcolithic

cultures and they are as follows.

1. As of today the earliest agricultural or food processing communities of

Gujarat are the Mesolithic communities or the microliths using

communities. This is well proved through the excavations at the north

Gujarat sites.

2. The aforesaid Mesolithic communities or microlith using communities

formed the base for the development of indigenous Chalcolithic traditions

in Gujarat towards the beginning of the fourth millennium BC.

3. The earliest dated regional Chalcolithic culture/tradition in Gujarat is the

Anarta Tradition and chronometric date for the initial stages of this

tradition is 3700 BC.

4. The chronometric dates from the Pre Urban Harappan levels at Padri

lviii

(Padri Ware) also go back to c. 3700 BC, however, there is no evidence for

its antecedent culture within the site or its neighbourhood indicating an

evolutionary pattern.

5. It appears that at its beginning the Anarta tradition did not have any

contact with other Chalcolithic cultures for a long time (approximately 500

years as evident from its assemblage). This isolation needs to be addressed

in detail to explain the factors that led to the same.

6. Based on archaeological data and due to the discrepancies in c14 dates, the

proposition of stratigraphical break between Mesolithic and Chalcolithic

communities at Loteshwar needs revision.

7. While observing the distribution pattern of the Anarta sites in Gujarat, it is

seen that South Gujarat is completely devoid of this tradition and the

reasons for the same needs to be explored further.

8. Some of the Anarta vessels in form and the scheme and style of painted

decorations share common features with the Pre Urban Harappan ceramics

from Sindh region and Ghaggar basin.

9. One burial found during the excavations at Loteshwar without burial goods

appears to be the earliest Chalcolithic burial in Gujarat. From the limited

evidence available it appears that the regional Chalcolithic people disposed

their dead within the habitation area. This also calls for further detailed

investigation.

10. Another regional Chalcolithic tradition which appears to have originated

from the Mesolithic communities during the Pre Urban Harappan period is

Pre Prabhas ceramics using communities of Datrana IV. The ceramics from

lix

the site appears to be texturally inferior in its quality, indicating an

incipient stage of pottery production.

11. The Pre Prabhas ceramics using communities appears to have started

cultural contacts with the Pre Urban Harappans of Sindh region and Anarta

ceramics using community around 3200 BC or little later.

12. If the Chalcolithic community at Datrana IV appears to have evolved from

the Mesolithic community. The presence of Pre-Prabhas assemblage at the

site, which is older than the same in Somnath/PrabhasPatan is intriguing.

The possible explanation for this is that the inhabitants from the site may

have moved to Saurashtra after coming in touch with the Pre Urban

Harappans of Sindh region. Due to the absence of structures and the nature

of deposit, which is flimsy, many researchers consider Datrana as the

seasonal habitation/camp site of the pastoral nomads. But the evidences

suggest stone tool production at the site and an economy not entirely

dependant on pastoral activities. Therefore, it is possible to say that the

status of a full time settlement can be attributed to Datrana which

specialized in stone tool production.

13. The earliest evidence for the crested ridge blades in the Chalcolithic

context of Gujarat occurs in Datrana IV (c. 3200-2800 BC) and Somnath.

The Pre Urban Harappan Sindh type ceramics collected from various parts

of Gujarat were made using fast wheel. The crested ridge blades and fast

wheel made pottery in Gujarat may have been introduced by the Pre

Urban Harappans of Sindh region. It must be mentioned here that the Pre

Urban Harappan site at Datrana IV is the biggest stone tool production

centre so far known during Pre Urban Harappan time.

14. The vessels of regional Chalcolithic traditions/cultures like Anarta

lx

tradition, Pre Prabhas Assemblage, Padri Ware and Micaceous Red Ware

were made using hand or slow wheel/turn table.

15. A comparative study of ceramics of Anarta tradition and Padri indicate that

similarities are very few in shapes and decorations, while differences are

pronounced. Therefore the use of Padri/Anarta Cultural Complex is

irrelevant and meaningless.

16. The relative dates suggested for different periods of Padri require a

reappraisal.

17. Among the Chalcolithic cultures/traditions, Anarta tradition (3700-1900

BC) and Padri ware (3700-1700 BC) show an extensive time span, while the

Pre-Prabhas assemblage (3200-2600 BC), Prabhas Ware (2300-1700 BC)

and Micaceous Red Ware (2600-1600 BC) have shorter time span. Pre-

Prabhas assemblage probably vanished by the Urban Harappan Period.

18. The artefacts those can be clearly labelled as belonging to regional

communities and differentiable from Harappans are ceramics. It is almost

impossible to classify other artefacts as there are no clear-cut differences

from those of Harappans. These artefacts include steatite beads; terracotta

objects, i.e., pellets, spindle whorls, perforated discs, beads and pinched

cakes; stone blades, rubber stones, grinding stones, querns and hammer

stones; and shell beads and bangles.

19. Though, the regional ceramic types show a geographical boundary for their

distribution, their influence at a minor level are often seen in areas far

away from their core region of occurrence. In a simplistic way this may be

explained as due to migrations/moving communities that led to inter

site/inter regional relationships.

lxi

20. In sites like Bagasra and Lothal, quantity of regional ceramics are much

more than Harappan pottery in the initial stages, however at Bagasra and

Lothal during later stages and at Shikarpur from the beginning, the

Harappan ceramics outnumber the regional types in quantity along with

other materials. These may be viewed as an indication of integration of

indigenous Chalcolithic communities into Harappan culture.

21. The availability of Micaceous Red Ware in limited quantities at Lohumjo-

Daro and Shimal cannot be considered as the result of major inter-regional

trade relations as the evidences from both the sites are very scanty.

22. Based on the chronometric and relative dates of artefacts from various

excavated and explored Chalcolithic sites in Gujarat, the Chalcolithic phase

in the region can be dated between c. 3700-900 BC. At North Gujarat and

Saurashtra the Chalcolithic period is datable from c. 3700-1400 BC, at

Kachchh between 3200-1400 BC and at South Gujarat between 2600-900

BC.

lxii

STATEMENT II

(Statement indicating the sources of information and the extent to which the

thesis is based on the work of others and the portion of the thesis claimed as

original.)

The study is based on artifacts (movable and immovable) and other related data

collected from archaeological sites in Gujarat through systematic explorations and

excavations. This data includes information on fauna, flora, climate and landforms.

Published books, reports, reviews and articles on previous researches in Gujarat

helped in understanding the environmental and archaeological aspects,

formulating strategies of exploration, data collection, artifact analysis and data

analysis. For comparison and correlation of artifact data, excavation reports of Bet

Dwarka, Dhatva, Jokha, Kanewal, Kuntasi, Langhnaj, Lothal, Malvan, Nageswar,

OriyoTimbo, Rangpur, Rojdi, Somnath and Surkotada were referred. Following is

the list of selected references consulted for this study.

Ajithprasad, P. 2002. The Pre Harappan Cultures of Gujarat. S. Setter and R.

Korisetter (eds.), Indian Archaeology in Retrospect, Volume II:

Protohistory -Archaeology of the Harappan Civilization: 129-58.

New Delhi: Manohar Publishers and Distributors.

Allchin, F. R. and J. P. Joshi. 1995. Excavations at Malvan. Memoirs of the

Archaeological Survey of India 92.New Delhi: Archaeological

Survey of India.

Bhan, K.K. 1989. Late Harappan Settlements of Western India with Specific

Reference to Gujarat. J. M. Kenoyer (ed.), Old Problems and New

perspectives in the Archaeology of South Asia: 219-242. Madison:

Wisconsin Archaeological Reports.

lxiii

Bhan, K. K. 1994. Cultural Development of the Prehistoric period in North Gujarat

with Reference to Western India. South Asian Studies 10: 71-90.

Bhan, K. K., V. H. Sonawane, P. Ajithprasad and S. Pratapachandran. 2004.

Excavations of an Important Harappan Trading and Craft

Production Center at Gola Dhoro (Bagasra) on the Gulf of Kutch,

Gujarat, India. Journal of Interd

gujarat

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