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2014年 7月

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Japan International Cooperation Agency

1

JICA Strategy Paper on Solid Waste Management

Global Environment Department


Contents

1. Core perspectives ........................................................................................................................................................... 1

2. Basic cooperation policy ............................................................................................................................................... 3

(a) Integrated solid waste management to achieve the 3Rs ..................................... 3

1) Cooperation that builds solid waste management implementation

frameworks .................................................................................................................... 4

2) Assistance for process-wide improvements ..................................................... 5

(b) Assistance based on development stages ........................................................... 6

1) Stage I: Improving public health and sanitation ................................................ 7

2) Stage II: Reducing environmental impacts and pollution control .................... 8

3) Stage III: Using 3R initiatives to establish a sound material-cycle society ..... 9

3. JICA cooperation models with specific examples ............................................................................................ 10

(a) Comprehensive assistance models ..................................................................... 10

(b) Local government partnership models ............................................................... 11

(c) Private sector partnership models ...................................................................... 13

1) Outsourcing operations to the private sector ...................................................... 13

2) Promoting private-sector investment and technologies ..................................... 13

(d) Institution-building assistance models ............................................................... 14

Cover photos

(Top) Residential waste collection in South Sudan under the “Project for Capacity

Development on Solid Waste Management in Juba (2011–2014)”

(Bottom) Sanitary landfill site prepared with assistance from the “Project on

Integrated Solid Waste Management for Municipalities in El Salvador (2005–2009)”


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1. Core perspectives Global population increases and economic growth have brought with them increasing amounts of

waste each year. Waste discharge for 2010 was 10.4 billion tons, and this figure is expected to grow

to 14.8 billion tons by 20251. The amount generated by developing countries accounts for 56% of

the world’s total waste2, and a variety of problems associated with waste stem from particular

conditions and stage of development in those countries. Problems include underdeveloped collection

and transportation capacity, open dumping of untreated waste, improper treatment of hazardous

waste, and more. The urbanization and excessive population concentration that come from rapid

development have also led to marked increases in littering, illegal dumping, and other threats to the

environment and public health. Resources are being wasted with the dramatic rise of mass

consumption in newly emerging and middle-income countries. These and other problems can then

worsen public health and sanitation conditions, have adverse impacts on the environment, and result

in the loss of precious natural resources.

Japan experienced similar problems during its postwar recovery and years of rapid economic

growth, and it has come close to achieve a sound material-cycle society in recent years. This

achievement is due not only to the efforts of its national government (which was responsible for

setting up the necessary legislative frameworks), but also to a host of cooperative initiatives by local

governments, private companies, associations, and citizens who have worked and played respective

roles to optimize collection and transport, recycling and intermediate treatment, final disposal of

waste, and more. In the course of these efforts, Japan has set up extensive systems to promote

technological innovation and 3R (reduce, reuse, recycle) initiatives3 while raising awareness about

waste reduction—which in turn has led to changes of mindset and behavior among its citizens. The

entire process has given Japan a wealth of knowledge and experience in this sector.

It has been said that waste-related issues are a reflection on the state of a society4. They are

rooted in various factors—including economic, historical, cultural, and environmental conditions—and

change depending on the country, city, or region. For this reason, cooperation in the solid waste

management5 sector requires clearly identifying the type of problems that the partner country is

facing as well as its specific needs. It is required to assist developing countries effectively based on

the past experience of cooperation between public and private sectors in Japan.

Today, Japan is working to create environmentally sustainable cities through the effective and

efficient use of energy and resources, and the solid waste management sector plays a major part in

these efforts. Specifically, the focus is on reducing the amount of waste resulting from production

processes in “artery” industries while developing the “vein” industries in charge of recycling that waste.

Other initiatives include developing environmentally friendly products that are easily recycled and

utilizing the gases produced during waste incineration. JICA also contributes to disseminating such

1Tanaka, Masaru (2011). Article in the FY2011 Environmental White Paper.

2World Bank (2012). What a Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management. p. 8-9.

3Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry website on 3R policy initiatives in Japan (http://www.meti.go.jp/policy/recycle/)

4Sakurai, Kunitoshi (2000). “Urban waste management in developing nations: Strategies for effective international

cooperation”. Journal of the Japan Society of Material Cycles and Waste Management. 11, 142–151. 5Definition of “solid waste management”: In JICA projects, the term “solid waste management” is used to refer the

management of the series of processes that starts with discharge/storage and extends through collection, intermediate, treatment, and final disposal of all waste materials (both hazardous and non-hazardous).

http://www.meti.go.jp/policy/recycle/


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solutions based on Japan’s insights and experience with modifications to address specific conditions

in developing countries experiencing rapid economic growth.

2. Basic cooperation policy

JICA’s basic cooperation policy6 is to implement integrated solid waste management to achieve

the 3Rs while providing development stage–based assistance appropriate to the status of each

partner country. JICA offers a variety of assistance options designed to meet the needs of the partner

with the overall purpose of achieving sustainable development.

(a) Integrated solid waste management to achieve the 3Rs

In the year 2000, the international community established a set of Millennium Development Goals

to be achieved by 2015. Under Goal 7, ensure environmental sustainability, is target 7A: integrate the

principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs. Integrated solid waste

management (ISWM) is a concept receiving broad attention in the waste management sector as one

of the keys to achieving the seventh Millennium Development Goal. ISWM represents a move away

from the “end-of-pipe” approach to waste treatment (a straight-line process from collection/transport

to final disposal) and towards the more integrated perspective of “resource management”, where

waste is considered as a resource within a cyclical process. Since ISWM was first proposed in 19937,

the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the European Union, the United States

Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)8, and other organizations have gradually been developing

this concept. Based on its past experiences geared towards creating a sound material-cycle society,

Japan has also contributed to deepen ISWM policies with the proposal of its 3R Initiative at the 2004

Sea Island Summit. JICA is committed to cooperating with this world wide movement by assisting

developing countries in establishing integrated solid waste management frameworks of their own.

6JICA (2005). Supporting Capacity Development for Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries: Towards Improving

Solid Waste Management of Entire Society. (Revised Edition). JICA Institute for International Cooperation 7Tchobanoglous, G. (1993) Integrated Solid Waste Management: Engineering Principles and Management Issues.

McGraw-Hill, New York. 8USEPA (2002). What is Integrated Solid Waste Management? UNEP.


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1) Cooperation that builds solid waste management implementation frameworks

Implementing proper solid waste

management practices in developing countries

requires increasing solid waste management

capacity throughout the entire society as well

as building sustainable implementation

frameworks. Proper assessment must be

carried out on all levels, such as individual,

organizational, institutional, and social in order

to understand the existing capacity of targeted

governments or municipal councils so that

appropriate assistance could be provided to

partner governments to establish integrated

solid waste management frameworks. In

working from this perspective, JICA has defined

seven aspects from which it offers cooperation:

(1) legal and institutional improvements, (2)

organizational improvements, (3) financial

improvements, (4) private sector involvement,

(5) waste producer initiatives, (6) citizen

participation, and (7) cultural and social

considerations. These aspects are selected

and combined, to consider cooperation

activities that meet the needs of each partner

country (see figure 2).

Experience with past projects has shown “citizen participation” to be particularly critical as of late.

Figure 2. Waste management aspects

(1) Legal and institutional improvements

Classify types of waste, create standards for each type and designate

responsible parties, ensure thorough implementation by local governments

based on national policies and plans, establish laws to encourage 3R practices.

(2) Organizational improvements

Set up coordinated systems among departments involved in waste management

responsibilities, inspect and evaluate services, prepare statistical information,

improve labor management and working environments, continually develop

human resources.

(3) Financial improvements

Review budget allocation and perform in-depth analyses to reduce costs,

educate/raise awareness to ensure collections from beneficiaries, start charging

for garbage bags and encourage the use of reusable bags for shopping in order

to reduce waste volume and waste treatment costs.

(4) Private sector involvement

Have the private sector participate in waste management duties in various

capacities (from partial outsourcing to complete privatization), define optimum

public-/private-sector roles and responsibilities, set up effective supervisory

frameworks.

(5) Waste producer initiatives

Have companies take action to ensure proper waste management, curtail waste

output and encourage recycling through production process improvement.

(6) Citizen participation

Raise waste management awareness among the public to encourage proper

behavior, publically promote/educate on good practices through community

organizations and the media

(7) Cultural and social considerations

Create programs that make it easy for women (those who manage household

garbage) to get involved in waste management, establish rules for operating

final disposal sites in collaboration with site managers and informal waste

collectors

Figure 1. Overview of JICA solid waste management cooperation


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Waste management in developing countries frequently suffers from limited citizen participation and

inefficient collection because citizens do not recognize that government waste management services

are reliable or are not aware that there are tremendous costs involved in collection-to-disposal

operations. When local governments are on shaky financial footing and get most of their revenue

from fees collected from citizens, this can lead to unpaid fees and worsening financial conditions. For

these reasons, promotional efforts and other initiatives to raise resident awareness and encourage

citizen participation are extremely critical.

“Cultural and social considerations” is also important. Because many informal waste pickers (those

who make a living by collecting and selling valuables from disposal sites) and waste collectors come

from impoverished groups, it is important to introduce solid waste management systems that can

improve the social status of these citizens and not adversely affect their livelihoods. In other words,

cooperation schemes must consider the socially vulnerable as well.

2) Assistance for process-wide improvements

Solid waste management involves a waste management flow that starts with

production/consumption and moves through the generation/discharge of waste, collection and

transport, intermediate treatment or reuse/recycling, and final disposal (see figure 3).

For this reason, cooperation first focuses on pinpointing specific problematic processes within the

overall solid waste management flow. Once the underlying causes for technical issues or problems

within each process are identified, cooperation measures are designed and implemented in

consideration of five different processes: (1) optimizing production and consumption; (2) minimizing

generation and optimizing discharge; (3) improving collection and transport; (4) encouraging

intermediate treatment, reuse, and recycling; and (5) improving final disposal. Interest in

waste-to-energy measures (e.g. incineration/biomass power generation, heat recovery from waste

treatment) is increasing even among developing countries; however, cooperation must carefully

consider the appropriate sustainable technologies based on conditions in each partner country.

These include the scope of waste treatment operations (amount of waste generation and amount of

waste at landfill) as well as the country’s stage of development—since in many cases it is difficult to

introduce sophisticated technologies if the country is not reaching the level of medium income country

due to the costs involved. . Cooperation must then move forward if it is feasible after careful

assessment of the capacity of the partner country and utilize technologies of the private sector in

Japan.


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(b) Assistance based on development stages

The amount of waste generated and its composition depend heavily on the level of economic

development of the partner country. The problems that must be addressed and the goals that must be

achieved change as economic development progresses. JICA offers assistance based on the

following three stages of development.

Stage I: Improving public health and sanitation Countries that are urbanizing experience

increasing waste discharge as their populations concentrate in smaller areas, a situation that leads to

worsening public health and sanitation conditions. The most critical task during this stage is improving

these conditions by implementing proper collection and disposal that can keep up with the amount of

waste.

Stage II: Reducing environmental costs and pollution control As countries industrialize (and

particularly as secondary industries emerge), they enter a second stage where pollution and

contamination become significant threats. The types of waste generated during Stage II become

increasingly diverse, and environmental contamination can trigger health hazards and other problems

with increasingly broad ramifications. Active assistance for municipal solid waste management must

continue during this stage, with the addition of proper treatment and management of hazardous

wastes to limit negative environmental impact and prevent contamination.

Stage III: Using 3R initiatives to establish a material-cycle society As economic development

progresses even further and citizens become more socially conscious, countries reach a stage where

they are more aware of their environment. The goal during this stage is to firmly establish material

Figure 3. The integrated solid waste management process

• Encourage waste separation

• Improve output methods

• Expand collection areas

• Improve collection services and efficiency

• Stop illegal dumping

(2) Minimize generation

Optimize discharge

• Reduce volume (e.g. through crushing/incineration)

• Encourage recycling

• Encourage composting

• Construct/upgrade facilities based on proper planning

• Introduce landfills designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

• Implement waste-to-energy measures (collect landfill gases for

use as an energy source)

On-site treatment

Illegal dumping

Collect Final disposal

Market for valuables

Reuse

Clean public areas

(3) Improve collection/transport

StoreGenerate Output

(4) Introduce/improve intermediate

processing, reuse, and recycle

(5) Improve final

disposal sites

Consume

Produce

Intermediate

treatment

Collect

valuables

(1) Optimize production/consumption

• Improve production processes to reduce waste

(e.g. through cleaner production initiatives)

• Encourage the use of reusable bags/bottles to

curb consumption

Reduce

Recycle


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cycle society with reduced adverse environmental impact such as greenhouse gases through

reduction of waste amount and promotion of recycling efforts.

Although Japan has experienced all three of these development stages, economic conditions in

today’s developing countries are characterized by the rapid emergence of consumer societies driven

by globalization. This has drastically reduced the timeframe in which countries move through the

three stages—and some countries may even experience multiple stages simultaneously or may not

go through them in the same order. The situation makes it critical that the capacity and challenges of

each partner country are properly assessed before moving forward.

1) Stage I: Improving public health and sanitation

Solid waste management initiatives have a significant and direct impact on citizens in countries

undergoing the first stage of development. For the countries under the first stage of development,

assistance is designed to improve public health and sanitation conditions by focusing on two key

elements having a significant direct impact on citizens which are collection as the most costly

operation and disposal as the greatest impact on the surrounding environment.

In countries with insufficient waste collection practices, the garbage is not properly removed away

from the generation site. As a result, rotting food scraps and other waste remains uncollected,

attracting flies, rodents, and other organisms that promote the spread of communicable disease and

cause other public health and sanitation issues. There is also the risk of environmental pollution and

the subsequent health problems due to noxious odors, smoke from open burning of waste, and heavy

metals or other toxic chemical substances present in the waste. Assistance focuses on collection

operations includes improving collection rates, making collection work and transport more efficient,

enhancing collection services, and preventing illegal dumping. This separates waste from living

spaces, ultimately creating a healthier environment.

JICA has provided a large number of countries with assistance to improve their collections

operations. These projects have taken a variety of forms, including door-to-door collection, bell

collection 9 , hub-based collection, community-based collection, and other methods. Collection

efficiency has been improved thanks to this extensive experience as well as time-and-motion

studies10. JICA will continue to build on its positive track record, proposing collection methods ideally

suited to individual partner countries. In addition to improving collections practices, assistance also

includes occupational safety and health aspects for collection workers while placing importance on

getting residents proactively involved in waste collection efforts.

Open dumping, a simple waste disposing method in an empty area, is typically practiced in regions

that have little capacity to practice basic solid waste management operations. The first step in

improving open dumping is landfilling garbage in a controlled manner and then covering it with soil,

which cut back on odors, reduce the risk of fire, limit flies and other organisms that carry infectious

9Bell collection is a method where garbage collection vehicles play a tune as they drive by to alert residents that they have

come to collect the garbage. Residents come out of their homes and hand garbage to the collection workers when the trucks arrive. 10

Time and motion studies follow the movements of different types of garbage collection vehicles for a full day to see how much time it takes to carry out various tasks. This information is then used to figure out how to most effectively utilize the capacity of each vehicle.


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diseases, prevent flyaway garbage, and otherwise limit the impact of the disposal site on nearby

residents and the surrounding environment.

2) Stage II: Reducing environmental impacts and pollution control

The most basic environmental measure for final disposal sites is reducing pollution with measures

that limit the negative environmental impact of leachate as well as methane and other anaerobic

gases. Proper final disposal practices include introducing sanitary landfills, leachate treatment, and

reducing anaerobic gas emissions. Since the 1960s, the Faculty of Engineering at Fukuoka University

and the Fukuoka City government have been jointly developing a semi-aerobic landfill structure,

which is now the standard configuration for landfills for municipal solid waste s in Japan. JICA

assistance focuses on offering a low-cost version of this approach, known as the Fukuoka Method,

that is affordable and flexible enough to be adopted by developing countries to meet their individual

needs.

Once countries have begun industrializing, they

need to build sustainable solid waste management

systems that promote the circulation of resources

and regulation of hazardous waste. In expanding its

perspective on production cycles, JICA has come to

prioritize cooperation strategies that include proper

management of hazardous waste—particularly

“e-waste”, or discarded electric and electronic

devices—while also assisting measures to address

climate change in terms of waste management.

E-waste has become a problematic issue in recent

years—even in developing countries. Electric and

electronic devices contain lead, cadmium, zinc,

mercury, and other toxic substances that can cause

a variety of environmental hazards (including soil

and water pollution) if disposed of improperly. Because many developing countries have not yet

established reliable e-waste treatment procedures, they risk contaminating their environments or

creating health hazards for workers due to inappropriate handling practices. Another concern is the

wasting of rare metals and other nonrenewable resources. JICA assists developing countries by

enabling them to transition to more proper e-waste treatment procedures.

Proper management of hazardous waste also requires that countries pay attention to industrial

waste, medical waste, agricultural waste, mining waste, and other types of waste that contain

chemical substances. It is critical that JICA build on the outcomes and training from projects currently

underway to help establish of Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (PRTR) systems (see case

study #1), specifying target hazardous wastes and offering broader assistance for measures that

incorporate chemical substance management.

Photo 1. Cathode ray tube glass from old television sets

contains lead, which is a toxic metal (taken at an e-waste

sorting facility in Sao Paolo, Brazil)


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3) Stage III: Using 3R initiatives to establish a sound material-cycle society

Policy issues related to Japan’s transition to a sound material-cycle society are shifting from 3R

initiatives that focus on the quantity of materials in circulation and seek to reduce the volume of waste

to a new stage that focuses on the quality of materials in circulation and seeks to more effectively use

waste and other materials as sources of energy or other resources11.

Since 2009, Japan’s Ministry of the Environment and the United Nations Centre for Regional

Development (UNCRD) have hosted the Regional 3R Forum in Asia and the Pacific (known as the

Regional 3R Forum in Asia prior to 2013) with the aim of advocating for 3R practices that transcended

national boundaries. One of the challenges that is being addressed is the need for the world to come

together to promote reduction, reuse and recycling in developing countries facing rapidly increasing

amounts of waste.

Promoting the 3Rs requires cooperation between national and local governments, citizens, and the

private sector. JICA’s assistance encourages developing legal systems and formulating plans at the

national and local government levels, promoting 3R-related activities such as waste minimization,

separate collection, composting, promotion of 3Rs initiatives and developing recycling industry and

so on. JICA projects build institutions and develop human resources with a focus on sharing with

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Japan Ministry of the Environment (2013). Annual Report (White Paper) on the Environment, the Sound Material-Cycle Society and the Biodiversity in Japan 2013. p.109.

Case study #1: PRTR systems to reduce environmental impact

Pollutant Release and Transfer Register systems track potentially hazardous chemical substances by

identifying, calculating, and reporting where they originate and in what amounts, whether (and in what

quantities) they are being released into the environment (atmosphere, water, soil, etc.), and whether (and

in what quantities) they are being transferred as waste or other materials.

Near the Map Ta Phut Industrial Estate, Thailand’s largest industrial park, several dozen children and

teachers at a nearby elementary school were suddenly hospitalized due to atmospheric pollution from an

unknown source. Many local residents also began to complain about noxious odors, some of them even

filing lawsuits against the government and companies at the site. Incidents like these are raising

environmental awareness among Thai citizens. The aims of the project were to encourage companies to

enhance ongoing management of chemical substances, prevent the barriers to environmental

conservation these substances may cause, and identify the total amount of chemical substances

discharged from factories, vehicles, farms, households, and so on. In order to achieve these aims, (1) the

government collected data on chemical substances, (2) a “right to know” policy was put in place for local

residents, and (3) business operators were encouraged to voluntarily curtail emissions. All three initiatives

were carried out with the ultimate goal of systematically implementing a nationwide PRTR framework.

For more information, visit http://www.jica.go.jp/project/english/thailand/013/

http://www.jica.go.jp/project/english/thailand/013/


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developing countries the advanced resource recovery and waste-to-energy technologies held by

private Japanese companies and on developing business opportunities for them to utilize their

technology within those countries.

Finally, JICA takes steps to specifically address climate change while identifying specific

requirements (e.g. levels of economic and technological development within the partner country) for

each project. These efforts include composting to help reduce greenhouse gases, converting waste

into biogases or biofuels, improving disposal sites and/or waste collection and treatment systems to

reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and more.

3. JICA cooperation models with specific examples

(a) Comprehensive assistance models

Developing countries simultaneously face challenges in both “soft” aspects (lack of trained

personnel, weak organizations, lack of interest among citizens) and “hard” aspects (lack of materials,

equipment, and infrastructure). Past JICA cooperation projects have applied optimized schemes to

the specific problems occurred in target areas. JICA will adequately grasp the needs of developing

countries and combine optimized schemes to address identified challenges. Utilizing this

program-based approach, JICA conducts comprehensive assistance. JICA will also carry out

continuous assistance, for example, starting from developing Master Plans (M/Ps) followed by

technical cooperation to enhance capacity together with financial assistance to develop infrastructure

such as final disposal site improvements (see table 1 and case example #2). Cooperation in

Bangladesh and Mongolia

started with technical

cooperation for development

planning to support formulation

of a Master Plan (M/P),

followed by grant aid with the

required materials and

equipment (garbage collection

vehicles, bulldozers, and other

heavy equipment) proposed by

the M/P. In addition, the M/P

assistance was followed by the

implementation of technical

cooperation projects to assist

developing capacity for the

implementation of the M/P. In

the period of about ten years,

JICA’s assistance was planned

in the first place to combine

multiple schemes to facilitate

Table 1. Key cooperation efforts by scheme

Category Scheme Key cooperation efforts in the waste management sector

Technical

cooperation

Technical cooperation

projects

Capacity-building, support for policy/plan formulation and

implementation, improvements to organizational management

and finances, civic education to promote the 3Rs

Technical cooperation

for development

planning

Formulating national policies and plans, formulating master

plans for target cities, formulating short-term action plans

Training Accepting trainees from waste management, disposal site

improvement, and other sectors to Japan or a third country

Dispatch of experts Dispatching policy advisors or other experts to look over

cooperation details, support system-building, and oversee the

closing of open dumping sites

JICA partnership

programs

Grassroots technical cooperation through local governments

and NGOs

Follow-up cooperation

Follow-up for provided equipment and materials and/or

implementation of action plans of trainees that have returned

home

ODA loan account

technical assistance

Technical assistance for the operation and management of

facilities developed through the use of ODA loans

Financial

assistance

Grant aid

Provision of equipment for garbage collection and heavy

equipment used at final disposal sites

ODA loan

Development support and systems improvement for final

disposal sites intermediate treatment facilities, operation and

management of treatment facilities, etc.

Other Japan Overseas

Cooperation

Volunteers

Public awareness and environmental education by volunteers at

the grassroots level


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the execution of the M/Ps. Cooperation like this uses a program-based approach, which means it is

carried out from a long-term perspective that goes beyond isolated individual projects. This type of

cooperation is also effective in encouraging self-help efforts within the partner countries, which has

led to concrete outcomes such as the establishment of new government organizations in charge of

waste management. JICA will continue to effectively select and put together whatever financial

assistance and technical cooperation schemes it can, in order to carry out strategic, comprehensive

cooperation programs.

(b) Local government partnership models

There is very little citizen awareness about garbage-related issues in many developing countries,

yet initiatives to address these issues cannot move forward without citizen participation. The local

governments that provide waste management services also suffer from a host of problems, and there

Case study #2: Phased multi-scheme assistance in Dhaka

JICA carried out several phases of assistance in Dhaka, Bangladesh. To ensure that cooperation effectively

improves the personnel at the Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) in charge of solid waste manageme, government

organizations, institutional and social systems, multiple projects were combined in a way that addressed both

“hard” and “soft” aspects of partner city capacity. In 2000, JICA dispatched experts to the DCC in order to discuss

the specifics of upcoming cooperation policies. The results of those discussions were then used to formulate the

Clean Dhaka Master Plan under a development study called the Solid Waste Management Study in Dhaka City

(2003–2006). The following assistance for both soft and hard components was then carried out in a stepwise

manner. These cooperation efforts succeeded in establishing a solid waste management bureau, increasing the

amount of waste collected and transported, introducing and establishing sanitary landfill technology, raising public

awareness, and other outcomes that improved the capacity to respond to Dhaka’s waste management challenges.

Positive ripple effects are expected in the future as Dhaka shares its experiences with other Bangladeshi cities

grappling with emerging waste-related issues.

Photo 2. Transferring garbage to collection Photo 3. Leachate treatment reservoir at the

vehicles provided by JICA Matuail final disposal site


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is still substantial room for improvement when it comes to improving the efficiency and labor

management methods (for example) used in collection and transport operations. Local governments

and offices often have very little capacity to deal with these problems at both an individual and

organizational level, and the situation requires that awareness be fostered within the government

providing the services as well.

Local governments in Japan have accumulated a wealth of expertise and personnel able to

address challenges like these as a result of the services they have been providing to local residents.

Citizen cooperation is essential to overcoming the enormous challenge of establishing a stable sound

material-cycle society, and local governments in Japan have gathered precious value-added

knowledge and information through efforts to achieve this goal—efforts that focus on building citizen

consensus and securing public participation. For this reason, JICA will continue strengthening its ties

with local governments in Japan as it moves forward with its projects in developing countries.

Between June 2011 and March 2014, JICA worked with Shibushi City to implement grassroots

technical cooperation projects in the Pacific (primarily Fiji) that promoted a 3R garbage-sorting model

(see case study #3). Since September 2013 till March 2015, JICA has been working with the Tokyo

Metropolitan government to implement grassroots technical cooperation to improve solid waste

management in Yangon, Myanmar. Other past forms of JICA cooperation include the dispatch of

experts and the provision of on-site observation opportunities from the cities of Nagoya, Kawasaki,

Yokohama, Okayama, and Chiba.

Case study #3: The Shibushi model

The city government of Shibushi in Kagoshima Prefecture is actively working with its citizens to reduce

garbage and promote recycling. Residents have organized a number of sanitation councils to carry out

thorough garbage separation, which has led to remarkable improvements in recycling rates. As a result,

the amount of waste disposed of at the landfill site has been dramatically reduced, which in turn has

significantly extended the service life of the landfill. Sorted recyclables are collected and taken to

recycling facilities, where recyclables are sorted further and sold off to recyclers. Cooking oil is

converted to diesel fuel, while organic matter is recycled as compost. It was thought that the

experiences in Shibushi would be effective in Pacific island countries where technological and

economic limitations make it difficult to introduce intermediate treatment facilities. A grassroots

technical cooperation project was implemented from 2011 to March 2014 with the help of the city.

Starting in January 2014, similar waste reduction and recycling support program was initiated targeting

Samoa and Vanuatu. It is hoped that this model will be rolled out further in the Pacific to promote 3R

initiatives in the region

For more information, visit http://www.jica.go.jp/topics/2011/20110929_01.html (Japanese)

http://www.jica.go.jp/topics/2011/20110929_01.html


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(c) Private sector partnership models

1) Outsourcing operations to the private sector

In the move towards more efficient solid waste management services, national and local

governments in developing countries are increasingly outsourcing their operations to private

companies or privatizing their own operations. Many tasks associated with waste collection, road

cleaning, vehicle maintenance, fee collection, facilities management, and so on, are considered to be

activities in which the private sector can participate. Private outsourcing is beneficial in many

regards—it helps governments simplify their operations, makes tasks more efficient, and maximizes

the vitality of the private sector. However, this transition must be thoroughly considered before it is

implemented, since it will have a negative impact on a region’s solid waste management activities if

the government does not have sufficient capacity to implement a fair contractor selection process or

manage the contractors once they are selected. JICA offers assistance to enhance capacity on the

government side so that private outsourcing can be properly encouraged (see case study #4).

2) Promoting private-sector investment and technologies

Solid waste management involves more than just improving basic collection and transport services.

Development must also extend to infrastructure such as intermediate treatment facilities and final

disposal sites. These developments require inputs such as money, technology, and knowledge, but

the reality is that many developing countries suffer from insufficient funds and do not have the

technology or expertise that they need. In recent years, there has been a move to expand

infrastructure development (in the areas of facility construction, operation, and maintenance) through

public-private partnerships (PPP). The goal of these PPPs is to further boost outcomes and efficiency

by partially or completely introducing private-sector activities into these projects. It is necessary for

JICA to move beyond its traditional assistance schemes (i.e., technical cooperation, grant aids, and

ODA loans) to also consider solid waste management sector PPP projects and projects that support

Japanese small and medium-size enterprises. JICA is now pushing initiatives aimed at utilizing the

insights and expertise of private companies—for example, by carrying out feasibility studies

(Preparatory Surveys for PPP Infrastructure Project) to assess PPP projects for solid waste

management sectors in developing countries based on proposals from private companies themselves.

There are many cases where recycling technologies, incineration technologies, operational expertise

for intermediate and waste treatment facilities, and other insights from Japanese small and

medium-size enterprises can be used to help resolve issues in the solid waste management sector. In

turn, making use of JICA technical cooperation or financial assistance can help these smaller

companies expand their operations into developing countries. JICA will continue to search for

cooperation strategies that bring together the technology of these companies and the know-how of

the local governments on the ground.


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(d) Institution-building assistance models

It has always been common for developing countries to have industrial structures that place a

heavy toll on the environment, and pollution levels are rapidly increasing. Strengthening regulatory

frameworks and providing economic incentives are two effective ways to address this situation and

prevent the contamination from spreading. Another effective approach is transitioning the industrial

structure itself towards more environmental conscious one. JICA offers assistance aimed at building

institutional frameworks that give partner governments unified control over the whole country; it also

tests specific solid waste management framework models through local governments in certain

regions and then rolls those models out to the entire nation (see case studies #5 and #6).

The kinds of assistance JICA offers for institution-building are diverse, and target not only the laws

at the national level, but also the detailed implementation rules and guidelines needed to enact those

laws, the manuals needed to carry out daily tasks, local government by-laws and regulations, and

more. In cases where the organizational frameworks that handle daily operations are weak, internal

regulations outlining work procedures and other rules are laid out, accounting systems are introduced,

and other organizational assistance is provided with the aim of building a cohesive, practically

functional framework.

Case study #4: Capacity development support in Nairobi

Garbage collection in the city of Nairobi, Kenya is carried out directly by the city government, by both

contracted and licensed companies, and by illegal collectors. However, the city does not sufficiently

manage this complicated system. To address this issue, a franchising program was introduced to grant

licenses to companies who could then monopolize services for certain zones—resulting in more

efficient and higher-capacity waste collection and transport operations. To make the government

services more efficient, a public solid waste management corporation is to be established in the City of

Nairobi and steps have been taken to set up a special account for the new organization. JICA is

currently implementing a project begun in February 2012 to develop capacity within Nairobi City Hall.

The key outcomes of this project include (1) improved direct garbage collection by the City of Nairobi,

(2) the introduction of a franchise-based garbage collection program, (3) improved collections in slum

areas and other regions through community tie-up activities, and (4) better financial management

through the introduction of special accounting procedures.

For more information, visit http://www.jica.go.jp/kenya/office/activities/project/21.html (Japanese)

http://www.jica.go.jp/kenya/office/activities/project/21.html


15

Case study #5: Institutional assistance for 3R and proper waste management in

Indonesia

In 2008, the Indonesian government enacted a waste

management law that included measures to promote 3R

initiatives. However, the local governments in charge of

waste management did not have sufficient capacity to

formulate related policy for waste reduction. For this reason,

the country needed to enact ordinances and other

regulations from the Ministry of Environment (MOE) based

on the waste management law and also needed to boost

policy formulation and implementation capacity among

regional governments. This JICA initiative included pilot

projects designed to formulate ordinances related to 3R

promotion as well as create mid-range waste reduction plans and encourage garbage sorting in the cities of

Palembang in South Sumatra and Balikpapan in East Kalimantan. Through these pilot projects, JICA is looking

to introduce 3R activities and proper waste management in the two cities in line with the waste management law

while developing a model project that can be rolled out to other cities in the future.

For more information, visit

http://gwweb.jica.go.jp/km/ProjectView.nsf/4f3700b697729bb649256bf300087d02/d2f933758fbef00b492576f70025bb98

(Japanese)

Case study #6: National waste management system and capacity development

project in the Dominican Republic

The Dominican Ministry of Environment and Natural

Resources (MARENA) had created general laws related to

waste management, but had not yet started discussions on

related statues (ordinances and regulations) for enacting

them. This project, which began in January 2014, is

working to enhance capacity on several aspects (including

institutionally, personnel-wise, and technologically) with the

aim of provide guidance and support for local governments

throughout the nation under MARENA’s existing laws. In

addition, because the country needs broad-based waste

treatment initiatives that go beyond local government

jurisdictions (e.g. constructing disposal sites), JICA is also

taking advantage of a movement towards cooperative waste management alliances among local

governments and is supporting planning efforts by these local government teams. JICA is also sharing the

outcomes of this project with neighboring countries in Central America and the Caribbean region.

For more information, visit

http://gwweb.jica.go.jp/km/ProjectView.nsf/VIEWParentSearch/5CE64946005198BA49257BF60079DD5D?OpenDocument&pv=VW02

040104

Photo 4. Project steering committee in Balikpapan,

Indonesia

Photo 5. Solid waste policy workshop at the

Dominican Ministry of Environment and Natural

Resources (MARENA)

http://gwweb.jica.go.jp/km/ProjectView.nsf/4f3700b697729bb649256bf300087d02/d2f933758fbef00b492576f70025bb98




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