indian rebellion of 1857 - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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10/3/2015 Indian Rebellion of 1857 Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857 1/39 The Indian Rebellion of 1857 A 1912 map showing the centres of rebellion Date 10 May 1857 – 20 June 1858 (1 year, 1 month, 2 weeks and 5 days) Location India Result British victory Suppression of the rebellion End of the Mughal and Maratha Empires End of Company rule in India Transfer of rule to the British Crown Territorial changes British Indian Empire created out of former East India Company territory (some land returned to native rulers, other land confiscated by the British crown) Belligerents Sepoy Mutineers Mughal Empire Gwalior factions Forces of British Empire East India Company 21 Princely States: Indian Rebellion of 1857 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Sepoy Mutiny" redirects here. For other uses, see Sepoy Mutiny (disambiguation). The Indian Rebellion of 1857 refers to a rebellion in India against the rule of the East India Company, that ran from May 1857 to June 1858. The rebellion began as a mutiny of sepoys of the East India Company's army on 10 May 1857, in the cantonment of the town of Meerut, and soon escalated into other mutinies and civilian rebellions largely in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, with the major hostilities confined to presentday Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, northern Madhya Pradesh, and the Delhi region. [2] The rebellion posed a considerable threat to East India Company power in that region, [3] and was contained only with the fall of Gwalior on 20 June 1858. [2] The rebellion is also known as India's First War of Independence, the Great Rebellion, the Indian Rebellion, the Indian Mutiny, the Revolt of 1857, the Rebellion of 1857, the Uprising of 1857, the Sepoy Rebellion, the Indian Insurrection and the Sepoy Mutiny. Other regions of Companycontrolled India, such as Bengal, the Bombay Presidency, and the Madras Presidency, remained largely calm. [2] In Punjab, the Sikh princes backed the Company by providing soldiers and support. [2] The large princely states of Hyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, did not join the rebellion. [4] In some regions, such as Oudh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against European presence. [5] Maratha leaders, such as Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi, became folk heroes in the nationalist movement in India half a century later. [2] The rebellion led to the dissolution of the East India Company in 1858. It also led the British to reorganise the army, the financial system and the administration in India. [6] The country was thereafter directly governed by the crown as the new British Raj. [4] Contents

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Page 1: Indian Rebellion of 1857 - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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The Indian Rebellion of 1857

A 1912 map showing the centres of rebellion

Date 10 May 1857 – 20 June 1858(1 year, 1 month, 2 weeks and5 days)

Location India

ResultBritish victory

Suppression of the rebellionEnd of the Mughal andMaratha EmpiresEnd of Company rule in IndiaTransfer of rule to the BritishCrown

Territorialchanges

British Indian Empire created out offormer East India Company territory(some land returned to native rulers,other land confiscated by the Britishcrown)

Belligerents Sepoy

MutineersMughal Empire

Gwaliorfactions

Forces of

BritishEmpire

East IndiaCompany21 Princely States:

Indian Rebellion of 1857From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Sepoy Mutiny" redirects here. For other uses, see Sepoy Mutiny (disambiguation).

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 refers to a rebellion inIndia against the rule of the East India Company, thatran from May 1857 to June 1858. The rebellion beganas a mutiny of sepoys of the East India Company'sarmy on 10 May 1857, in the cantonment of the townof Meerut, and soon escalated into other mutinies andcivilian rebellions largely in the upper Gangetic plainand central India, with the major hostilities confined topresent­day Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, northern MadhyaPradesh, and the Delhi region.[2] The rebellion posed aconsiderable threat to East India Company power inthat region,[3] and was contained only with the fall ofGwalior on 20 June 1858.[2] The rebellion is alsoknown as India's First War of Independence, theGreat Rebellion, the Indian Rebellion, the IndianMutiny, the Revolt of 1857, the Rebellion of 1857,the Uprising of 1857, the Sepoy Rebellion, the IndianInsurrection and the Sepoy Mutiny.

Other regions of Company­controlled India, such asBengal, the Bombay Presidency, and the MadrasPresidency, remained largely calm.[2] In Punjab, theSikh princes backed the Company by providingsoldiers and support.[2] The large princely states ofHyderabad, Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as wellas the smaller ones of Rajputana, did not join therebellion.[4] In some regions, such as Oudh, therebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revoltagainst European presence.[5] Maratha leaders, such asLakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi, became folk heroes inthe nationalist movement in India half a centurylater.[2]

The rebellion led to the dissolution of the East IndiaCompany in 1858. It also led the British to reorganisethe army, the financial system and the administration inIndia.[6] The country was thereafter directly governedby the crown as the new British Raj.[4]

Contents

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Rani Laxmi bai,the deposed rulerof Jhansi

Forces ofNana SahibPeshwa

Followers ofBirjis Qadra

Oudh

Ajaigarh Alwar Bharathpur Bhopal Bijawar Bikaner Bundi Hyderabad Jaipur Jaora Jodhpur Kapurthala Kashmir Kendujhar Nabha Patiala Rampur Rewa Sirmur Sirohi Udaipur

Kingdom of Nepal

Commanders and leaders Bakht Khan

Bahadur Shah II Nana Sahib Tatya Tope

RaniLakshmibai

BegumHazrat Mahal

Birjis QadrBabu KunwarSinghDrig NarayanSingh

Commander­in­Chief:

GeorgeAnson(to May 1857)

Patrick Grant Colin

Campbell(from August 1857)

Jung Bahadur

Rana[1]

Contents

1 East India Company's expansion in India2 Causes of the rebellion

2.1 Tallow and lard­greased cartridges2.2 Civilian disquiet2.3 The Bengal Army

3 Onset of the Rebellion3.1 Mangal Pandey3.2 April 18573.3 Meerut3.4 Delhi

4 Support and opposition5 The Revolt

5.1 Initial stages5.2 Delhi5.3 Cawnpore5.4 Lucknow5.5 Jhansi

5.5.1 Indore5.6 Other regions

5.6.1 Punjab5.6.2 Jaunpur5.6.3 Arrah

5.7 British Empire6 Aftermath

6.1 Reaction in Britain6.2 Reorganisation6.3 Military reorganisation6.4 Awards

7 Nomenclature8 Historiography9 The 150th anniversary10 In popular culture

10.1 Films10.2 Theatre10.3 Literature

11 See also12 Notes13 References

13.1 Text­books and academicmonographs13.2 Articles in journals and collections13.3 Other histories13.4 First person accounts and classichistories13.5 Tertiary sources13.6 Fictional and narrative literature

14 External links

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India in 1837 and 1857 showing EastIndia Company (pink) and otherterritories

East India Company's expansion in India

Main article: Company rule in India

Although the British East India Company had established a presencein India as far back as 1612,[7] and earlier administered the factoryareas established for trading purposes, its victory in the Battle ofPlassey in 1757 marked the beginning of its firm foothold in EasternIndia. The victory was consolidated in 1764 at the Battle of Buxar,when the East India Company army defeated Mughal emperor, ShahAlam II. After his defeat, the Mughal Emperor granted theCompany the right for "collection of Revenue" in the provinces ofBengal, Bihar, and Odisha known as "Diwani" to the Company. TheCompany soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombayand Madras and, later, the Anglo­Mysore Wars (1766–1799) and theAnglo­Maratha Wars (1772–1818) led to control of the vast regionsof India.

In 1806 the Vellore Mutiny was sparked by new uniform regulations that created resentment amongst bothHindu and Muslim sepoys.[8]

After the turn of the 19th century, Governor­General Wellesley began what became two decades ofaccelerated expansion of Company territories.[9] This was achieved either by subsidiary alliances betweenthe Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary alliances created the princelystates or native states of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs.

Punjab, North­West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed after the Second Anglo­Sikh War in1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the Treaty of Amritsar (1846) to the Dogra Dynastyof Jammu and thereby became a princely state. The border dispute between Nepal and British India, whichsharpened after 1801, had caused the Anglo­Nepalese War of 1814–16 and brought the defeated Gurkhasunder British influence. In 1854, Berar was annexed, and the state of Oudh was added two years later. Forpractical purposes, the Company was the government of much of India.

Causes of the rebellion

Main article: Causes of the Indian Rebellion of 1857

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 occurred as the result of an accumulation of factors over time, rather than anysingle event.

The sepoys were local soldiers, the majority Hindu or Muslim, that were recruited into the Company's army.Just before the Rebellion there were over 300,000 sepoys in the army, compared to about 50,000 British.The forces were divided into three presidency armies: Bombay, Madras, and Bengal. The Bengal Armyrecruited higher castes, such as "Rajputs and Bhumihar, mostly from the Awadh and Bihar regions and evenrestricted the enlistment of lower castes in 1855. In contrast, the Madras Army and Bombay Army were"more localized, caste­neutral armies" that "did not prefer high­caste men."[10] The domination of highercastes in the Bengal Army has been blamed in part for initial mutinies that led to the rebellion.

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Two sepoy officers; a privatesepoy, 1820s

In 1772, when Warren Hastings was appointed India's first Governor­General, one of his first undertakings was the rapid expansion of theCompany’s army. Since the sepoys from Bengal – many of whom hadfought against the Company in the Battles of Plassey and Buxar – werenow suspect in British eyes, Hastings recruited farther west from the high­caste rural Rajputs and Bhumihar Brahmins of Awadh and Bihar, apractice that continued for the next 75 years. However, in order to forestallany social friction, the Company also took pains to adapt its militarypractices to the requirements of their religious rituals. Consequently, thesesoldiers dined in separate facilities; in addition, overseas service,considered polluting to their caste, was not required of them, and the armysoon came officially to recognise Hindu festivals. "This encouragement ofhigh caste ritual status, however, left the government vulnerable to protest,even mutiny, whenever the sepoys detected infringement of theirprerogatives."[11]

It has been suggested that after the annexation of Oudh (Awadh) by the East India Company in 1856, manysepoys were disquieted both from losing their perquisites, as landed gentry, in the Oudh courts and from theanticipation of any increased land­revenue payments that the annexation might bring about.[12] Others havestressed that by 1857, some Indian soldiers, reading the presence of missionaries as a sign of official intent,were convinced that the Company was masterminding mass conversions of Hindus and Muslims toChristianity.[13] Although earlier in the 1830s, evangelicals such as William Carey and William Wilberforcehad successfully clamoured for the passage of social reform such as the abolition of sati and allowing theremarriage of Hindu widows, there is little evidence that the sepoys' allegiance was affected by this.[12]

However, changes in the terms of their professional service may have created resentment. As the extent ofthe East India Company's jurisdiction expanded with victories in wars or with annexation, the soldiers werenow expected not only to serve in less familiar regions, such as in Burma, but also to make do without the"foreign service" remuneration that had previously been their due.[14]

A major cause of resentment that arose ten months prior to the outbreak of the Rebellion was the GeneralService Enlistment Act of 25 July 1856. As noted above, men of the Bengal Army had been exempted fromoverseas service. Specifically they were enlisted only for service in territories to which they could march.Governor­General Lord Dalhousie saw this as an anomaly, since all sepoys of the Madras and BombayArmies and the six "General Service" battalions of the Bengal Army had accepted an obligation to serveoverseas if required. As a result, the burden of providing contingents for active service in Burma, readilyaccessible only by sea, and China had fallen disproportionately on the two smaller Presidency Armies. Assigned into effect by Lord Canning, Dalhousie's successor as Governor­General, the Act required only newrecruits to the Bengal Army to accept a commitment for general service. However, serving high­castesepoys were fearful that it would be eventually extended to them, as well as preventing sons followingfathers into an Army with a strong tradition of family service.[15]

There were also grievances over the issue of promotions, based on seniority. This, as well as the increasingnumber of European officers in the battalions,[16] made promotion a slow progress, and many Indianofficers did not reach commissioned rank until they were too old to be effective.[17]

Tallow and lard­greased cartridges

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The final spark was provided by the ammunition for the new Pattern 1853 Enfield Rifle.[18] These rifles,which fired Minié balls, had a tighter fit than the earlier muskets, and used paper cartridges that came pre­greased. To load the rifle, sepoys had to bite the cartridge open to release the powder.[19] The grease usedon these cartridges was rumoured to include tallow derived from beef, which would be offensive toHindus,[20] and pork, which would be offensive to Muslims. At least one Company official pointed out thedifficulties this may cause:

unless it be proven that the grease employed in these cartridges is not of a nature to offend orinterfere with the prejudices of caste, it will be expedient not to issue them for test to Nativecorps.[21]

However, in August 1856, greased cartridge production was initiated at Fort William, Calcutta, following aBritish design. The grease used included tallow supplied by the Indian firm of Gangadarh Banerji & Co.[22]By January, rumours were abroad that the Enfield cartridges were greased with animal fat.

Company officers became aware of the rumours through reports of an altercation between a high­castesepoy and a low­caste labourer at Dum Dum.[23] The labourer had taunted the sepoy that by biting thecartridge, he had himself lost caste, although at this time such cartridges had been issued only at Meerut andnot at Dum Dum.[24] There had been rumours that the British sought to destroy the religions of the Indianpeople, and forcing the native soldiers to break their sacred code would have certainly added to this rumour,as it apparently did. The Company was quick to reverse the effects of this policy in hopes that the Indianswould be quelled.[25][26]

On 27 January, Colonel Richard Birch, the Military Secretary, ordered that all cartridges issued from depotswere to be free from grease, and that sepoys could grease them themselves using whatever mixture "theymay prefer".[27] A modification was also made to the drill for loading so that the cartridge was torn with thehands and not bitten. This however, merely caused many sepoys to be convinced that the rumours were trueand that their fears were justified. Additional rumours started that the paper in the new cartridges, whichwas glazed and stiffer than the previously used paper, was impregnated with grease.[28] In February, a courtof inquiry was held at Barrackpore to get to the bottom of these rumours. Native soldiers called as witnessescomplained of the paper "being stiff and like cloth in the mode of tearing", said that when the paper wasburned it smelled of grease, and announced that the suspicion that the paper itself contained grease couldnot be removed from their minds.[29]

Civilian disquiet

The civilian rebellion was more multifarious. The rebels consisted of three groups: the feudal nobility, rurallandlords called taluqdars, and the peasants. The nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains underthe Doctrine of Lapse, which refused to recognise the adopted children of princes as legal heirs, felt that theCompany had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as Nana Sahib and theRani of Jhansi belonged to this group; the latter, for example, was prepared to accept East India Companysupremacy if her adopted son was recognised as her late husband's heir.[30] In other areas of central India,such as Indore and Saugar, where such loss of privilege had not occurred, the princes remained loyal to theCompany even in areas where the sepoys had rebelled.[31] The second group, the taluqdars, had lost half

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their landed estates to peasant farmers as a result of the land reforms that came in the wake of annexation ofOudh. As the rebellion gained ground, the taluqdars quickly reoccupied the lands they had lost, andparadoxically, in part because of ties of kinship and feudal loyalty, did not experience significant oppositionfrom the peasant farmers, many of whom joined the rebellion, to the great dismay of the British.[32] It hasalso been suggested that heavy land­revenue assessment in some areas by the British resulted in manylandowning families either losing their land or going into great debt with money lenders, and providingultimately a reason to rebel; money lenders, in addition to the Company, were particular objects of therebels' animosity.[33] The civilian rebellion was also highly uneven in its geographic distribution, even inareas of north­central India that were no longer under British control. For example, the relativelyprosperous Muzaffarnagar district, a beneficiary of a Company irrigation scheme, and next door to Meerut,where the upheaval began, stayed mostly calm throughout.[34]

Charles Canning, theGovernor­General ofIndia during the

rebellion.

Lord Dalhousie, theGovernor­General ofIndia from 1848 to

1856, who devised theDoctrine of Lapse.

Lakshmibai, The Raniof Maratha­ruledJhansi, one of the

principal leaders of therebellion who earlierhad lost her kingdomas a result of theDoctrine of Lapse.

Bahadur Shah Zafarthe last Mughal

Emperor, crownedEmperor of India, bythe Indian troops, hewas deposed by theBritish, and died inexile in Burma

Much of the resistance to the Company came from the old aristocracy, who were seeing their powersteadily eroded. The company had annexed several states under the Doctrine of Lapse, according to whichland belonging to a feudal ruler became the property of the East India Company if on his death, the ruler didnot leave a male heir through natural process. It had long been the custom for a childless landowner toadopt an heir, but the East India Company ignored this tradition. Nobility, feudal landholders, and royalarmies found themselves unemployed and humiliated because of Company expansionism. Even the jewelsof the royal family of Nagpur were publicly auctioned in Calcutta, a move that was seen as a sign of abjectdisrespect by the remnants of the Indian aristocracy. Lord Dalhousie, the Governor­General of India, hadasked the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar and his successors to leave the Red Fort, the palace inDelhi. Later, Lord Canning, the next Governor­General of India, announced in 1856 that Bahadur Shah'ssuccessors would not even be allowed to use the title of 'king'. Such discourtesies were resented by thedeposed Indian rulers.

"Utilitarian and evangelical­inspired social reform",[35] including the abolition of sati[36][37] and thelegalisation of widow remarriage were considered by many—especially the British themselves[38]—to havecaused suspicion that Indian religious traditions were being "interfered with", with the ultimate aim of

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Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, founder ofthe Muhammedan Anglo­OrientalCollege, later the Aligarh MuslimUniversity, wrote one of the earlycritiques, The Causes of the IndianMutiny, in 1859.

conversion.[38][39] Recent historians, including Chris Bayly, have preferred to frame this as a "clash ofknowledges", with proclamations from religious authorities before the revolt and testimony after itincluding on such issues as the "insults to women", the rise of "low persons under British tutelage", the"pollution" caused by Western medicine and the persecuting andignoring of traditional astrological authorities.[40] European­runschools were also a problem: according to recorded testimonies,anger had spread because of stories that mathematics was replacingreligious instruction, stories were chosen that would "bringcontempt" upon Indian religions, and because girl children wereexposed to "moral danger" by education.[40]

The justice system was considered to be inherently unfair to theIndians. The official Blue Books, East India (Torture) 1855–1857,laid before the House of Commons during the sessions of 1856 and1857 revealed that Company officers were allowed an extendedseries of appeals if convicted or accused of brutality or crimesagainst Indians.

The economic policies of the East India Company were alsoresented by many Indians.[41]

The Bengal Army

Each of the three "Presidencies" into which the East India Companydivided India for administrative purposes maintained their ownarmies. Of these, the Army of the Bengal Presidency was thelargest. Unlike the other two, it recruited heavily from among high­caste Hindus, and comparativelywealthy Muslims. The Muslims formed a larger percentage of the eighteen irregular cavalry units[42] withinthe Bengal army, whilst Hindus were mainly to be found in the eighty­four regular infantry and cavalryregiments. The sepoys were therefore affected to a large degree by the concerns of the landholding andtraditional members of Indian society. In the early years of the Company rule, it tolerated and evenencouraged the caste privileges and customs within the Bengal Army, which recruited its regular soldiersalmost exclusively amongst the landowning Bhumihar Brahmins and Rajputs of the Ganges Valley. By thetime these customs and privileges came to be threatened by modernising regimes in Calcutta from the1840s onwards, the sepoys had become accustomed to very high ritual status, and were extremely sensitiveto suggestions that their caste might be polluted.[43]

The sepoys also gradually became dissatisfied with various other aspects of army life. Their pay wasrelatively low and after Awadh and the Punjab were annexed, the soldiers no longer received extra pay(batta or bhatta) for service there, because they were no longer considered "foreign missions". The juniorEuropean officers were increasingly estranged from their soldiers, in many cases treating them as theirracial inferiors. In 1856, a new Enlistment Act was introduced by the Company, which in theory madeevery unit in the Bengal Army liable to service overseas. Although it was intended to apply to only newrecruits, the serving sepoys feared that the Act might be applied retroactively to them as well.[44] A high­caste Hindu who travelled in the cramped, conditions of a wooden troop ship could not cook his own foodon his own fire and accordingly risked losing caste through ritual pollution.[45]

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Indian Mutiny Map Showing Position of Troops on1st May 1857

Mangal Pandey

Onset of the Rebellion

Several months of increasing tensions coupled withvarious incidents preceded the actual rebellion. On 26February 1857 the 19th Bengal Native Infantry (BNI)regiment became concerned that new cartridges theyhad been issued were wrapped in paper greased withcow and pig fat, which had to be opened by mouth thusaffecting their religious sensibilities. Their Colonelconfronted them supported by artillery and cavalry onthe parade ground, but after some negotiation withdrewthe artillery, and cancelled the next morning'sparade.[46]

Mangal Pandey

Main article: Mangal Pandey

On 29 March 1857 at the Barrackpore parade ground, near Calcutta, 29­year­old Mangal Pandey of the 34th BNI, angered by the recent actions ofthe East India Company, declared that he would rebel against hiscommanders. Informed about Pandey's behaviour Sergeant­Major JamesHewson went to investigate, only to have Pandey shoot at him. Hewsonraised the alarm.[47] When his adjutant Lt. Henry Baugh came out toinvestigate the unrest, Pandey opened fire but hit Baugh's horse instead.[48]

General John Hearsey came out to the parade ground to investigate, andclaimed later that Mangal Pandey was in some kind of "religious frenzy".He ordered the Indian commander of the quarter guard Jemadar IshwariPrasad to arrest Mangal Pandey, but the Jemadar refused. The quarter guardand other sepoys present, with the single exception of a soldier calledShaikh Paltu, drew back from restraining or arresting Mangal Pandey.Shaikh Paltu restrained Pandey from continuing his attack.[48][49]

After failing to incite his comrades into an open and active rebellion,Mangal Pandey tried to take his own life, by placing his musket to his chest and pulling the trigger with histoe. He managed only to wound himself, and he was court­martialled on 6 April and hanged on 8 April.

The Jemadar Ishwari Prasad was sentenced to death and hanged on 22 April. The regiment was disbandedand stripped of its uniforms because it was felt that it harboured ill­feelings towards its superiors,particularly after this incident. Shaikh Paltu was promoted to the rank of Jemadar in the Bengal Army.

Sepoys in other regiments thought these punishments were harsh. The demonstration of disgrace during theformal disbanding helped foment the rebellion in view of some historians. Disgruntled ex­sepoys returnedhome to Awadh with a desire for revenge.

April 1857

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An 1858 photograph by Felice Beatoof a mosque in Meerut where some ofthe rebel soldiers may have prayed

During April, there was unrest and fires at Agra, Allahabad and Ambala. At Ambala in particular, whichwas a large military cantonment where several units had been collected for their annual musketry practice,it was clear to General Anson, Commander­in­Chief of the Bengal Army, that some sort of rebellion overthe cartridges was imminent. Despite the objections of the civilian Governor­General's staff, he agreed topostpone the musketry practice and allow a new drill by which the soldiers tore the cartridges with theirfingers rather than their teeth. However, he issued no general orders making this standard practicethroughout the Bengal Army and, rather than remain at Ambala to defuse or overawe potential trouble, hethen proceeded to Simla, the cool "hill station" where many high officials spent the summer.

Although there was no open revolt at Ambala, there was widespread arson during late April. Barrackbuildings (especially those belonging to soldiers who had used the Enfield cartridges) and Europeanofficers' bungalows were set on fire.[50]

Meerut

At Meerut was another large military cantonment where 2,357Indian sepoys and 2,038 British soldiers were stationed, with 12British­manned guns. The station held one of the largestconcentrations of British troops in India and this was later to becited as evidence that the original rising was a spontaneous outbreakrather than a pre­planned plot.[51]

Although the state of unrest within the Bengal Army was wellknown, on 24 April Lieutenant Colonel George Carmichael­Smyth,the unsympathetic commanding officer of the 3rd Bengal LightCavalry, ordered 90 of his men to parade and perform firing drills.All except five of the men on parade refused to accept theircartridges. On 9 May, the remaining 85 men were court martialled,and most were sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment with hard labour. Eleven comparatively young soldierswere given five years' imprisonment. The entire garrison was paraded and watched as the condemned menwere stripped of their uniforms and placed in shackles. As they were marched off to jail, the condemnedsoldiers berated their comrades for failing to support them.

The next day was Sunday, the Christian day of rest and worship. Some Indian soldiers warned off­dutyjunior European officers that plans were afoot to release the imprisoned soldiers by force, but the seniorofficers to whom this was reported in turn took no action. There was also unrest in the city of Meerut itself,with angry protests in the bazaar and some buildings being set on fire. In the evening, most Europeanofficers were preparing to attend church, while many of the European soldiers were off duty and had goneinto canteens or into the bazaar in Meerut. The Indian troops, led by the 3rd Cavalry, broke into revolt.European junior officers who attempted to quell the first outbreaks were killed by their own men. Europeanofficers' and civilians' quarters were attacked, and four civilian men, eight women and eight children werekilled. Crowds in the bazaar attacked the off­duty soldiers there. About 50 Indian civilians, some officers'servants who tried to defend or conceal their employers, were also killed by the sepoys.[47]

The sepoys freed their 85 imprisoned comrades from the jail, along with 800 other prisoners.[52]

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The Flagstaff Tower, Delhi, wherethe European survivors of therebellion gathered on 11 May 1857;photographed by Felice Beato

Some sepoys (especially from the 11th Bengal Native Infantry) escorted trusted British officers and womenand children to safety before joining the revolt.[53] Some officers and their families escaped to Rampur,where they found refuge with the Nawab.

The senior Company officers, in particular Major General Hewitt, the commander of the division, wereslow to react. The British troops, mainly the 1st Battalion of the 60th Rifles, the 6th Dragoon Guards andtwo European­manned batteries of the Bengal Artillery, rallied, but received no orders to engage therebellious sepoys and could only guard their own headquarters and armouries. On the following morningwhen they prepared to attack, they found Meerut was quiet and that the rebels had marched off to Delhi.

The British historian Philip Mason notes that it was inevitable that most of the sepoys and sowars fromMeerut should have made for Delhi on the night of 10 May. It was a strong walled city located only fortymiles away, it was the ancient capital and present seat of the Mughal Emperor and finally there were noBritish troops in garrison there in contrast to Meerut.[51] No effort was made to pursue them.

Delhi

Early on 11 May, the first parties of the 3rd Cavalry reached Delhi. From beneath the windows of theKing's apartments in the palace, they called on him to acknowledge and lead them. Bahadur Shah didnothing at this point, apparently treating the sepoys as ordinary petitioners, but others in the palace werequick to join the revolt. During the day, the revolt spread. European officials and dependents, IndianChristians and shop keepers within the city were killed, some by sepoys and others by crowds of rioters.[54]

There were three battalions of Bengal Native Infantry stationed in ornear the city. Some detachments quickly joined the rebellion, whileothers held back but also refused to obey orders to take actionagainst the rebels. In the afternoon, a violent explosion in the citywas heard for several miles. Fearing that the arsenal, whichcontained large stocks of arms and ammunition, would fall intactinto rebel hands, the nine British Ordnance officers there hadopened fire on the sepoys, including the men of their own guard.When resistance appeared hopeless, they blew up the arsenal.Although six of the nine officers survived, the blast killed many inthe streets and nearby houses and other buildings.[55] The news ofthese events finally tipped the sepoys stationed around Delhi intoopen rebellion. The sepoys were later able to salvage at least somearms from the arsenal, and a magazine two miles (3 km) outsideDelhi, containing up to 3,000 barrels of gunpowder, was captured without resistance.

Many fugitive European officers and civilians had congregated at the Flagstaff Tower on the ridge north ofDelhi, where telegraph operators were sending news of the events to other British stations. When it becameclear that the help expected from Meerut was not coming, they made their way in carriages to Karnal.Those who became separated from the main body or who could not reach the Flagstaff Tower also set outfor Karnal on foot. Some were helped by villagers on the way, others were killed.

The next day, Bahadur Shah held his first formal court for many years. It was attended by many excitedsepoys. The King was alarmed by the turn events had taken, but eventually accepted the sepoys' allegianceand agreed to give his countenance to the rebellion. On 16 May, up to 50 Europeans who had been held

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Troops of the Native Allies

States during the rebellion

prisoner in the palace or had been discovered hiding in the city were killed by some of the King's servantsunder a peepul tree in a courtyard outside the palace.[56][57]

Support and opposition

The news of the events at Delhi spread rapidly, provoking uprisingsamong sepoys and disturbances in many districts. In many cases, itwas the behaviour of British military and civilian authoritiesthemselves which precipitated disorder. Learning of the fall of Delhiby telegraph, many Company administrators hastened to removethemselves, their families and servants to places of safety. At Agra,160 miles (260 km) from Delhi, no less than 6,000 assorted non­combatants converged on the Fort.[58] The haste with which manycivilians left their posts encouraged rebellions in the areas they left,although others remained at their posts until it was clearlyimpossible to maintain any sort of order. Several weremurdered by rebels.

The military authorities also reacted in disjointed manner.Some officers trusted their sepoys, but others tried to disarmthem to forestall potential uprisings. At Benares and Allahabad,the disarmings were bungled, also leading to local revolts.[59]

Although rebellion became widespread, there was little unityamong the rebels. While Bahadur Shah Zafar was restored tothe imperial throne there was a faction that wanted the Maratharulers to be enthroned also, and the Awadhis wanted to retainthe powers that their Nawab used to have.

There were calls for jihad[60] by Muslim leaders like MaulanaFazl­e­Haq Khairabadi and the millenarian Ahmedullah Shah,which were taken up by Muslims, particularly artisans, whichcaused the British to think that the Muslims were the mainforce behind this event. The Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah,resisted these calls for jihad because, it has been suggested, he feared outbreaks of communal violence. InAwadh, Sunni Muslims did not want to see a return to Shiite rule, so they often refused to join what theyperceived to be a Shia rebellion. However, some Muslims like the Aga Khan supported the British. TheBritish rewarded him by formally recognising his title.

Although most of the rebellious sepoys in Delhi were Hindus, a significant proportion of the insurgentswere Muslims. The proportion of ghazis grew to be about a quarter of the local fighting force by the end ofthe siege, and included a regiment of suicide ghazis from Gwalior who had vowed never to eat again and tofight until they met certain death at the hands of British troops.[61]

In Thana Bhawan, the Sunnis declared Haji Imdadullah their Ameer. In May 1857 the Battle of Shamli tookplace between the forces of Haji Imdadullah and the British.

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Sikh troops dividing the spoil takenfrom mutineers

The Sikhs and Pathans of the Punjab and North­West Frontier Province supported the British and helped inthe recapture of Delhi.[62][63] Historian John Harris has asserted that the Sikhs wanted to avenge theannexation of the Sikh Empire eight years earlier by the Company with the help of Purabias ('Easterners'),Biharis and those from the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh who had formed part of the East IndiaCompany's armies in the First and Second Anglo­Sikh Wars. He has also suggested that Sikhs felt insultedby the attitude of sepoys who, in their view, had beaten the Khalsa only with British help; they resented anddespised them far more than they did the British.[64]

The Sikhs feared reinstatement of Mughal rule in North India[65] because they had been persecuted heavilyin the past by the Mughal dynasty.

Sikh support for the British resulted from grievances surroundingSepoys' perceived conduct during and after the Anglo­Sikh Wars.Firstly, many Sikhs resented that Hindustanis in service of the Sikhstate had been foremost in urging the wars, which lost them theirindependence. Sikh soldiers also recalled that the bloodiest battlesof the war, Chillianwala and Ferozeshah, were won by Britishtroops, and they believed that the Hindustani sepoys had refused tomeet them in battle. These feelings were compounded whenHindustani Sepoys were assigned a very visible role as garrisontroops in Punjab and awarded profit­making civil posts inPunjab.[65]

In 1857, the Bengal Army had 86,000 men, of which 12,000 wereEuropean, 16,000 Sikh and 1,500 Gurkha. There were 311,000 native soldiers in India altogether, 40,160European soldiers and 5,362 officers.[66] Fifty­four of the Bengal Army's 75 regular Native InfantryRegiments rebelled, but some were immediately destroyed or broke up with their sepoys drifting away totheir homes. A number of the remaining 21 regiments were disarmed or disbanded to prevent or forestallrebellion. In total, only twelve of the original Bengal Native Infantry regiments survived to pass into thenew Indian Army[67] All ten of the Bengal Light Cavalry regiments rebelled.

The Bengal Army also included 29 irregular Cavalry and 42 irregular infantry regiments. These included asubstantial contingent from the recently annexed state of Awadh, which rebelled en masse. Another largecontingent from Gwalior also rebelled, even though that state's ruler remained loyal. The remainder of theirregular units were raised from a wide variety of sources and were less affected by the concerns ofmainstream Indian society. Some irregular units actively supported the Company: three Gurkha and five ofsix Sikh infantry units, and the six infantry and six cavalry units of the recently raised Punjab IrregularForce.[68][69]

On 1 April 1858, the number of Indian soldiers in the Bengal army loyal to the Company was 80,053.[70][71]This total included a large number of soldiers hastily raised in the Punjab and North­West Frontier after theoutbreak of the Rebellion. The Bombay army had three mutinies in its 29 regiments whilst the Madras armyhad no mutinies, though elements of one of its 52 regiments refused to volunteer for service in Bengal.[72]Most of southern India remained passive with only sporadic and haphazard outbreaks of violence. Manyparts of the region were ruled by the Nizams or the Mysore royalty and were thus not directly under Britishrule.

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Attack of the mutineers on the RedanBattery at Lucknow, 30 July 1857

The Revolt

Initial stages

Bahadur Shah Zafar was proclaimed the Emperor of the whole of India. Most contemporary and modernaccounts suggest that he was coerced by the sepoys and his courtiers to sign the proclamation against hiswill.[73] In spite of the significant loss of power that the Mughal dynasty had suffered in the precedingcenturies, their name still carried great prestige across northern India.[74] The civilians, nobility and otherdignitaries took the oath of allegiance to the emperor. The British, who had long ceased to take theauthority of the Mughal Emperor seriously, were astonished at how the ordinary people responded toZafar's call for war.[74] The emperor issued coins in his name, one of the oldest ways of asserting imperialstatus. The adhesion of the Mughal emperor, however, turned the Sikhs of Punjab away from the rebellion,as they did not want to return to Islamic rule, having fought many wars against the Mughal rulers. Theprovince of Bengal was largely quiet throughout the entire period.

Initially, the Indian rebels were able to push back Company forces, and captured several important towns inHaryana, Bihar, the Central Provinces and the United Provinces. When European troops were reinforcedand began to counterattack, the mutineers were especially handicapped by their lack of centralizedcommand and control. Although the rebels produced some natural leaders such as Bakht Khan, whom theEmperor later nominated as commander­in­chief after his son Mirza Mughal proved ineffectual, for themost part they were forced to look for leadership to rajahs and princes. Some of these were to provededicated leaders, but others were self­interested or inept.

In the countryside around Punjab, a Muslim general Gurjar uprising posed the largest threat to the British.In Gujarat near Lahore, Gurjars declared Choudhari Kadam Singh (Kuddum Singh) their leader, andexpelled Company police. Kadam Singh Gurjar led a large force, estimates varying from 2,000 to10,000.[75] Bulandshahr and Bijnor also came under the control of Gurjars under Walidad Khan and MahoSingh respectively. Contemporary sources report that nearly all the Gurjar villages between Lahore andDelhi participated in the revolt, in some cases with support from Jullundur, and it was not until late Julythat, with the help of local Jats, the British managed to regain control of the area.[75]

The Imperial Gazetteer of India states that throughout the IndianRebellion of 1857, Gurjars and Ranghars (Muslim rajpoots) provedthe "most irreconcilable enemies" of the British in the Bulandshahrarea.[76]

Mufti Nizamuddin, a renowned scholar of Lahore, issued a Fatwaagainst the British forces and called upon the local population tosupport the forces of Rao Tula Ram. Casualties where high at thesubsequent engagement at Narnaul (Nasibpur). After the defeat ofRao Tula Ram on 16 November 1857, Mufti Nizamuddin wasarrested, and his brother Mufti Yaqinuddin and brother­in­lawAbdur Rahman (alias Nabi Baksh) were arrested in Tijara. Theywere taken to Delhi and hanged.[77] Having lost the fight at Nasibpur, Rao Tula Ram and Pran Sukh Yadavrequested arms from Russia, which had just been engaged against Britain in the Crimean War.

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Massacre of officers by insurgentcavalry at Delhi

Assault of Delhi and capture of theCashmere Gate, 14 September 1857

Delhi

Main article: Siege of Delhi

The British were slow to strike back at first. It took time for troops stationed in Britain to make their way toIndia by sea, although some regiments moved overland through Persia from the Crimean War, and someregiments already en route for China were diverted to India.

It took time to organise the European troops already in India intofield forces, but eventually two columns left Meerut and Simla.They proceeded slowly towards Delhi and fought, killed, andhanged numerous Indians along the way. Two months after the firstoutbreak of rebellion at Meerut, the two forces met near Karnal. Thecombined force including two Gurkha units serving in the BengalArmy under contract from the Kingdom of Nepal, fought the mainarmy of the rebels at Badli­ke­Serai and drove them back to Delhi.

The Company established a base on the Delhi ridge to the north ofthe city and the Siege of Delhi began. The siege lasted roughly from1 July to 21 September. However, the encirclement was hardlycomplete, and for much of the siege the Company forces wereoutnumbered and it often seemed that it was the Company forcesand not Delhi that was under siege, as the rebels could easily receiveresources and reinforcements. For several weeks, it seemed thatdisease, exhaustion and continuous sorties by rebels from Delhiwould force the Company forces to withdraw, but the outbreaks ofrebellion in the Punjab were forestalled or suppressed, allowing thePunjab Movable Column of British, Sikh and Pakhtun soldiersunder John Nicholson to reinforce the besiegers on the Ridge on 14August.[78][79] On 30 August the rebels offered terms, which wererefused.[80]

The Jantar Mantarobservatory in Delhi in1858, damaged in the

fighting

Mortar damage toKashmiri Gate, Delhi,

1858

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Capture of Bahadur Shah Zafar andhis sons by William Hodson atHumayun's tomb on 20 September1857

Hindu Rao's house inDelhi, now a hospital,

was extensivelydamaged in the

fighting

Bank of Delhi wasattacked by mortar and

gunfire

An eagerly awaited heavy siege train joined the besieging force, and from 7 September, the siege gunsbattered breaches in the walls and silenced the rebels' artillery.[81]:478 An attempt to storm the city throughthe breaches and the Kashmiri Gate was launched on 14 September.[81]:480 The attackers gained a footholdwithin the city but suffered heavy casualties, including John Nicholson. The British commander wished towithdraw, but was persuaded to hold on by his junior officers. After a week of street fighting, the Britishreached the Red Fort. Bahadur Shah Zafar had already fled to Humayun's tomb. The British had retaken thecity.

The troops of the besieging force proceeded to loot and pillage thecity. A large number of the citizens were killed in retaliation for theEuropeans and Indian civilians that had been killed by the rebelsepoys. During the street fighting, artillery had been set up in themain mosque in the city and the neighbourhoods within range werebombarded. These included the homes of the Muslim nobility fromall over India, and contained innumerable cultural, artistic, literaryand monetary riches.

The British soon arrested Bahadur Shah, and the next day Britishofficer William Hodson shot his sons Mirza Mughal, Mirza KhazirSultan, and grandson Mirza Abu Bakr under his own authority at theKhooni Darwaza (the bloody gate) near Delhi Gate. On hearing thenews Zafar reacted with shocked silence while his wife Zinat Mahalwas happy as she believed her son was now Zafar's heir.[82]

Shortly after the fall of Delhi, the victorious attackers organised a column that relieved another besiegedCompany force in Agra, and then pressed on to Cawnpore, which had also recently been recaptured. Thisgave the Company forces a continuous, although still tenuous, line of communication from the east to westof India.

Cawnpore

Main article: Siege of Cawnpore

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Tatya Tope's Soldiery

A memorial erected (circa 1860) bythe British after the Mutiny at theBibighar Well. After India'sIndependence the statue was moved tothe Memorial Church, Cawnpore.Albumen silver print by SamuelBourne, 1860

In June, sepoys under General Wheeler in Cawnpore (Kanpur)rebelled and besieged the European entrenchment. Wheeler was notonly a veteran and respected soldier but also married to a high­casteIndian lady. He had relied on his own prestige, and his cordialrelations with the Nana Sahib to thwart rebellion, and tookcomparatively few measures to prepare fortifications and lay insupplies and ammunition.

The besieged endured three weeks of the Siege of Cawnpore withlittle water or food, suffering continuous casualties to men, womenand children. On 25 June Nana Sahib made an offer of safe passageto Allahabad. With barely three days' food rations remaining, theBritish agreed provided they could keep their small arms and thatthe evacuation should take place in daylight on the morning of the27th (the Nana Sahib wanted the evacuation to take place on thenight of the 26th). Early in the morning of 27 June, the Europeanparty left their entrenchment and made their way to the river whereboats provided by the Nana Sahib were waiting to take them toAllahabad.[83] Several sepoys who had stayed loyal to the Companywere removed by the mutineers and killed, either because of theirloyalty or because "they had become Christian." A few injuredBritish officers trailing the column were also apparently hacked todeath by angry sepoys. After the European party had largely arrivedat the dock, which was surrounded by sepoys positioned on bothbanks of the Ganges,[84] with clear lines of fire, firing broke out andthe boats were abandoned by their crew, and caught or were set[85]

on fire using pieces of red hot charcoal.[86] The British party tried topush the boats off but all except three remained stuck. One boat withover a dozen wounded men initially escaped, but later grounded,was caught by mutineers and pushed back down the river towards the carnage at Cawnpore. Towards theend rebel cavalry rode into the water to finish off any survivors.[86] After the firing ceased the survivorswere rounded up and the men shot.[86] By the time the massacre was over, most of the male members of theparty were dead while the surviving women and children were removed and held hostage to be later killedin The Bibighar massacre.[87] Only four men eventually escaped alive from Cawnpore on one of the boats:two private soldiers, a lieutenant, and Captain Mowbray Thomson, who wrote a first­hand account of hisexperiences entitled The Story of Cawnpore (London, 1859).

Whether the firing was planned or accidental remains unresolved. Most early histories assume it wasplanned either by the Nana Sahib or that Tatya Tope and Brigadier Jwala Pershad planned it without theNana Sahib's knowledge . The stated reasons for the planned nature are: the speed with which the NanaSahib agreed to the British conditions ; and the firepower arranged around the ghat, which was far in excessof what was necessary to guard the European troops . During his trial, Tatya Tope denied the existence ofany such plan and described the incident in the following terms: the Europeans had already boarded theboats and Tatya Tope raised his right hand to signal their departure. That very moment someone from thecrowd blew a loud bugle, which created disorder and in the ongoing bewilderment, the boatmen jumped offthe boats. The rebels started shooting indiscriminately. Nana Sahib, who was staying in Savada Kothi

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(Bungalow) nearby, was informed about what was happening and immediately came to stop it.[88] SomeBritish histories allow that it might well have been the result of accident or error; someone accidentally ormaliciously fired a shot, the panic­stricken British opened fire, and it became impossible to stop themassacre.[89]

The surviving women and children were taken to the Nana Sahib and then confined first to the SavadaKothi and then to the home of the local magistrate's clerk (The Bibigarh)[90] where they were joined byrefugees from Fatehgarh. Overall five men and two hundred and six women and children were confined inThe Bibigarh for about two weeks. In one week 25 were brought out dead, from dysentery and cholera.[85]Meanwhile, a Company relief force that had advanced from Allahabad defeated the Indians and by 15 Julyit was clear that the Nana Sahib would not be able to hold Cawnpore and a decision was made by the NanaSahib and other leading rebels that the hostages must be killed. After the sepoys refused to carry out thisorder, two Muslim butchers, two Hindu peasants and one of Nana's bodyguards went into The Bibigarh.Armed with knives and hatchets they murdered the women and children.[91] After the massacre the wallswere covered in bloody hand prints, and the floor littered with fragments of human limbs.[92] The dead andthe dying were thrown down a nearby well, when the well was full, the 50­foot (15 m) deep well was filledwith remains to within 6 feet (1.8 m) of the top,[93] the remainder were thrown into the Ganges.[94]

Historians have given many reasons for this act of cruelty. With Company forces approaching Cawnporeand some believing that they would not advance if there were no hostages to save, their murders wereordered. Or perhaps it was to ensure that no information was leaked after the fall of Cawnpore. Otherhistorians have suggested that the killings were an attempt to undermine Nana Sahib's relationship with theBritish.[95] Perhaps it was due to fear, the fear of being recognised by some of the prisoners for havingtaken part in the earlier firings.[87]

Photograph entitled,"The Hospital inGeneral Wheeler'sentrenchment,

Cawnpore." (1858)The hospital was thesite of the first majorloss of European lives

in Cawnpore

1858 picture of SatiChaura Ghat on thebanks of the GangesRiver, where on 27June 1857 many

British men lost theirlives and the survivingwomen and childrenwere taken prisoner by

the rebels.

Bibigarh house whereEuropean women andchildren were killedand the well wheretheir bodies werefound, 1858.

The Bibighar Well sitewhere a memorial hadbeen built. SamuelBourne, 1860.

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A contemporary image of themassacre at the Satichaura Ghat

The interior of the Secundra Bagh,several months after its stormingduring the second relief of Lucknow.Albumen silver print by Felice Beato,1858

The killing of the women and children hardened British attitudes against the sepoys. The British public wasaghast and the anti Imperial and pro­Indian proponents lost all theirsupport. Cawnpore became a war cry for the British and their alliesfor the rest of the conflict. The Nana Sahib disappeared near the endof the Rebellion and it is not known what happened to him.

Other British accounts[96][97][98] state that indiscriminate punitivemeasures were taken in early June, two weeks before the murders atthe Bibighar (but after those at both Meerut and Delhi), specificallyby Lieutenant Colonel James George Smith Neill of the MadrasFusiliers, commanding at Allahabad while moving towardsCawnpore. At the nearby town of Fatehpur, a mob had attacked andmurdered the local European population. On this pretext, Neillordered all villages beside the Grand Trunk Road to be burned andtheir inhabitants to be killed by hanging. Neill's methods were "ruthless and horrible"[99] and far fromintimidating the population, may well have induced previously undecided sepoys and communities torevolt.

Neill was killed in action at Lucknow on 26 September and was never called to account for his punitivemeasures, though contemporary British sources lionised him and his "gallant blue caps".[100]

When the British retook Cawnpore, the soldiers took their sepoy prisoners to the Bibighar and forced themto lick the bloodstains from the walls and floor.[101] They then hanged or "blew from the cannon", thetraditional Mughal punishment for mutiny, the majority of the sepoy prisoners. Although some claimed thesepoys took no actual part in the killings themselves, they did not act to stop it and this was acknowledgedby Captain Thompson after the British departed Cawnpore for a second time.

Lucknow

Main article: Siege of Lucknow

Very soon after the events in Meerut, rebellion erupted in the stateof Awadh (also known as Oudh, in modern­day Uttar Pradesh),which had been annexed barely a year before. The BritishCommissioner resident at Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence, hadenough time to fortify his position inside the Residency compound.The Company forces numbered some 1700 men, including loyalsepoys. The rebels' assaults were unsuccessful, and so they began abarrage of artillery and musket fire into the compound. Lawrencewas one of the first casualties. The rebels tried to breach the wallswith explosives and bypass them via underground tunnels that led tounderground close combat.[81]:486 After 90 days of siege, defendedby John Eardley Inglis, numbers of Company forces were reduced to300 loyal sepoys, 350 British soldiers and 550 non­combatants.

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Jhansi Fort, which was taken over byrebel forces, and subsequentlydefended against British recapture bythe Rani of Jhansi

On 25 September a relief column under the command of Sir Henry Havelock and accompanied by SirJames Outram (who in theory was his superior) fought its way from Cawnpore to Lucknow in a briefcampaign, in which the numerically small column defeated rebel forces in a series of increasingly largebattles. This became known as 'The First Relief of Lucknow', as this force was not strong enough to breakthe siege or extricate themselves, and so was forced to join the garrison. In October another, larger, armyunder the new Commander­in­Chief, Sir Colin Campbell, was finally able to relieve the garrison and on 18November, they evacuated the defended enclave within the city, the women and children leaving first. Theythen conducted an orderly withdrawal, firstly to Alambagh 4 miles (6.4 km) north where a force of 4,000were left to construct a fort, then to Cawnpore, where they defeated an attempt by Tatya Tope to recapturethe city in the Second Battle of Cawnpore.

In March 1858, Campbell once again advanced on Lucknow with a large army, meeting up with the force atAlambagh, this time seeking to suppress the rebellion in Awadh. He was aided by a large Nepalesecontingent advancing from the north under Jang Bahadur,[102] who decided to side with the Company inDecember 1857. Campbell's advance was slow and methodical, with a force under General Outram crossingthe river on cask bridges on 4 March to enable them to fire artillery in flank, the forces drove the large butdisorganised rebel army from Lucknow with the final fighting shooting on 21 March,[81]:491 there were fewcasualties to his own troops. This nevertheless allowed large numbers of the rebels to disperse into Awadh,and Campbell was forced to spend the summer and autumn dealing with scattered pockets of resistancewhile losing men to heat, disease and guerrilla actions.

Jhansi

Main article: Central India Campaign (1858)

Jhansi was a Maratha­ruled princely state in Bundelkhand. Whenthe Raja of Jhansi died without a biological male heir in 1853, it wasannexed to the British Raj by the Governor­General of India underthe doctrine of lapse. His widow, Rani Lakshmi Bai, the Rani ofJhansi protested against the denial of rights of their adopted son.When war broke out, Jhansi quickly became a centre of therebellion. A small group of Company officials and their familiestook refuge in Jhansi Fort, and the Rani negotiated their evacuation.However, when they left the fort they were massacred by the rebelsover whom the Rani had no control; the Europeans suspected theRani of complicity, despite her repeated denials.

By the end of June 1857, the Company had lost control of much ofBundelkhand and eastern Rajasthan. The Bengal Army units in thearea, having rebelled, marched to take part in the battles for Delhi and Cawnpore. The many princely statesthat made up this area began warring amongst themselves. In September and October 1857, the Rani led thesuccessful defence of Jhansi against the invading armies of the neighbouring rajas of Datia and Orchha.

On 3 February, Sir Hugh Rose broke the 3­month siege of Saugor. Thousands of local villagers welcomedhim as a liberator, freeing them from rebel occupation.[103]

In March 1858, the Central India Field Force, led by Sir Hugh Rose, advanced on and laid siege to Jhansi.The Company forces captured the city, but the Rani fled in disguise.

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Execution of mutineers at Peshawur

After being driven from Jhansi and Kalpi, on 1 June 1858 Rani Lakshmi Bai and a group of Maratha rebelscaptured the fortress city of Gwalior from the Scindia rulers, who were British allies. This might havereinvigorated the rebellion but the Central India Field Force very quickly advanced against the city. TheRani died on 17 June, the second day of the Battle of Gwalior, probably killed by a carbine shot from the8th King's Royal Irish Hussars according to the account of three independent Indian representatives. TheCompany forces recaptured Gwalior within the next three days. In descriptions of the scene of her lastbattle, she was compared to Joan of Arc by some commentators.[104]

Indore

Colonel Henry Marion Durand, the then­Company resident at Indore, had brushed away any possibility ofuprising in Indore.[105] However, on 1 July, sepoys in Holkar's army revolted and opened fire on the picketsof Bhopal Cavalry. When Colonel Travers rode forward to charge, Bhopal Cavalry refused to follow. TheBhopal Infantry also refused orders and instead levelled their guns at European sergeants and officers.Since all possibility of mounting an effective deterrent was lost, Durand decided to gather up all theEuropean residents and escape, although 39 European residents of Indore were killed.[106]

Other regions

Punjab

What was then referred to by the British as the Punjab was a verylarge administrative division, centered on Lahore. It included notonly the present­day Indian and Pakistani Punjabi regions but alsothe North West Frontier districts bordering Afghanistan

Much of the region had been the Sikh Empire, ruled by Ranjit Singhuntil his death in 1839. The kingdom had then fallen into disorder,with court factions and the Khalsa (the Sikh army) contending forpower at the Lahore Durbar (court). After two Anglo­Sikh Wars, theentire region was annexed by the East India Company in 1849. In1857, the region still contained the highest numbers of bothEuropean and Indian troops.

The inhabitants of the Punjab were not as sympathetic to the sepoys as they were elsewhere in India, whichlimited many of the outbreaks in the Punjab to disjointed uprisings by regiments of sepoys isolated fromeach other. In some garrisons, notably Ferozepore, indecision on the part of the senior European officersallowed the sepoys to rebel, but the sepoys then left the area, mostly heading for Delhi.[107] At the mostimportant garrison, that of Peshawar close to the Afghan frontier, many comparatively junior officersignored their nominal commander (the elderly General Reed) and took decisive action. They intercepted thesepoys' mail, thus preventing their coordinating an uprising, and formed a force known as the "PunjabMovable Column" to move rapidly to suppress any revolts as they occurred. When it became clear from theintercepted correspondence that some of the sepoys at Peshawar were on the point of open revolt, the fourmost disaffected Bengal Native regiments were disarmed by the two British infantry regiments in thecantonment, backed by artillery, on 22 May. This decisive act induced many local chieftains to side withthe British.[108]

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Marble Lectern in memory of35 British soldiers in Jhelum

Jhelum in Punjab saw a mutiny of native troops against the British. Here35 British soldiers of Her Majesty's 24th Regiment of Foot (South WalesBorderers) were killed by mutineers on 7 July 1857. Among the dead wasCaptain Francis Spring, the eldest son of Colonel William Spring. Tocommemorate this event St. John's Church Jhelum was built and thenames of those 35 British soldiers are carved on a marble lectern presentin that church.

The final large­scale military uprising in the Punjab took place on 9 July,when most of a brigade of sepoys at Sialkot rebelled and began to move toDelhi. They were intercepted by John Nicholson with an equal Britishforce as they tried to cross the Ravi River. After fighting steadily butunsuccessfully for several hours, the sepoys tried to fall back across theriver but became trapped on an island. Three days later, Nicholsonannihilated the 1,100 trapped sepoys in the Battle of Trimmu Ghat.[109]

Some regiments in frontier garrisons subsequently rebelled, but becameisolated among hostile Pakhtun villages and tribes. There were several mass executions, amounting toseveral hundred, of sepoys from units that rebelled or who deserted in the Punjab and North West Frontierprovinces during June and July. A notorious instance occurred on 1 August 1857 at Ajnala, near Amritsar,where the Deputy Commissioner of Amritsar, Frederick Henry Cooper, ordered the killing of 282 disarmedmen. On 3 March 2014 some villagers found human remains, including skulls and teeth, and coins, said tobe the remains of these soldiers, in a well near a gurdwara.

The British had been recruiting irregular units from Sikh and Pakhtun communities even before the firstunrest among the Bengal units, and the numbers of these were greatly increased during the Rebellion,34,000 fresh levies eventually being raised.[110]

At one stage, faced with the need to send troops to reinforce the besiegers of Delhi, the Commissioner ofthe Punjab (Sir John Lawrence) suggested handing the coveted prize of Peshawar to Dost Mohammed Khanof Afghanistan in return for a pledge of friendship. The British Agents in Peshawar and the adjacentdistricts were horrified. Referring to the massacre of a retreating British army in 1842, Herbert Edwardeswrote, "Dost Mahomed would not be a mortal Afghan ... if he did not assume our day to be gone in Indiaand follow after us as an enemy. Europeans cannot retreat – Kabul would come again."[111] In the eventLord Canning insisted on Peshawar being held, and Dost Mohammed, whose relations with Britain hadbeen equivocal for over 20 years, remained neutral.

In September 1858 Rae Ahmed Nawaz Khan Kharal, head of the Khurrul tribe, led an insurrection in theNeeli Bar district, between the Sutlej, Ravi and Chenab rivers. The rebels held the jungles of Gogaira andhad some initial successes against the British forces in the area, besieging Major Crawford Chamberlain atChichawatni. A squadron of Punjabi cavalry sent by Sir John Lawrence raised the siege. Ahmed Khan waskilled but the insurgents found a new leader in Mahr Bahawal Fatyana, who maintained the uprising forthree months until Government forces penetrated the jungle and scattered the rebel tribesmen.[112]

Jaunpur

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Lieutenant William AlexanderKerr, 24th Bombay NativeInfantry, near Kolapore, July1857

On hearing of the uprisings against British rule in the surrounding districts of Ghazipur, Azamgarh andBanaras, the landlords of Jaunpur organised themselves into an armed force and attacked the Company allover the region. They also cut the Company communications along the Banaras­Azamgarh road andadvanced towards the former Banaras State.

In the first encounter with the British regular troops, the Dobhi Rajputs suffered heavy losses, but withdrewin order. Regrouping themselves, they made a bid to capture Banaras. In the meantime, Azamgarh had beenbesieged by another large force of rebels. The Company was unable to send reinforcement to Azamgarhbecause of the challenge posed by the rebels. A clash became inevitable and the Company attacked therebels with the help of the Sikhs and the Hindustani cavalry at the end of June 1857. The battle took placeat Pisnaharia­ka­Inar, about 5 miles (8.0 km) north of Banaras. The rebels were driven back with heavylosses across the Gomti river. The British army crossed the river andsacked every village in the area.

A few months later, Kunwar Singh of Jagdispur (District Arrah, Bihar),advanced and occupied Azamgarh. The Army at Benaras sent against himwas defeated outside Azamgarh. The Company rushed reinforcements andthere was a furious battle in which the Rajputs of Dobhi helped KunwarSingh, their distant relative. After Kunwar Singh was forced to withdraw,the Rajputs became the subject of reprisals by the Company. In May, theleaders of the Dobhi Rajputs were invited to a conference. They weretreacherously arrested by the Company troops, who had surrounded theplace in Senapur village. All were summarily executed by hanging. Thedead bodies were further shot with muskets and left hanging from thetrees. After few days, the bodies were taken down by the villagers andcremated.

Arrah

Kunwar singh, the 75­year­old Rajput Raja of Jagdispur, whose estate wasin the process of being sequestrated by the Revenue Board, instigated and assumed the leadership of revoltin Bihar.[113]

On 25 July, rebellion erupted in the garrisons of Dinapur. The rebels quickly moved towards the cities ofArrah and were joined by Kunwar Singh and his men. Mr. Boyle, a British railway engineer in Arrah, hadalready prepared his house for defence against such attacks­particular because he was a railwayengineer.[114] As the rebels approached Arrah, all European residents took refuge at Mr. Boyle's house. Asiege soon ensued and 50 loyal sepoys defended the house against artillery and musketry fire from therebels.

On 29 July 400 men were sent out from Dinapore to relieve Arrah, but this force was ambushed by therebels around a mile away from the siege house, severely defeated, and driven back. On 30 July, MajorVincent Eyre, who was going up the river with his troops and guns, reached Buxar and heard about thesiege. He immediately disembarked his guns and troops (the 5th Fusiliers) and started marching towardsArrah. On 2 August, some 16 miles (26 km) short of Arrah, the Major was ambushed by the rebels. After anintense fight, the 5th Fusiliers charged and stormed the rebel positions successfully. On 3 August, MajorEyre and his men reached the siege house and successfully ended the siege.[115][116]

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"The Relief of Lucknow" by Thomas JonesBarker

British Empire

The authorities in British colonies with an Indian population, sepoy or civilian, took measures to securethemselves against copycat uprisings. In the Straits Settlements, and Trinidad the annual Hosay processionswere banned,[117] riots broke out in penal settlements in Burma, and the Settlements, in Penang the loss of amusket provoked a near riot,[118] and security was boosted especially in locations with an Indian convictpopulation.[119]

Aftermath

The rebels' murder of women, children and wounded Britishsoldiers at Cawnpore, and the subsequent printing of the eventsin the British papers, left many British soldiers seekingrevenge. As well as hanging mutineers, the British had some"blown from cannon," (an old Mughal punishment adoptedmany years before in India), in which sentenced rebels weretied over the mouths of cannons and blown to pieces when theguns were fired.[120]

Most of the British press, outraged by the reports of rape andthe killings of civilians and wounded British soldiers, did notadvocate clemency of any kind. Governor General Canningordered moderation in dealing with native sensibilities and earned the scornful sobriquet "ClemencyCanning" from the press[121] and later parts of the British public.

In terms of sheer numbers, the casualties were much higher on the Indian side. A letter published after thefall of Delhi in the "Bombay Telegraph" and reproduced in the British press testified to the scale of theIndian casualties:

.... All the city's people found within the walls of the city of Delhi when our troops enteredwere bayoneted on the spot, and the number was considerable, as you may suppose, when I tellyou that in some houses forty and fifty people were hiding. These were not mutineers butresidents of the city, who trusted to our well­known mild rule for pardon. I am glad to say theywere disappointed.[122]

From the end of 1857, the British had begun to gain ground again. Lucknow was retaken in March 1858.On 8 July 1858, a peace treaty was signed and the rebellion ended. The last rebels were defeated in Gwalioron 20 June 1858. By 1859, rebel leaders Bakht Khan and Nana Sahib had either been slain or had fled.

Edward Vibart, a 19­year­old officer whose parents, younger brothers, and two of his sisters had died in theCawnpore massacre,[123] recorded his experience:

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British soldiers looting Qaisar Bagh,Lucknow, after its recapture (steelengraving, late 1850s)

Blowing from a gun, 8 September1857

The orders went out to shoot every soul.... It was literally murder... I have seen many bloodyand awful sights lately but such a one as I witnessed yesterday I pray I never see again. Thewomen were all spared but their screams on seeing their husbands and sons butchered, weremost painful... Heaven knows I feel no pity, but when some old grey bearded man is broughtand shot before your very eyes, hard must be that man's heart I think who can look on withindifference...[124]

Some British troops adopted a policy of "no prisoners". One officer,Thomas Lowe, remembered how on one occasion his unit had taken76 prisoners – they were just too tired to carry on killing and neededa rest, he recalled. Later, after a quick trial, the prisoners were linedup with a British soldier standing a couple of yards in front of them.On the order "fire", they were all simultaneously shot, "swept...from their earthly existence". In all more than 100,000 Indians werekilled in the Uprising and its aftermath.

The aftermath of the rebellion has been the focus of new work usingIndian sources and population studies. In The Last Mughal, historianWilliam Dalrymple examines the effects on the Muslim populationof Delhi after the city was retaken by the British and finds that intellectual and economic control of the cityshifted from Muslim to Hindu hands because the British, at that time, saw an Islamic hand behind themutiny.[125]

Reaction in Britain

The scale of the punishments handed out by the British "Army of Retribution" were considered largelyappropriate and justified in a Britain shocked by reports of atrocities carried out against British andEuropean civilians by the rebels.[126] Accounts of the time frequently reach the "hyperbolic register",according to Christopher Herbert, especially in the often­repeated claim that the "Red Year" of 1857marked "a terrible break" in British experience.[122] Such was the atmosphere – a national "mood ofretribution and despair" that led to "almost universal approval" of the measures taken to pacify therevolt.[127]

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Justice, a print by Sir JohnTenniel in a September 1857issue of Punch

Bahadur Shah Zafar (the last Mughalemperor) in Delhi, awaiting trial bythe British for his role in theUprising. Photograph by RobertTytler and Charles Shepherd, May1858

The incidents of rape committed by Indian rebels against European women and girls appalled the Britishpublic. These atrocities were often used to justify the British reaction to the rebellion. British newspapersprinted various eyewitness accounts of the rape of English women and girls. One such account published byThe Times, regarding an incident where 48 English girls as young as 10 had been raped by Indian rebels inDelhi. The story was criticised as a false propaganda story by Karl Marx, who pointed out that the story waswritten by a clergyman in Bangalore, far from the events of the rebellion.[128] Individual incidents capturedthe public's interest and were heavily reported by the press. One such incident was that of GeneralWheeler's daughter Margaret being forced to live as her captor's concubine, though this was reported to theVictorian public as Margaret killing her rapist then herself.[129] Anotherversion of the story suggested that Margaret had been killed after herabductor had argued with his wife over her.[130] Long after the politicalrecovery was done, women were the focal point and symbol of any distrustthe British had in India. Women's "fragile female bodies" were violated bythe mutiny's incidents of rape and Britain immediately reacted in"vicious...reprisals against the local population." However, Indian women atthe time are still undocumented from the "official male sources." Furtherresearch could lend insight to both sides of the situation during the rebellionof 1857.[131]

The term 'Sepoy' or 'Sepoyism' became a derogatory term for nationalistsespecially in Ireland.[132]

Reorganisation

Bahadur Shah was tried for treason by a military commissionassembled at Delhi, and exiled to Rangoon where he died in 1862,bringing the Mughal dynasty to an end. In 1877 Queen Victoria tookthe title of Empress of India on the advice of Prime Minister,Benjamin Disraeli.

The rebellion saw the end of the East India Company's rule in India.In August, by the Government of India Act 1858, the company wasformally dissolved and its ruling powers over India were transferredto the British Crown.[133] A new British government department, theIndia Office, was created to handle the governance of India, and itshead, the Secretary of State for India, was entrusted withformulating Indian policy. The Governor­General of India gained anew title, Viceroy of India, and implemented the policies devised bythe India Office. Some former East India Company territories, suchas the Straits Settlements, became colonies in their own right. TheBritish colonial administration embarked on a program of reform,trying to integrate Indian higher castes and rulers into thegovernment and abolishing attempts at Westernization. The Viceroy stopped land grabs, decreed religioustolerance and admitted Indians into civil service, albeit mainly as subordinates.

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Essentially the old East India Company bureaucracy remained, though there was a major shift in attitudes.In looking for the causes of the Rebellion the authorities alighted on two things: religion and the economy.On religion it was felt that there had been too much interference with indigenous traditions, both Hindu andMuslim. On the economy it was now believed that the previous attempts by the Company to introduce freemarket competition had undermined traditional power structures and bonds of loyalty placing the peasantryat the mercy of merchants and money­lenders. In consequence the new British Raj was constructed in partaround a conservative agenda, based on a preservation of tradition and hierarchy.

On a political level it was also felt that the previous lack of consultation between rulers and ruled had beenyet another significant factor in contributing to the uprising. In consequence, Indians were drawn intogovernment at a local level. Though this was on a limited scale a crucial precedent had been set, with thecreation of a new 'white collar' Indian elite, further stimulated by the opening of universities at Calcutta,Bombay and Madras, a result of the Indian Universities Act. So, alongside the values of traditional andancient India, a new professional middle class was starting to arise, in no way bound by the values of thepast. Their ambition can only have been stimulated by Victoria's Proclamation of November 1858, in whichit is expressly stated, "We hold ourselves bound to the natives of our Indian territories by the sameobligations of duty which bind us to our other subjects...it is our further will that... our subjects of whateverrace or creed, be freely and impartially admitted to offices in our service, the duties of which they may bequalified by their education, ability and integrity, duly to discharge."

Acting on these sentiments, Lord Ripon, viceroy from 1880 to 1885, extended the powers of local self­government and sought to remove racial practices in the law courts by the Ilbert Bill. But a policy at onceliberal and progressive at one turn was reactionary and backward at the next, creating new elites andconfirming old attitudes. The Ilbert Bill had the effect only of causing a white mutiny and the end of theprospect of perfect equality before the law. In 1886 measures were adopted to restrict Indian entry into thecivil service.

Military reorganisation

See also: Pattern 1853 Enfield

The Bengal army dominated the Indian army before 1857 and a direct result after the rebellion was thescaling back of the size of the Bengali contingent in the army.[134] The Brahmin presence in the BengalArmy was reduced in the late nineteenth century because of their perceived primary role as mutineers. TheBritish looked for increased recruitment in the Punjab for the Bengal army as a result of the apparentdiscontent that resulted in the Sepoy conflict.[135]

The rebellion transformed both the native and European armies of British India. Of the 74 regular BengalNative Infantry regiments in existence at the beginning of 1857, only twelve escaped mutiny ordisbandment.[136] All ten of the Bengal Light Cavalry regiments were lost. The old Bengal Army hadaccordingly almost completely vanished from the order of battle. These troops were replaced by new unitsrecruited from castes hitherto under­utilised by the British and from the minority so­called "Martial Races",such as the Sikhs and the Gurkhas.

The inefficiencies of the old organisation, which had estranged sepoys from their British officers, wereaddressed, and the post­1857 units were mainly organised on the "irregular" system. Before the rebellioneach Bengal Native Infantry regiment had 26 British officers, who held every position of authority down to

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the second­in­command of each company. In irregular units there were few European officers whoassociated themselves far more closely with their soldiers, while more responsibility was given to theIndian officers.

The British increased the ratio of British to Indian soldiers within India. From 1861 Indian artillery wasreplaced by British units, except for a few mountain batteries.[137] The post­rebellion changes formed thebasis of the military organisation of British India until the early 20th century.

Both sides used the Pattern 1853 rifle, or variants. The 1853 model used a muzzle loading percussion caparm and was capable of laying accurate fire to some 400 yards (370 m) using a graduated sight. The Britishdid not entirely trust the Indian contingent, and therefore they were initially issued a variant Pattern 1858rifle with a smoothbore, which reduced the effective range to less than 100 yards (91 m). The graduatedrear sight was replaced with a simple block V­shaped fixed sight that provided for no variation for windageor range. Boring out the rifle however weakened the barrels, which often bulged and burst, and attaching abayonet caused excessive flexing. Quickly new barrels were fabricated with a thicker wall and became thePattern 1859.

Awards

Victoria Cross

One hundred and eighty two Victoria Cross medals were awarded to members of the British Armed Forcesand the British Indian Army during the rebellion.(see List of Indian Mutiny Victoria Cross recipients)

Indian Mutiny Medal

290,000 Indian Mutiny Medal's were awarded. Clasps were awarded for the siege of Delhi and the siegeand relief of Lucknow.[138]

Indian Order of Merit

A military and civilian decoration of British India, the Indian Order of Merit was first introduced by theEast India Company in 1837, and was taken over by the Crown in 1858, following the Indian Mutiny of1857. The Indian Order of Merit was the only gallantry medal available to Native soldiers between 1837and 1907.[139]

Nomenclature

See also: First War of Indian Independence (term)

There is no universally agreed name for the events of this period.

In India and Pakistan it has been termed as the "War of Independence of 1857" or "First War of IndianIndependence"[140] but it is not uncommon to use terms such as the "Revolt of 1857". The classification ofthe Rebellion being "First War of Independence" is not without its critics in India.[141][142][143][144] The useof the term "Indian Mutiny" is considered by some Indian politicians[145] as belittling the importance ofwhat happened and therefore reflecting an imperialistic attitude. Others dispute this interpretation.

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The Mutiny Memorial inDelhi, a monument to thosekilled on the British sideduring the fighting.

In the UK and parts of the Commonwealth it is commonly called the "Indian Mutiny", but terms such as"Great Indian Mutiny", the "Sepoy Mutiny", the "Sepoy Rebellion", the "Sepoy War", the "Great Mutiny",the "Rebellion of 1857", "the Uprising", the "Mahomedan Rebellion", and the "Revolt of 1857" have alsobeen used.[146][147][148] "The Indian Insurrection" was a name used in the press of the UK and Britishcolonies at the time.[149]

Historiography

Adas (1971) examines the historiography with emphasis on the four majorapproaches: the Indian nationalist view; the Marxist analysis; the view ofthe Rebellion as a traditionalist rebellion; and intensive studies of localuprisings.[150] Many of the key primary and secondary sources appear inBiswamoy Pati, ed. 1857 Rebellion.[151]

Professor Kim Wagner has the most recent survey of the historiography, andstresses the importance of William Dalrymple’s The Last Mughal: The Fallof a Dynasty, Delhi 1857 who was assisted by Mahmood Farooqui,translated key Urdu and Shikastah sources and published a selection inBesieged: Voices from Delhi 1857.[152] Dalrymple emphasized the role ofreligion, and explored in detail the internal divisions and politico­religiousdiscord amongst the rebels. He did not discover much in the way of proto­nationalism or any of the roots of modern India in the rebellion.[153][154]

Almost from the moment the first sepoys mutinied in Meerut, the nature andthe scope of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 has been contested and arguedover. Speaking in the House of Commons in July 1857, Benjamin Disraelilabelled it a 'national revolt' while Lord Palmerston, the Prime Minister, tried to downplay the scope and thesignificance of the event as a 'mere military mutiny'.[155] Reflecting this debate, the early historian of therebellion, Charles Ball, sided with the mutiny in his title (using mutiny and sepoy insurrection) but labelledit a 'struggle for liberty and independence as a people' in the text.[156] Historians remain divided on whetherthe rebellion can properly be considered a war of Indian independence or not,[157] although it is popularlyconsidered to be one in India. Arguments against include:

A united India did not exist at that time in political, cultural, or ethnic termsThe rebellion was put down with the help of other Indian soldiers drawn from the Madras Army, theBombay Army and the Sikh regiments, 80% of the East India Company forces were Indian;[158]Many of the local rulers fought amongst themselves rather than uniting against the British.Many rebel Sepoy regiments disbanded and went home rather than fight.Not all of the rebels accepted the return of the Mughals.The King of Delhi had no real control over the mutineers.[159]The revolt was largely limited to north and central India. Whilst risings occurred elsewhere they hadlittle impact because of their limited nature.A number of revolts occurred in areas not under British rule, and against native rulers, often as aresult of local internal politics.The revolt was fractured along religious, ethnic and regional lines.[160]

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The hanging of two participants inthe Indian Rebellion, Sepoys of the31st Native Infantry. Albumen silverprint by Felice Beato, 1857

India 2007 100 Rupees coinCommemorating 1st War ofIndependence

A second school of thought while acknowledging the validity of theabove­mentioned arguments opines that this rebellion may indeedbe called a war of India's independence. The reasons advanced are:

Even though the rebellion had various causes most of the rebelsepoys who were able to do so, made their way to Delhi to revivethe old Mughal empire that signified a national symbol for even theHindus amongst them.There was a widespread popular revolt in many areas such asAwadh, Bundelkhand and Rohilkhand. The rebellion was thereforemore than just a military rebellion, and it spanned more than oneregion;The sepoys did not seek to revive small kingdoms in their regions,instead they repeatedly proclaimed a "country­wide rule" of theMughals and vowed to drive out the British from "India", as theyknew it then. (The sepoys ignored local princes and proclaimed incities they took over: Khalq Khuda Ki, Mulk Badshah Ka, Hukm

Subahdar Sipahi Bahadur Ka – i.e. the people belong to God, the country to the Emperor andauthority to the Sepoy Commandant). The objective of driving out "foreigners" from not only one'sown area but from their conception of the entirety of "India", signifies a nationalist sentiment;The mutineers, although some were recruited from outside Oudah, displayed a common purpose.[161]

The 150th anniversary

The Government of India celebrated the year 2007 as the 150th anniversaryof "India's First War of Independence". Several books written by Indianauthors were released in the anniversary year including Amresh Mishra's"War of Civilizations" a controversial history of the Rebellion of 1857, and"Recalcitrance" by Anurag Kumar, one of the few novels written in Englishby an Indian based on the events of 1857.

In 2007, a group of retired British soldiers and civilians, some of themdescendants of British soldiers who died in the conflict, attempted to visitthe site of the Siege of Lucknow. However, fears of violence by Indiandemonstrators, supported by the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party, prevented the British visitorsfrom visiting the site.[162] Despite the protests, Sir Mark Havelock was able to make his way past police inorder to visit the grave of his ancestor, General Henry Havelock.[163]

In popular culture

Films

Shatranj Ke Khilari – A 1977 Indian film directed by Satyajit Ray, chronicling the events just beforethe onset of the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857. The focus is on the British annexation of Oudh, and thedetachment of the nobility from the political sphere in 19th century India.Junoon (1978 film) – Directed by Shyam Benegal, it is a critically acclaimed film about the loveaffair between a Pathan feudal chief and a British girl sheltered by his family during the revolt.Mangal Pandey: The Rising (2005) – Ketan Mehta's Hindi film chronicles the life of Mangal Pandey.

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Henry Nelson O'Neil's 1857 paintingEastward Ho! depicting Britishsoldiers say farewell to their lovedones as they embark on a deploymentto India.

The Charge of the Light Brigade (1936) features a sequence inspired by the massacre at Cawnpore.Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom ­ During the dinner scene at the fictional Pankot Palace,Indiana Jones mentions that Captain Blumburtt was telling him about the role which the palaceplayed in "the mutiny" and Chattar Lal complains, "It seems the British never forget the Mutiny of1857".The Last Cartridge, an Incident of the Sepoy Rebellion in India (1908) ­ A fictionalized account of aBritish fort besieged during the Rebellion.

Theatre

1857: Ek Safarnama – A play by Javed Siddiqui, set duringthe Rebellion of 1857 and staged at Purana Qila, Delhi.[164]

Literature

Malcolm X's autobiography The Autobiography of Malcolm Xdetails his first encounters with atrocities in the non­Europeanworld and his reaction to the rebellion and massacres in 1857.John Masters's novel Nightrunners of Bengal, first publishedby Michael Joseph in 1951 and dedicated to the Sepoy ofIndia, is a fictionalised account of the Rebellion as seenthrough the eyes of a British Captain in the Bengal NativeInfantry who was based in Bhowani, itself a fictionalisedversion of the town of Jhansi. Captain Savage and histurbulent relationship with the Rani of Kishanpur form ananalogous interrelationship of the Indian people and theBritish and sepoy regiments at that time.J. G. Farrell's 1973 novel The Siege of Krishnapur details thesiege of the fictional Indian town of Krishnapur during theRebellion.George MacDonald Fraser's 1975 novel Flashman in theGreat Game deals with the events leading up to and during the Rebellion.Two of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes stories, The Sign of the Four and "The Adventureof the Crooked Man," feature events that took place during the Rebellion.Michael Crichton's 1975 novel The Great Train Robbery mentions the Rebellion and briefly detailsthe events of the Siege of Cawnpore, as the Rebellion was happening in tandem with the trial ofEdward Pierce.[165]The majority of M. M. Kaye's novel Shadow of the Moon is set between 1856­1858, and theRebellion is shown to greatly affect the lives of the main characters, who were inhabitants of theResidency at Lunjore (a fictional town in north India). The early chapters of her novel The FarPavilions take place during the Rebellion, which leads to the protagonist, a child of British ancestry,being raised as a Hindu.Indian writer Ruskin Bond's fictional novella A Flight of Pigeons is set around the Indian Rebellionof 1857. It is from this story that the film Junoon was later adapted in 1978 by Shyam Benegal.The 1880 novel The Steam House by Jules Verne takes place in the aftermath of the Indian Rebellionof 1857.Flora Annie Steel's novel On the Face of the Waters (1896) describes incidents of the Mutiny.The plot of H. Beam Piper's science fiction novel Uller Uprising is based on the events of the IndianRebellion of 1857.Rujub, the juggler and In Times of Peril: A tale of India by G.A. Henty are each based on the Indian

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Rebellion of 1857[166][167]

See also

Indian National Army, composed of British Indian prisoners of war during WWII which fought for aindependent state of IndiaPolitical warfare in British colonial India

Notes1. The Gurkhas by W. Brook Northey, John Morris. ISBN 81­206­1577­8. Page 582. Bandyopadhyay 2004, pp. 169–172 Bose & Jalal 2003, pp. 88–103 Quote: "The 1857 rebellion was by and large

confined to northern Indian Gangetic Plain and central India.", Brown 1994, pp. 85–87, and Metcalf & Metcalf2006, pp. 100–106

3. Bayly 1990, p. 170 Quote: "What distinguished the events of 1857 was their scale and the fact that for a shorttime they posed a military threat to British dominance in the Ganges Plain."

4. Spear 1990, pp. 147–1485. Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 177, Bayly 2000, p. 3576. Bayly 1990, pp. 194–1977. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/india/1617englandindies.asp8. TheHindu August­2006 (http://www.hindu.com/mag/2006/08/06/stories/2006080600360400.htm)9. Ludden 2002, p. 13310. to Mazumder, Rajit K. (2003), The Indian Army and the Making of the Punjab, Delhi: Permanent Black, pp. 7–8,

ISBN 81­7824­059­911. Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 6112. Brown 1994, p. 8813. Metcalf 1990, p. 4814. Bandyopadhyay 2004, p. 171, Bose & Jalal 2003, p. 9015. A Matter of Honour – an Account of the Indian Army, its Officers and Men, Philip Mason, ISBN 0­333­41837­9,

page 26116. Essential histories, The Indian Rebellion 1857–1858, Gregory Fremont­Barnes, Osprey 2007, page 2517. From Sepoy to Subedar – Being the Life and Adventures of Subedar Sita Ram, a Native Officer of the Bengal

Army, edited by James Lunt, ISBN 0­333­45672­6, page 17218. "The Indian Mutiny".19. Hyam, R (2002) Britain’s Imperial Century, 1815­1914 Third Edition, Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke P13520. Headrick, Daniel R. "The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century".

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Cultures of Scholarship38. Embree, Ainslie in Helmstadter, Richard J.; Webb, R. K.; Davis, Richard (eds.) (1992), Religion and irreligion

in Victorian society: essays in honor of R. K. Webb, New York: Routledge, p. 152, ISBN 0­415­07625­039. Gregory Fremont­Barnes, The Indian Mutiny 1857–58 (Essential Histories), Reading: Osprey Publishing, p. 9,

ISBN 1­84603­209­140. Bayly, C. A. (1996), Empire and information: intelligence gathering and social communication in India, 1780–

1870, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, p. 331, ISBN 0­521­66360­141. » Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 Postcolonial Studies @ Emory (http://www.english.emory.edu/Bahri/Mutiny.html).

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47. David 2003, p. 6948. "The Indian Mutiny of 1857", Col. G. B. Malleson, reprint 2005, Rupa & Co. Publishers, New Delhi49. Durendra Nath Sen, page 50 Eighteen Fifty­Seven, The Publications Division, Ministry of Information &

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ed.), Aligarh/India: Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences, pp. 253–258, OCLC 85240421478. God's Acre (http://www.hindu.com/mp/2006/10/28/stories/2006102801590100.htm). The Hindu Metro Plus

Delhi. 28 October 2006.79. 'The Rising: The Ballad of Mangal Pandey' (http://www.jonathanforeman.com/movies/mangal.html). Daily Mail,

27 August 200580. essential histories, the Indian Mutiny 1857–58, Gregory Fremont­Barnes, Osprey 2007, page 4081. Porter, Maj Gen Whitworth (1889). History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol I. Chatham: The Institution of

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2012­09­17116. John Cassell's Illustrated history of England ­ William Howitt, John Cassell ­ Google Boeken,

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Asiatic Society, 1970, 43, 1, P100118. Straits Times, 23 August 1857119. Arnold, D (1983) ‘White colonization and labour in nineteenth­century India’, Journal of Imperial and

Commonwealth History, 11, P144120. Sahib: The British Soldier in India 1750–1914 Richard Holmes HarperCollins 2005121. Punch, 24 October 1857122. Herbert, C. (2008), War of No Pity: The Indian Mutiny and Victorian Trauma, Princeton University Press123. Dalrymple, The Last Moghul, pp.374124. Dalrymple, The Last Moghul, pp.4­5125. Dalrymple 2006126. Chakravarty, G. (2004), The Indian Mutiny and the British Imagination, Cambridge University Press127. Judd, D. (2005), The Lion and the Tiger: The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600–1947, Oxford University

Press128. Beckman, Karen Redrobe (2003), Vanishing Women: Magic, Film, and Feminism, Duke University Press,

pp. 33–4, ISBN 0­8223­3074­1129. David 2003, pp. 220–222130. The Friend of India reprinted in South Australian Advertiser, 2 October 1860131. Tuson, Penelope (May–June 1998). "Mutiny narratives and the imperial feminine: European women’s accounts of

the rebellion in India in 1857". Women's Studies International Forum (Elsevier) 21 (3): 291–303.doi:10.1016/S0277­5395(98)00023­5.

132. Bender, J.C., "Mutiny or freedom fight", in Potter, S.J., Newspapers and empire in Ireland and Britain, Dublin:Four Courts Press, pp. 105–106.

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(at p. 63), ISBN 978­0­7425­5395­8136. W.Y. Carman, page 107 Indian Army Uniforms – Infantry, Morgan­Grampian London 1969137. Philip Mason, page 319 "A Matter of Honour", ISBN 0­333­41837­9138. Authorisation contained in General Order 363 of 1858 and General Order 733 of 1859139. "Calcutta Monthly Journal and General Register 1837". p. 60.140. First Indian War of Independence (http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/itihas/1857.htm) 8 January 1998141. A number of dispossessed dynasts, both Hindu and Muslim, exploited the well­founded caste­suspicions of the

sepoys and made these simple folk their cat's paw in gamble for recovering their thrones. The last scions of theDelhi Mughals or the Oudh Nawabs and the Peshwa, can by no ingenuity be called fighters for Indian freedomHindusthan Standard, Puja Annual, 195 p. 22 referenced in the Truth about the Indian mutiny article by DrGanda Singh

142. In the light of the available evidence, we are forced to the conclusion that the uprising of 1857 was not the resultof careful planning, nor were there any master­minds behind it. As I read about the events of 1857, I am forced tothe conclusion that the Indian national character had sunk very low. The leaders of the revolt could never agree.They were mutually jealous and continually intrigued against one another. ... In fact these personal jealousies andintrigues were largely responsible for the Indian defeat.Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Surendranath Sen: EighteenFifty­seven (Appx. X & Appx. XV)

143. >Hasan 1998, p. 149144. Nanda 1965, p. 701

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145. Address at the Function marking the 150th Anniversary of the Revolt of 1857(http://speakerloksabha.gov.in/speech/SpeechDetails.asp?SpeechId=172)

146. India's First War of Independence 1857 (http://www.gatewayforindia.com/history/british_history2.htm)147. Le Monde article on the revolt (http://www.monde­diplomatique.fr/2007/08/DALRYMPLE/15000)148. German National Geographic article (http://www.nationalgeographic.de/php/entdecken/wettbewerb2/forum.php3?

command=show&id=3118&root=3052)149. The Empire, Sydney, Australia, 11 July 1857, or Taranaki Herald, New Zealand, 29 August 1857150. Michael Adas, "Twentieth Century Approaches to the Indian Mutiny of 1857­58," Journal of Asian History,

1971, Vol. 5 Issue 1, pp 1­19151. It includes essays by historians Eric Stokes, Christopher Bayly, Rudrangshu Mukherjee, Tapti Roy, Rajat K.

Ray and others. Biswamoy Pati (2010), The 1857 Rebellion, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780198069133152. Farooqui, M trans (2010) Besieged: voices from Delhi 1857, Penguin Books153. Kim A. Wagner, "The Marginal Mutiny: The New Historiography of the Indian Uprising of 1857," History

Compass 9/10 (2011): 760–766, quote p 760 doi: 10.1111/j.1478­0542.2011.00799.x154. See also Kim A. Wagner (2010), The Great Fear Of 1857: Rumours, Conspiracies and the Making of the Indian

Uprising, Peter Lang, p. 26, ISBN 9781906165277155. The Indian Mutiny and Victorian Trauma by Christopher Herbert, Princeton University Press, Princeton 2007156. The History of the Indian Mutiny: Giving a detailed account of the sepoy insurrection in India by Charles Ball,

The London Printing and Publishing Company, London, 1860157. V.D. Savarkar argues that the rebellion was a war of Indian independence. The Indian War of Independence: 1857

(Bombay: 1947 [1909]). Most historians have seen his arguments as discredited, with one venturing so far as tosay, 'It was neither first, nor national, nor a war of independence.' Eric Stokes has argued that the rebellion wasactually a variety of movements, not one movement. The Peasant Armed (Oxford: 1980). See also S.B.Chaudhuri, Civil Rebellion in the Indian Mutinies 1857–1859 (Calcutta: 1957)

158. The Indian Mutiny, Spilsbury Julian, Orion, 2007159. S&T magazine issue 121 (September 1988), page 20160. The communal hatred led to ugly communal riots in many parts of U.P. The green flag was hoisted and Muslims

in Bareilly, Bijnor, Moradabad, and other places the Muslims shouted for the revival of Muslim kingdom." R. C.Majumdar: Sepoy Mutiny and Revolt of 1857 (page 2303­31)

161. Sitaram Yechury. The Empire Strikes Back (http://hindustantimes.com/news/181_1896809,00120001.htm).Hindustan Times. January 2006.

162. UK Indian Mutiny ceremony blocked (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7009742.stm)163. Briton visits India Mutiny grave (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7014281.stm)164. "A little peek into history". The Hindu (India). 2 May 2008.165. The Great Train Robbery (1st ed.). Ballantine Books. 1975. pp. 272–275, 278, 280.166. [1] (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/7229/7229­h/7229­h.htm)167. [2] (http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/7071/pg7071.html)

References

Text­books and academic monographs

Alavi, Seema (1996), The Sepoys and the Company: Tradition and Transition 1770–1830, Oxford UniversityPress, p. 340, ISBN 0­19­563484­5.Anderson, Clare (2007), Indian Uprising of 1857–8: Prisons, Prisoners and Rebellion, New York: AnthemPress, p. 217, ISBN 978­1­84331­249­9.Bandyopadhyay, Sekhara (2004), From Plassey to Partition: A History of Modern India, New Delhi: OrientLongman, p. 523, ISBN 81­250­2596­0.Bayly, Chistopher Alan (1988), Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire, Cambridge UniversityPress, p. 230, ISBN 0­521­25092­7.Bayly, Christopher Alan (2000), Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication inIndia, c 1780–1870, Cambridge University Press, p. 412, ISBN 0­521­57085­9.

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Bose, Sugata; Jalal, Ayesha (2004), Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy (2nd ed.), London:Routledge, p. 253, ISBN 0­415­30787­2.Brown, Judith M. (1994), Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy (2nd ed.), Oxford UniversityPress, p. 480, ISBN 0­19­873113­2.Harris, John (2001), The Indian Mutiny, Ware: Wordsworth Editions, p. 205, ISBN 1­84022­232­8.Hibbert, Christopher (1980), The Great Mutiny: India 1857, London: Allen Lane, p. 472, ISBN 0­14­004752­2.Judd, Denis (2004), The Lion and the Tiger: The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600–1947, Oxford UniversityPress, xiii, 280, ISBN 0­19­280358­1.Keene, Henry George (1883), Fifty­Seven. Some account of the administration of Indian Districts during therevolt of the Bengal Army, London: W.H. Allen, p. 145.Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004), A History of India (4th ed.), London: Routledge, xii, 448,ISBN 0­415­32920­5.Leasor, James (1956), The Red Fort, London: W. Lawrie, p. 377, ISBN 0­02­034200­4.Ludden, David (2002), India And South Asia: A Short History, Oxford: Oneworld, xii, 306, ISBN 1­85168­237­6.Majumdar, R.C.; Raychaudhuri, H.C.; Datta, Kalikinkar (1967), An Advanced History of India (3rd ed.),London: Macmillan, p. 1126.Markovits, Claude, ed. (2004), A History of Modern India 1480–1950, London: Anthem, p. 607, ISBN 1­84331­152­6.Metcalf, Barbara D.; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006), A Concise History of Modern India (2nd ed.), CambridgeUniversity Press, p. 337, ISBN 0­521­68225­8.Metcalf, Thomas R. (1990), The Aftermath of Revolt: India, 1857–1870, New Delhi: Manohar, p. 352, ISBN 81­85054­99­1.Metcalf, Thomas R. (1997), Ideologies of the Raj, Cambridge University Press, p. 256, ISBN 0­521­58937­1.Mukherjee, Rudrangshu (2002), Awadh in Revolt 1857–1858: A Study of Popular Resistance (2nd ed.), London:Anthem, ISBN 1­84331­075­9.Palmer, Julian A.B. (1966), The Mutiny Outbreak at Meerut in 1857, Cambridge University Press, p. 175,ISBN 0­521­05901­1.Ray, Rajat Kanta (2002), The Felt Community: Commonality and Mentality before the Emergence of IndianNationalism, Oxford University Press, p. 596, ISBN 0­19­565863­9.Robb, Peter (2002), A History of India, Basingstoke: Palgrave, p. 344, ISBN 0­333­69129­6.Roy, Tapti (1994), The politics of a popular uprising: Bundelkhand 1857, Delhi: Oxford University Press,p. 291, ISBN 0­19­563612­0.Spear, Percival (1990), A History of India, Volume 2, New Delhi and London: Penguin Books, ISBN 978­0­14­013836­8.Stanley, Peter (1998), White Mutiny: British Military Culture in India, 1825–1875, London: Hurst, p. 314,ISBN 1­85065­330­5.Stein, Burton (2001), A History of India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, p. 432, ISBN 0­19­565446­3.Stokes, Eric (1980), The Peasant and the Raj: Studies in Agrarian Society and Peasant Rebellion in ColonialIndia, Cambridge University Press, p. 316, ISBN 0­521­29770­2.Stokes, Eric; Bayly, C.A. (ed.) (1986), The Peasant Armed: The Indian Revolt of 1857, Oxford: Clarendon,p. 280, ISBN 0­19­821570­3.Taylor, P.J.O. (1997), What really happened during the mutiny: a day­by­day account of the major events of1857–1859 in India, Delhi: Oxford University Press, p. 323, ISBN 0­19­564182­5.Wolpert, Stanley (2004), A New History of India (7th ed.), Oxford University Press, p. 530, ISBN 0­19­516678­7.

Articles in journals and collections

Alam Khan, Iqtidar (2013), "The Wahabis in the 1857 Revolt: A Brief Reappraisal of Their Role", SocialScientist 41 (5/6): 15–23, JSTOR 23611115Alavi, Seema (February 1993), "The Company Army and Rural Society: The Invalid Thanah 1780–1830",Modern Asian Studies 27 (1): 147–178, doi:10.1017/S0026749X00016097, JSTOR 312880

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Baker, David (1991), "Colonial Beginnings and the Indian Response: The Revolt of 1857–58 in MadhyaPradesh", Modern Asian Studies 25 (3): 511–543, doi:10.1017/S0026749X00013913, JSTOR 312615Blunt, Alison (July 2000), "Embodying war: British women and domestic defilement in the Indian "Mutiny",1857–8", Journal of Historical Geography 26 (3): 403–428, doi:10.1006/jhge.2000.0236English, Barbara (February 1994), "The Kanpur Massacres in India in the Revolt of 1857", Past and Present 0(142): 169–178, doi:10.1093/past/142.1.169Frykenberg, Robert E. (2001), "India to 1858", in Winks, Robin, Oxford History of the British Empire:Historiography, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 194–213, ISBN 0­19­924680­7Hasan, Farhat; Roy, Tapti (1998), "Review of Tapti Roy, The Politics of a Popular Uprising, OUP, 1994", SocialScientist 26 (1): 148–151, doi:10.2307/3517586Klein, Ira (2000), "Materialism, Mutiny and Modernization in British India", Modern Asian Studies 34 (3): 545–580Lahiri, Nayanjot (June 2003), "Commemorating and Remembering 1857: The Revolt in Delhi and Its Afterlife",World Archaeology 35 (1): 35–60, doi:10.1080/0043824032000078072, JSTOR 3560211Mukherjee, Rudrangshu (August 1990), " 'Satan Let Loose upon Earth': The Kanpur Massacres in India in theRevolt of 1857", Past and Present 128: 92–116, doi:10.1093/past/128.1.92Mukherjee, Rudrangshu (February 1994), "The Kanpur Massacres in India in the Revolt of 1857: Reply", Pastand Present 142: 178–189, doi:10.1093/past/142.1.169Nanda, Krishan (September 1965), The Western Political Quarterly 18 (3), University of Utah on behalf of theWestern Political Science Association, pp. 700–701 .Roy, Tapti (February 1993), "Visions of the Rebels: A Study of 1857 in Bundelkhand", Modern Asian Studies 27(1): 205–228 (Special Issue: How Social, Political and Cultural Information Is Collected, Defined, Used andAnalyzed), doi:10.1017/S0026749X00016115, JSTOR 312882Stokes, Eric (December 1969), "Rural Revolt in the Great Rebellion of 1857 in India: A Study of the Saharanpurand Muzaffarnagar Districts", The Historical Journal 12 (4): 696–627Washbrook, D. A. (2001), "India, 1818–1860: The Two Faces of Colonialism", in Porter, Andrew, OxfordHistory of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press,pp. 395–421, ISBN 0­19­924678­5Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (2008), "1857 ki Jung­e Azadi main Khandan ka hissa", Hayat Karam Husain (2nded.), Aligarh/India: Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences, pp. 253–258, OCLC 852404214

Other histories

Dalrymple, William (2006), The Last Mughal, Viking Penguin, ISBN 0­670­99925­3David, Saul (2003), The Indian Mutiny: 1857, London: Penguin Books, Pp. 528, ISBN 0­14­100554­8David, Saul (2007), Victoria's Wars, London: Penguin Books, ISBN 978­0­141­00555­3Mishra, Amaresh. 2007. War of Civilisations: The Long Revolution (India AD 1857, 2 Vols.), ISBN 978­81­291­1282­8Ward, Andrew. Our Bones Are Scattered. New York: Holt & Co., 1996.

First person accounts and classic histories

Anderson, Clare. The Indian Uprising of 1857­8: Prisons, Prisoners, and Rebellion. London, 2007.Barter, Captain Richard The Siege of Delhi. Mutiny memories of an old officer, London, The Folio Society, 1984.Campbell, Sir Colin. Narrative of the Indian Revolt. London: George Vickers, 1858.Collier, Richard. The Great Indian Mutiny. New York: Dutton, 1964.Forrest, George W. A History of the Indian Mutiny, William Blackwood and Sons, London, 1904. (4 vols)Fitchett, W.H., B.A., LL.D., A Tale of the Great Mutiny, Smith, Elder & Co., London, 1911.Inglis, Julia Selina, Lady, 1833–1904, The Siege of Lucknow: a Diary(http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/inglis/lucknow/lucknow.html), London: James R. Osgood, McIlvaine &Co., 1892. Online at A Celebration of Women Writers. (http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/writers.html)Innes, Lt. General McLeod: The Sepoy Revolt, A.D. Innes & Co., London, 1897.Kaye, John William. A History of the Sepoy War In India (3 vols). London: W.H. Allen & Co., 1878.

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Kaye, Sir John & Malleson, G.B.: The Indian Mutiny of 1857, Rupa & Co., Delhi, (1st edition 1890) reprint2005.Khan, Syed Ahmed (1859), Asbab­e Baghawat­e Hind, Translated as The Causes of the Indian Revolt, Allahabad,1873Malleson, Colonel G.B. The Indian Mutiny of 1857. New York: Scribner & Sons, 1891.Marx, Karl & Freidrich Engels. The First Indian War of Independence 1857–1859. Moscow: Foreign LanguagesPublishing House, 1959.Pandey, Sita Ram, From Sepoy to Subedar, Being the Life and Adventures of Subedar Sita Ram, a Native Officerof the Bengal Native Army, Written and Related by Himself, trans. Lt. Col. Norgate, (Lahore: Bengal StaffCorps, 1873), ed. James Lunt, (Delhi: Vikas Publications, 1970).Raikes, Charles: Notes on the Revolt in the North­Western Provinces of India, Longman, London, 1858.Roberts, Field Marshal Lord, Forty­one Years in India, Richard Bentley, London, 1897Forty­one years in India (https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/16528) at Project GutenbergRussell, William Howard, My Diary in India in the years 1858­9, Routledge, London, 1860, (2 vols.)Sen, Surendra Nath, Eighteen fifty­seven, (with a foreword by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad), Indian Ministry ofInformation & Broadcasting, Delhi, 1957.Thomson, Mowbray (Capt.), The Story of Cawnpore, Richard Bentley, London, 1859.Trevelyan, Sir George Otto, Cawnpore, Indus, Delhi, (first edition 1865), reprint 2002.Wilberforce, Reginald G, An Unrecorded Chapter of the Indian Mutiny, Being the Personal Reminiscences ofReginald G. WIlberforce, Late 52nd Infantry, Compiled from a Diary and Letters Written on the Spot London:John Murray 1884, facsimile reprint: Gurgaon: The Academic Press, 1976.

Tertiary sources

"Indian Mutiny." Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Online. http://www.eb.com:180/cgi­bin/g?DocF=micro/342/91.html. 23 March 1998."Lee­Enfield Rifle (http://www.eb.com:180/cgi­bin/g?DocF=index/in/dia/73.html)." Encyclopædia BritannicaOnline. 23 March 1998.

Fictional and narrative literature

Conan Doyle, Arthur. The Sign of the Four, featuring Sherlock Holmes, originally appearing in Lippincott'sMonthly Magazine 1890.Farrell, J.G. The Siege of Krishnapur. New York: Carroll & Graf, 1985 (orig. 1973; Booker Prize winner).Fenn, Clive Robert. For the Old Flag: A Tale of the Mutiny. London: Sampson Low, 1899.Fraser, George MacDonald. Flashman in the Great Game. London: Barrie & Jenkins, 1975.Grant, James. First Love and Last Love: A Tale of the Mutiny. New York: G. Routledge & Sons, 1869.Kaye, Mary Margaret. Shadow of the Moon. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979.Kilworth, Garry Douglas. Brothers of the Blade: Constable & Robinson, 2004.Leasor, James. Follow the Drum (http://www.jamesleasor.com/follow­the­drum/.). London: Heinemann, 1972,reissued James Leasor Ltd, 2011.Masters, John. Nightrunners of Bengal. New York: Viking Press, 1951.Raikes, William Stephen. 12 Years of a Soldier's Life In India. Boston: Ticknor and Fields, 1860.Julian Rathbone, The Mutiny.Rossetti, Christina Georgina. "In the Round Tower at Jhansi, 8 June 1857." Goblin Market and Other Poems.1862.Anurag Kumar. Recalcitrance: a novel based on events of 1857–58 in Lucknow. Lucknow: AIP Books, Lucknow2008.Stuart, V.A. The Alexander Sheridan Series: # 2: 1964. The Sepoy Mutiny; # 3: 1974. Massacre at Cawnpore; #4: 1974. The Cannons of Lucknow; 1975. # 5: The Heroic Garrison. Reprinted 2003 by McBooks Press. (Note: #1 – Victors & Lords deals with the Crimean War.)Valerie Fitzgerald "Zemindar": 1981 Bodley Head. historic novel.

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External links

Detailed Map: The revolt of 1857­1859, Historical Atlas ofSouth Asia, Digital South Asia Library, hosted by theUniversity of Chicago

(http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/schwartzberg/fullscreen.html?object=099)Development of Situation­January to July 1857 – Maj (Retd) AGHA HUMAYUN AMIN fromWASHINGTON DC defencejounal.com (http://defencejournal.com/dec99/1857.htm)The Indian Mutiny BritishEmpire.co.uk(http://www.britishempire.co.uk/forces/armycampaigns/indiancampaigns/mutiny/mutiny.htm)Karl Marx, New York Tribune, 1853–1858, The Revolt in India marxists.org(http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1857/india/index.htm)

Preceded bySecond Anglo­Sikh War Indo­British conflicts

Succeeded byHindu GermanConspiracy

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