he2011 earthquake off the Pacific coast of Thoku(Thoku-chih Taiheiy Oki Jishin?)was amagnitude9.0 (Mw)underseamegathrust earthquakeoff the coast ofJapanthat occurred at 14:46JST(05:46UTC) on Friday 11 March 2011,[2][3][8]with theepicentreapproximately 70 kilometres (43mi) east of theOshika PeninsulaofThokuand thehypocenterat an underwater depth of approximately 30km (19mi).[2][9]The earthquake is also often referred to in Japan as theGreat East Japan Earthquake(Higashi nihon daishinsai?)[10][11][12][fn 1]and also known as the2011 Tohoku earthquake,[13]and the3.11 Earthquake. It was the most powerfulearthquake ever recorded to have hit Japan, and the fifthmost powerful earthquake in the worldsince modern record-keeping began in 1900.[8][14][15]The earthquake triggered powerfultsunamiwaves that reached heights of up to 40.5 metres (133ft) inMiyakoin Thoku'sIwate Prefecture,[16][17]and which, in theSendaiarea, travelled up to 10km (6mi) inland.[18]The earthquake movedHonshu(the main island of Japan) 2.4m (8ft) east and shifted the Earth on its axis by estimates of between 10cm (4in) and 25cm (10in),[19][20][21]and generated sound waves detected by the low orbitingGOCEsatellite.[22]On 10 February 2014, a JapaneseNational Police Agencyreport confirmed 15,885 deaths,[23]6,148 injured,[24]and 2,623 people missing[25]across twentyprefectures, as well as 127,290 buildings totally collapsed, with a further 272,788 buildings 'half collapsed', and another 747,989 buildings partially damaged.[26]The earthquake and tsunami also caused extensive and severe structural damage in north-eastern Japan, including heavy damage to roads and railways as well as fires in many areas, and a dam collapse.[18][27]Japanese Prime MinisterNaoto Kansaid, "In the 65 years after the end of World War II, this is the toughest and the most difficult crisis for Japan."[28]Around 4.4million households in northeastern Japan were left without electricity and 1.5million without water.[29]The tsunami causednuclear accidents, primarily thelevel 7meltdownsat three reactors in theFukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plantcomplex, and the associated evacuation zones affecting hundreds of thousands of residents.[30][31]Many electrical generators were taken down, and at least three nuclear reactorssuffered explosionsdue to hydrogen gas that had built up within their outer containment buildings after cooling system failure. Residents within a 20km (12mi) radius of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant and a 10km (6.2mi) radius of theFukushima Daini Nuclear Power Plantwere evacuated. In addition, the U.S. recommended that its citizens evacuate up to 80km (50mi) of the plant.[32]Early estimates placed insured losses from the earthquake alone at US$14.5 to $34.6billion.[33]TheBank of Japanoffered15trillion (US$183billion) to the banking system on 14 March in an effort to normalize market conditions.[34]TheWorld Bank's estimated economic cost was US$235billion, making it the costliest natural disaster in world history.[35][36]Contents 1Earthquake 1.1Geology 1.2Energy 1.3Geophysical effects 1.4Aftershocks 2Tsunami 2.1Japan 2.2Elsewhere across the Pacific 3Land subsidence 4Casualties 5Damage and effects 5.1Ports 5.2Dams and water problems 5.3Electricity 5.4Oil, gas and coal 5.5Nuclear power plants 5.5.1Fukushima meltdowns 5.5.2Incidents elsewhere 5.6Wind power 5.7Transport 5.8Telecommunications 5.9Defense 5.10Space center 5.11Cultural properties 6Aftermath 7Humanitarian response 8Media coverage 9Scientific and research response 10See also 11Notes 12References 13Further reading 14External links 14.1Tsunami videosEarthquake[edit]

Tokyo

SendaiMap showing the epicenter of the earthquake

USGS centroid moment tensor solution of the main tremor showing a visual representation offocal mechanismThe 9.0magnitude(MW)underseamegathrust earthquakeoccurred on 11 March 2011 at 14:46JST(05:46 UTC) in the north-western Pacific Ocean at a relatively shallow depth of 32km (19.9mi),[37]with itsepicenterapproximately 72km (45mi) east of theOshika PeninsulaofThoku, Japan, lasting approximately six minutes.[1][2]The earthquake was initially reported as 7.9MWby the USGS before it was quickly upgraded to 8.8 MW, then to 8.9 MW,[38]and then finally to 9.0 MW.[3][39]Sendaiwas the nearest major city to the earthquake, 130km (81mi) from the epicenter; the earthquake occurred 373km (232mi) fromTokyo.[2]The main earthquake was preceded by a number of largeforeshocks, with hundreds ofaftershocksreported. The first major foreshock was a 7.2MWevent on 9 March, approximately 40km (25mi) from the epicenter of the 11 March earthquake, with another three on the same day in excess of 6.0MW.[2][40]Following the main earthquake on 11 March, a 7.0MWaftershock was reported at 15:06 JST (6:06 UTC), succeeded by a 7.4 MWat 15:15 JST (6:16 UTC) and a 7.2 MWat 15:26 JST (6:26 UTC).[41]Over eight hundred aftershocks of magnitude 4.5 MWor greater have occurred since the initial quake,[42]including one on 26 October 2013 (local time) of magnitude 7.3.[43]Aftershocks followOmori's Law, which states that the rate of aftershocks declines with the reciprocal of the time since the main quake. The aftershocks will thus taper off in time, but could continue for years.[44]One minute before the earthquake was felt in Tokyo, theEarthquake Early Warningsystem, which includes more than 1,000seismometersin Japan, sent out warnings of impending strong shaking to millions. It is believed that the early warning by theJapan Meteorological Agency(JMA) saved many lives.[45][46]The warning for the general public was delivered about 8 seconds after the firstP wavewas detected, or about 31 seconds after the earthquake occurred. However, the estimated intensities were smaller than the actual ones in some places in Kanto and Tohoku regions. This was thought to be because of smaller estimated earthquake magnitude, smaller estimated fault plane, shorter estimated fault length, not having considered the shape of the fault, etc.[47]There were also cases where large differences between estimated intensities by the Earthquake Early Warning system and the actual intensities occurred in the aftershocks and triggered earthquakes.[48]Geology[edit]

Map of the Thoku earthquake and aftershocks on 1114 March

Hypocentral region boundaries (Source: The Japanese Headquarters for Earthquake Research Promotion)This earthquake occurred where thePacific Plateissubductingunder the plate beneath northern Honshu; which plate is a matter of debate amongst scientists.[20][49]The Pacific plate, which moves at a rate of 8 to 9cm (3.1 to 3.5 in) per year, dips under Honshu's underlying plate building large amounts of elastic energy. This motion pushes the upper plate down until the accumulated stress causes a seismic slip-rupture event. The break caused the sea floor to rise by several meters.[49]A quake of this magnitude usually has a rupture length of at least 500km (300mi) and generally requires a long, relatively straight fault surface. Because the plate boundary andsubduction zonein the area of the Honshu rupture is not very straight, it is unusual for the magnitude of its earthquake to exceed 8.5; the magnitude of this earthquake was a surprise to some seismologists.[50]Thehypocentral regionof this earthquake extended from offshoreIwate Prefectureto offshoreIbaraki Prefecture.[51]TheJapanese Meteorological Agencysaid that the earthquake may have ruptured the fault zone from Iwate to Ibaraki with a length of 500km (310mi) and a width of 200km (120mi).[52][53]Analysis showed that this earthquake consisted of a set of three events.[54]The earthquake may have had a mechanism similar to that ofanother large earthquake in 869with an estimatedsurface wave magnitude(Ms) of 8.6, which also created a large tsunami.[55]Other major earthquakes with tsunamis struck theSanriku Coastregionin 1896andin 1933.In a study of N. Uchida and T. Matsuzawa, it was pointed out that the source area of this earthquake has a relatively high coupling coefficient surrounded by areas of relatively low coupling coefficients in the west, north, and south. From the averaged coupling coefficient of 0.50.8 in the source area and the seismic moment, it was estimated that the slip deficit of this earthquake was accumulated over a period of 260880 years, which is consistent with the recurrence interval of such great earthquakes estimated from the tsunami deposit data. The seismic moment of this earthquake accounts for about 93% of the estimated cumulative moment from 1926 to March 2011. Hence, earthquakes with magnitudes about 7 since 1926 in this area only had released part of the accumulated energy. In the area near the trench, the coupling coefficient is high, which could act as the source of the large tsunami.[56]Most of the foreshocks are interplate earthquakes with thrust-type focal mechanisms. Both interplate and intraplate earthquakes appeared in the aftershocks offshore Sanriku coast with considerable proportions.[57]The strong ground motion registered at the maximum of 7 on theJapan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scaleinKurihara,Miyagi Prefecture.[58]Three other prefecturesFukushima,IbarakiandTochigirecorded an upper 6 on the JMA scale. Seismic stations inIwate,Gunma,SaitamaandChiba Prefecturemeasured a lower 6, recording an upper 5 in Tokyo.InRussia, the main shock could be felt inYuzhno-Sakhalinsk(MSK 4) andKurilsk(MSK 4). The aftershock at 06:25 UTC could be felt inYuzhno-Kurilsk(MSK 5) and Kurilsk (MSK 4).[59]Energy[edit]

Damage to the antenna ofTokyo TowerThis energy of the seismic waves from the earthquake wassurface energy(Me)1.9 0.51017joules,[60]which is nearly double that of the 9.1-magnitude2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunamithat killed 230,000 people. If harnessed, the seismic energy from this earthquake would power a city the size of Los Angeles for an entire year.[44]Theseismic moment(M0), which is represents a physical size for the event, was calculated by the USGS at 3.91022joules,[61]slightly less than the 2004 Indian Ocean quake.Japan's National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) calculated apeak ground accelerationof 2.99g(29.33m/s).[62][fn 2]The largest individual recording in Japan was 2.7g, in the Miyagi Prefecture, 75km from the epicentre; the highest reading in the Tokyo metropolitan area was 0.16g.[65]Geophysical effects[edit]Portions of northeastern Japan shifted by as much as 2.4m (7.9ft) closer to North America,[19][20]making some sections of Japan's landmass wider than before.[20]Those areas of Japan closest to the epicenter experienced the largest shifts.[20]A 400km (250mi) stretch of coastline dropped vertically by 0.6m (2.0ft), allowing the tsunami to travel farther and faster onto land.[20]One early estimate suggested that the Pacific plate may have moved westward by up to 20m (66ft),[66]and another early estimate put the amount of slippage at as much as 40m (130ft).[67]On 6 April the Japanese coast guard said that the quake shifted the seabed near the epicenter 24meters (79ft) and elevated the seabed off the coast of Miyagi prefecture by 3meters.[68]A report by theJapan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, published inScienceon 2 December 2011, concluded that the seabed in the area between the epicenter and theJapan Trenchmoved 50 meters east-southeast and rose about 7 meters as a result of the quake. The report also stated that the quake had caused several major landslides on the seabed in the affected area.[69]

Soil liquefactioninKt, TokyoThe Earth'saxisshifted by estimates of between 10cm (4in) and 25cm (10in).[19][20][21]This deviation led to a number of small planetary changes, including thelength of a day, thetilt of the Earth, and theChandler wobble.[21]The speed of the Earth's rotation increased, shortening the day by 1.8microsecondsdue to the redistribution of Earth's mass.[70]The axial shift was caused by the redistribution of mass on the Earth's surface, which changed the planet'smoment of inertia. Because ofconservation of angular momentum, such changes ofinertiaresult in small changes to the Earth's rate of rotation.[71]These are expected changes[21]for an earthquake of this magnitude.[19][70]The earthquake also generated sound waves detected by theGOCEsatellite, which thusserendipitouslybecame the first seismograph in orbit.[22]Soil liquefactionwas evident in areas ofreclaimed landaround Tokyo, particularly inUrayasu,[72][73]Chiba City,Funabashi,Narashino(all inChiba Prefecture) and in theKoto,Edogawa,Minato,Ch, andtaWards of Tokyo. Approximately 30 homes or buildings were destroyed and 1,046 other buildings were damaged to varying degrees.[74]NearbyHaneda Airport, built mostly on reclaimed land, was not damaged.Odaibaalso experienced liquefaction, but damage was minimal.[75]Shinmoedake, a volcano inKyushu, erupted three days after the earthquake. The volcano had previously erupted in January 2011; it is not known if the later eruption was linked to the earthquake.[76]InAntarctica, the seismic waves from the earthquake were reported to have caused theWhillans Ice Streamto slip by about 0.5m (1.6ft).[77]

Map ofseismic intensityobservations resulting from mainshockThe first sign international researchers had that the earthquake caused such a dramatic change in the Earths rotation came from the United States Geological Survey which monitors Global Positioning Satellite stations across the world. The Survey team had several GPS monitors located near the scene of the earthquake. The GPS station located nearest the epicenter moved almost 4m (13ft). This motivated government researchers to look into other ways the earthquake may have had large scale effects on the planet. Scientists at NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory did some calculations and determined that the Earths rotation was changed by the earthquake to the point where the days are now 1.8microsecondsshorter.[78]Dr. Richard Gross, one of the head researchers working for NASA, explained that the way the Earth rotates is not very smooth, like an old car wobbling on its axle. The earthquake's effect was as if a person took a hammer and whacked the car's axle, causing it to shift and the car to drive differently. The powerful earthquake hit the Earths axle, causing it to spin in a slightly different way.[79]Aftershocks[edit]Further information:List of foreshocks and aftershocks of the 2011 Thoku earthquakeJapan has experienced over 1000 aftershocks since the earthquake, with 80 registering over magnitude 6.0Mwand several of which have been over magnitude 7.0Mw. A magnitude 7.4Mwat 15:08(JST), 7.9Mwat 15:15 and a 7.7Mwquake at 15:26 all occurred on 11 March.[80][81]A month later, amajor aftershockstruck offshore on 7 April with a magnitude of 7.1Mw. Its epicenter was underwater, 66km (41mi) off the coast of Sendai. TheJapan Meteorological Agencyassigned a magnitude of 7.4 MJMA, while theU.S. Geological Surveylowered it to 7.1 Mw.[82]At least four people were killed, and electricity was cut off across much of northern Japan including the loss of external power toHigashidri Nuclear Power PlantandRokkasho Reprocessing Plant.[83][84][85]Four days later on 11 April, anothermagnitude 7.1 Mwaftershockstruck Fukushima, causing additional damage and killing a total of three people.[86][87]On 7 December 2012 alarge aftershock of magnitude 7.3Mwcaused a minor tsunami, and again on 26 October 2013 small tsunami waves were recorded after a 7.1Mwaftershock.[88]As of 16 Mar 2012 aftershocks continued, totaling 1887 events over magnitude 4.0; a regularly updated map showing all shocks of magnitude 4.5 and above near or off the east coast of Honshu in the last seven days[89]showed over 20 events.[90]As of 6 December 2013 there have been a total of 776 aftershocks of 5.0M or greater, 112 of 6.0M or greater, and 8 over 7.0 M as reported by the Japanese Meteorological Agency.[91]The number of aftershocks was associated with decreased health across Japan.[92]Tsunami[edit]

Energy map of the tsunami fromNOAAAn upthrust of 6 to 8meters along a 180-km wide seabed at 60km offshore from the east coast of Thoku,[93]resulted in a majortsunamithat brought destruction along thePacificcoastline of Japan's northern islands. Thousands of lives were lost when entire towns were devastated. The tsunami propagated throughout the Pacific Ocean region reaching the entire Pacific coast of North and South America fromAlaskatoChile. Warnings were issued and evacuations carried out in many countries bordering the Pacific. However, while the tsunami affected many of these places, the extent was minor.[94][95][96]Chile's Pacific coast, one of the furthest from Japan at about 17,000km (11,000mi) distant, was struck by waves 2m (6.6ft) high,[97][98][99]compared with an estimated wave height of 38.9meters (128ft) at Omoe peninsula, Miyako city, Japan.[17]Japan[edit]The tsunami warning issued by theJapan Meteorological Agencywas the most serious on its warning scale; it rated as a "major tsunami", being at least 3m (9.8ft) high.[100]The actual height prediction varied, the greatest being for Miyagi at 6m (20ft) high.[101]The tsunami inundated a total area of approximately 561km2(217sqmi) in Japan.[102]

Water column height on 11 March 2011 atDARTStation, 690 NM southeast of TokyoThe earthquake took place at 14:46 JST (GMT 6:46) around 67km (42mi) from the nearest point on Japan's coastline, and initial estimates indicated the tsunami would have taken 10 to 30minutes to reach the areas first affected, and then areas farther north and south based on the geography of the coastline.[103][104]Just over an hour after the earthquake at 15:55 JST, a tsunami was observed floodingSendai Airport, which is located near the coast ofMiyagi Prefecture,[105][106]with waves sweeping away cars and planes and flooding various buildings as they traveled inland.[107][108]The impact of the tsunami in and around Sendai Airport was filmed by anNHKNews helicopter, showing a number of vehicles on local roads trying to escape the approaching wave and being engulfed by it.[109]A 4m high tsunami hitIwate Prefecture.[110]Wakabayashi Wardin Sendai was also particularly hard hit.[111]At least 101 designated tsunami evacuation sites were hit by the wave.[112]Like the2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami, the damage by surging water, though much more localized, was far more deadly and destructive than the actual quake. There were reports of entire towns destroyed from tsunami-hit areas in Japan, including 9,500 missing inMinamisanriku;[113]one thousand bodies had been recovered in the town by 14 March 2011.[114]Among several factors causing the high death toll from the tsunami, one was the unexpectedly large size of the water surge. The tsunami walls at several of the affected cities were based on much smaller tsunami heights. Also, many people caught in the tsunami thought that they were located on high enough ground to be safe.[115]

Tsunami flooding on theSendai AirportrunwayLarge parts ofKujiand the southern section offunatoincluding the port area were almost entirely destroyed.[116][117]Also largely destroyed wasRikuzentakata, where the tsunami was reportedly three stories high.[118][119][120]Other cities reportedly destroyed or heavily damaged by the tsunami includeKamaishi,Miyako,tsuchi, andYamada(in Iwate Prefecture),Namie,SmaandMinamisma(in Fukushima Prefecture) andShichigahama,Higashimatsushima,Onagawa,Natori,Ishinomaki, andKesennuma(in Miyagi Prefecture).[121][122][123][124][125][126][127]The most severe effects of the tsunami were felt along a 670-km (420mi)-long stretch of coastline fromErimo, Hokkaido, in the north toarai, Ibaraki, in the south, with most of the destruction in that area occurring in the hour following the earthquake.[128]Near arai, people captured images of a hugewhirlpoolthat had been generated by the tsunami.[129]The tsunami washed away the sole bridge to Miyatojima, Miyagi, isolating the island's 900 residents.[130]A two meter high tsunami hitChiba Prefectureabout 2 1/2 hours after the quake, causing heavy damage to cities such asAsahi.[131]On 13 March 2011, theJapan Meteorological Agency(JMA) published details of tsunami observations recorded around the coastline of Japan following the earthquake. These observations included tsunami maximum readings of over 3m (9.8ft) at the following locations and times on 11 March 2011, following the earthquake at 14:46 JST:[132] 15:12 JST offKamaishi 6.8m (22ft) 15:15 JST funato 3.2m (10ft) or higher 15:20 JST Ishinomaki-shi Ayukawa 3.3m (11ft) or higher 15:21 JST Miyako 4.0m (13.1ft) or higher 15:21 JST Kamaishi 4.1m (13ft) or higher 15:44 JST Erimo-cho Shoya 3.5m (11ft) 15:50 JST Sma 7.3m (24ft) or higher 16:52 JST arai 4.2m (14ft)Many areas were also affected by waves of 1 to 3meters (3.3 to 9.8ft) in height, and the JMA bulletin also included the caveat that"At some parts of the coasts, tsunamis may be higher than those observed at the observation sites."The timing of the earliest recorded tsunami maximum readings ranged from 15:12 to 15:21, between 26 and 35minutes after the earthquake had struck. The bulletin also included initial tsunami observation details, as well as more detailed maps for the coastlines affected by the tsunami waves.[133][134]JMA also reported offshore tsunami height recorded bytelemetryfrommooredGPSwave height meter buoys as follows:[135] offshore of centralIwate(Miyako) 6.3m (20ft) offshore of northernIwate(Kuji) 6.0m (18ft) offshore of northernMiyagi(Kesennuma) 6.0m (18ft)On 25 March 2011, Port and Airport Research Institute (PARI) reported tsunami height by visiting the port sites as follows:[136]

NOAAanimation of the tsunami's propagation Port of Hachinohe 56m (1619ft) Port of Hachinohe area 89m (2629ft) Port ofKuji 89m (2629ft) Port ofKamaishi 79m (2330ft) Port offunato 9.5m (31ft) Run up height, port offunatoarea 24m (79ft) Fishery port ofOnagawa 15m (50ft) Port ofIshinomaki 5m (16ft) Shiogama section ofShiogama-Sendaiport 4m (13ft) Sendai section of Shiogama-Sendai port 8m (26ft) Sendai Airportarea 12m (39ft)A joint research team fromYokohama National Universityand theUniversity of Tokyoalso reported that the tsunami at Ryri Bay (), funato was about 30m high. They found fishing equipment scattered on the high cliff above the bay.[137]AtTar, Iwate, a University of Tokyo researcher reported an estimated tsunami height of 37.9m (124ft) reached the slope of a mountain some 200m (656ft) away from thecoastline.[138]Also, at slope of nearby mountain from 400m (1,312ft) Aneyoshi fishery port () of Omoe peninsula () inMiyako, Iwate,Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technologyfound estimated tsunami run up height of 38.9m (127ft).[17]This height is deemed the record in Japan historically, as of reporting date, that exceeds 38.2m (125ft) from the1896 Meiji-Sanriku earthquake.[139]It was also estimated that the tsunami reached heights of up to 40.5 metres (133ft) in Miyako in Thoku's Iwate Prefecture. The inundated areas closely matched those of the869 Sanriku tsunami.[140]A Japanese government study found that only 58% of people in coastal areas in Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima prefectures heeded tsunami warnings immediately after the quake and headed for higher ground. Of those who attempted to evacuate after hearing the warning, only five percent were caught in the tsunami. Of those who didn't heed the warning, 49% were hit by the water.[141]Elsewhere across the Pacific[edit]

ABonin Petreltrapped in the sand onMidway Atollby the tsunami, before being rescued.Shortly after the earthquake, thePacific Tsunami Warning Center(PTWC) in Hawaii issued tsunami watches and announcements for locations in the Pacific. At 07:30 UTC, PTWC issued a widespread tsunami warning covering the entire Pacific Ocean.[142][143]Russiaevacuated 11,000 residents from coastal areas of theKuril Islands.[144]The United StatesNational Tsunami Warning Centerissued a tsunami warning for the coastal areas in most ofCalifornia, all ofOregon, and the western part ofAlaska, and a tsunami advisory covering the Pacific coastlines of most of Alaska, and all ofWashingtonandBritish Columbia, Canada.[145][146]InCaliforniaandOregon, up to 2.4m (8ft) high tsunami surges hit some areas, damaging docks and harbors and causing over US$10million in damage.[147]InCurry County, Oregon$7million in damages occurred including the destruction of 1,100m (3,600ft) of dockspace at theBrookingsharbor; the county has received over $1million inFEMAemergency grants.[148]Surges of up to 1m (3.3ft) hitVancouver Islandin Canada[146]prompting some evacuations, and causing boats to be banned from the waters surrounding the island for 12 hours following the wave strike, leaving many island residents in the area without means of getting to work.[149][150]

Fishing boats moved to higher ground in anticipation of tsunami arrival, inPichilemu, ChileIn thePhilippines, waves up to 0.5m (1.6ft) high hit the eastern seaboard of the country. Some houses along the coast in Jayapura, Indonesia were destroyed.[151]Authorities inWewak,East Sepik, Papua New Guinea evacuated 100 patients from the city's Boram Hospital before it was hit by the waves, causing an estimated US$4million in damages.[152]Hawaii estimated damage to public infrastructure alone at US$3million, with damage to private properties, including resort hotels such asFour Seasons Resort Hualalai, estimated at tens of millions of dollars.[153]It was reported that a 1.5m (5ft) high wave completely submergedMidway Atoll'sreef inlets and Spit Island, killing more than 110,000 nestingseabirdsat theMidway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge.[154]Some other South Pacific countries, includingTongaand New Zealand, and U.S. territoriesAmerican SamoaandGuam, experienced larger-than-normal waves, but did not report any major damage.[155]However in Guam some roads were closed off and people were evacuated from low-lying areas.[156]Along the Pacific Coast ofMexicoand South America, tsunami surges were reported, but in most places caused little or no damage.[157]Peru reported a wave of 1.5m (5ft) and more than 300 homes damaged.[157]The surge in Chile was large enough to damage more than 200 houses,[158]with waves of up to 3m (9.8ft).[159][160]In theGalpagos Islands, 260 families received assistance following a 3m (9.8ft) surge which arrived 20 hours after the earthquake, after the tsunami warning had been lifted.[161][162]There was a great deal of damage to buildings on the islands and one man was injured but there were no reported fatalities.[161][163]

A sign informing beachgoers about proper tsunami debris disposal procedures atCape Lookout State Park,Oregon, USAThe tsunami brokeicebergsoff theSulzberger Ice ShelfinAntarctica, 13,000 kilometres (8,100mi) away. The main iceberg measured 9.5 by 6.5 kilometres (5.9mi 4.0mi) (approximately the area ofManhattan Island) and about 80 metres (260ft) thick. A total of 125 square kilometres (48sqmi; 31,000 acres) of ice broke away.[164][165]As of April 2012, wreckage from the tsunami spread around the oceans, including asoccerball which was found in Alaska[166]and a Japanese motorcycle found in British Columbia, Canada.[167]Land subsidence[edit]

Land subsidence and soil liquefaction atShin-Urayasu StationinUrayasu, Chiba, nearTokyoTheGeospatial Information Authority of Japanreported landsubsidencebased on the height oftriangulation stationsin the area measured byGPSas compared to their previous values from 14 April 2011.[168] Miyako, Iwate 0.50m (1.64ft) Yamada, Iwate 0.53m (1.73ft) tsuchi, Iwate 0.35m (1.14ft)[169] Kamaishi, Iwate 0.66m (2.16ft) funato, Iwate 0.73m (2.39ft) Rikuzentakata, Iwate 0.84m (2.75ft) Kesennuma, Miyagi 0.74m (2.42ft) Minamisanriku, Miyagi 0.69m (2.26ft) Oshika Peninsula,Miyagi 1.2m (3.93ft)[169] Ishinomaki, Miyagi 0.78m (2.55ft) Higashimatsushima, Miyagi 0.43m (1.41ft) Iwanuma, Miyagi 0.47m (1.54ft) Sma, Fukushima 0.29m (0.95ft)