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Journal of PetroleumScience and Technology

*Corresponding author

Ali Ghajari

Email: [email protected]

Tel: +98 21 4825 3348

Fax:+98 21 4473 9742

Article history

Receie!: "ecem#er 14$ 2%12

Receie! i& rei'e! ()rm: *)em#er 27$ 2%13

Accepe!: April 27$ 2%14

Aaila#le )&li&e: ,c)#er 1%$ 2%14

Journal of Petroleum Science and Technology 2014, 4-2$ 1%/19 hp:00jp'.ripi.ir

2%14 Re'earch &'ie )( er)lem &!'r -R

10

AN IMPROVEMENT TO PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HEAVY-

WEIGHT OIL WELL CEMENTS USING CARBON NANOTUBES

Ali Ghaari*! Je"raeel Gholine#had! $amid Soltanian! and Seyyed Alire#a %orta#a&i

er)lem E&gi&eeri&g "ii'i)&$ Re'earch &'ie )( er)lem &!'r -R$ Tehra&$ ra&

ABSTRACT

Thi' '! experime&all i&e'igae' he e((ec )( mli/6alle! car#)& &a&)#e' -*T'$ a' a

rei&()rci&g maerial$ )& he ph'ical pr)perie' )( hea/6eigh )il 6ell ceme&'. A ca&!i!ae 6ell

i' 'elece! a&! he pr)perie' )( he ceme& 'lrr 'e! i& a pr)#lemaic 'eci)& )( he 6ell are

e'e! i& he la#)ra)r. ar#)& &a&)#e' -*T' are a!!e! a' (i#er' ) he ceme& 'lrr a&! he

impr)eme&' i& he ceme& 'lrr a&! ')&e pr)perie' are '!ie!. Thi' 6)r; !i'c''e' hepr)#lem' a'')ciae! 6ih c)&e&i)&al hea/6eigh )il 6ell ceme& 'e! i& he ca&!i!ae 6ell

a&! rep)r' he !eail )( he impr)eme&' )& ceme& pr)perie' )#ai&e! # a!!i&g *T' )

ceme& 'lrr ()rmlai)&. The'e pr)perie' i&cl!e ceme& 'lrr rhe)l)gical pr)perie'$ (ree

6aer$ (li! l)''$ hic;e&i&g ime$ ceme& ')&e ela'ici$ a&! c)mpre''ie 're&gh. he& )&l 1

6.< )( *T i' a!!e! ) he ceme& 'lrr$ he iel! p)i& a&! pla'ic i'c)'i i&crea'e # eigh a&!

(ie ime' re'peciel$ 6hile he (ree 6aer a&! (li! l)'' )( ceme& 'lrr are re!ce! # 85< a&!

7%< re'peciel. & a!!ii)&$ ceme& ')&e c)mpre''ie 're&gh i&crea'e' # 73.8' m)!l'

a&! )i'')&>' rai) are achiee!? h)6eer$ here i' a& )pimm c)&ce&rai)& )( &a&)/a!!iie a

6hich he maximm iel! p)i&$ pla'ic i'c)'i$ c)mpre''ie 're&gh$ =)&g>' m)!l'$ a&!

)i'')&>' rai) are reache!. The re'l' )( hi' '! ca& #e 'e! ) )pimie he ceme& 'lrr

!e'ig& i& a& gie& 'e )( c)&!ii)&'.

'ey(ords) ar#)& *a&)#e'$ ,il ell eme&$ Thic;e&i&g Time$ )mpre''ie re&gh$

Rhe)l)g$ =)&g>' )!l'$ )i'')&>' Rai)

INTRODUCTION

Rece&l$ ma& ca'i&g c)llap'i&g pr)#lem' hae

)ccrre! i& ar& )il(iel! i& 9/508B ca'i&g 'ri&g

6hich c)er' Gach'ara& ()rmai)&. Thi' ()rma/

i)& c)&'i'' )( gp'm/a&h!rie r)c;' a&!

exhi#i' pla'ic #ehai)r C1D$ 6hich lea!' )

h)ri)&al 're'' i& he ca'i&g 'ri&g. & ar&

)il(iel!$ Gach'ara& ()rmai)& 6ih pla'ic

pr)perie' ra&'mi' he )er#r!e& pre''re )

he ca'i&g a&! lea!' ) ca'i&g c)llap'e C2D. The

c)&e&i)&al ceme& 'lrr 'e! i& ceme&i&g

hi' 'ri&g ha' er p))r pr)perie' a&! ca&&)

re'i' agai&' he 're''e'. mpr)i&g he ela'ic

pr)perie' )( he ceme& 'heah c)eri&g hi'

'ri&g ca& help ) ')le he pr)#lem. a'i&g

c)llap'e re'i'a&ce i' impr)e! # higher

ceme& )i'')&' rai) a&! =)&g' m)!l' C3D.

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Journal of PetroleumA& mpr)eme& ) h'ical r)perie' Science and Technology

Journal of Petroleum Science and Technology2014$ 4-2$ 1%/19 hp:00jp'.ripi.ir


11

)re ela'ic ceme& 'heah ca& re'i' higher

're''e' a&! e&ha&ce he pr)eci)& )( ca'i&g

C2D. & a!!ii)&$ !e()rma#le ceme&' ca& !i'ri#/

e he 're'' ee&l C4D.

*a&)ech&)l)g i' c)&'i!ere! a' a ;e ech/&)l)g ()r he (re a&! g)er&me&' hae

i&e'e! #illi)&' )( !)llar' ) empl) i C5D. 'e

)( &a&)paricle' c)l! #e a 6a ) e&ha&ce he

per()rma&ce )( he )il 6ell ceme&. ,il 6ell

ceme& ca& #e m)!i(ie! # a!!i&g &a&)'ie!

maerial' li;e &a&)paricle' )r &a&)#e'.

rimar ceme&i&g i& )il(iel! applicai)&'

i&cl!e' he placeme& )( ceme& 'lrr

#e6ee& he !rille! ()rmai)&' a&! he 6ell

ca'i&g. The mai& g)al' )( 6ell ceme&i&g are

ca'i&g pr)eci)& a&! )&al i')lai)& C1D. )&al

i')lai)& m' #e mai&ai&e! hr)gh) he

li(eime )( he 6ell. )rrec ceme& !e'ig& a&!

ceme& placeme& are he ;e (ac)r' i&

achiei&g he primar ceme&i&g g)al'. The

reHire! pr)perie' ()r he ceme& ')&e a&!

'lrr are !eermi&e! # he 6ell c)&!ii)&'.

The'e pr)perie' i&cl!e ceme& 'lrr 6eigh$

ceme& 'lrr rhe)l)g$ ceme& 'lrr hic;e&/

i&g ime$ ceme& ')&e c)mpre''ie a&! e&'ile

're&gh$ ceme& ')&e ela'ici$ a&! ceme&

')&e !ra#ili. The 'e ceme& 'heah 'h)l!

6ih'a&! he 're''e' i&!ce! # he 6ell

ee&' a&! mai&ai& i&egri !ri&g he li(e )(

he 6ell CID. echa&ical ()rce' (r)m he

a!jace& ()rmai)&' ma !amage he ceme&

'heah a&! ca'i&g 'ri&g. ha' #ee& ()&! ha

i& )r!er ) pree& mecha&ical !amage ) he

ceme&$ he #e' pe )( ceme& i& erm' )(mecha&ical !ra#ili i' he )&e 6ih higher

ela'ic pr)perie' ha& he a!jace& ()rmai)&.

The &i()rm !i'ri#i)& )( he i& 'i 're''

aci&g )& he )'i!e )( he ceme& 'heah ca&

#e achiee! # a ')(er a&! m)re !cile

ceme& ')&e$ 6hich mea&' higher ale' )(

=)&g' m)!l' a&! )i'')&' rai). Thi' 6ill

al') e&ha&ce he c)llap'e re'i'a&ce )( he

ca'i&g 'ri&g C7D. The 'cce''(l applicai)& )(

high/!e&'i ela'ic ceme&' ) ')le J0JT

challe&ge' i& ')h Texa' i' rep)re! i& he

lierare C5D. The ela'ic pr)perie' )( he

ceme& ')&e ca& #e impr)e! # a!!i&g

&a&)'ie! paricle' i& l)6 )lmeric (raci)&'

) he ceme& ()rmlai)&. ar#)& &a&)#e'$

#e' )( car#)& 6ih !iameer' i& he ra&ge )(

1/1%% &a&)meer'$ hae !i((ere& 'rcre' i&

erm' )( le&gh$ hic;&e''$ a&! &m#er )( laer'

a&! here# !i((ere& characeri'ic'. "e )

heir !i'i&cie (eare' 'ch a' m)!le )(

ela'ici #ei&g i& he )r!er )( erapa'cal' -Ta

a&! e&'ile 're&gh #ei&g i& he ra&ge )(

gigapa'cal' -Ga$ 6i!e !i'ri#i)&$ a&! re/

!ce! (i#er 'paci&g *T' are p)e&ial ca&!i/

!ae' ()r 'ch applicai)&' a' &a&)rei&()rce/me&' i& ceme&/#a'e! maerial' i& )r!er )

e&ha&ce heir mecha&ical pr)perie' a&!

re'i'a&ce ) crac; pr)pagai)& C8D.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The maerial' 'e! i& hi' '! are A 6ell

ceme& cla'' E$ ap 6aer$ Ji!e&'e$ icr)max

a&! 'al a' 6eighi&g age&'$ #)ric aci! a'

rear!er$ (li! l)'' c)&r)ller$ ceme& (rici)&

re!cer$ a&i()am$ a&! mli/6alle! car#)&

&a&)#e'.

Thi' '! i' #a'e! )& he la#)ra)r e'i&g )(

he impr)eme&' i& he ceme& 'lrr a&!

')&e # 'i&g *T' a hree c)&ce&rai)&'.

The *T' 6ere '&he'ie! # he caalic

chemical ap)r !ep)'ii)& )( &aral ga' )er

)/)0g, &a&)caal'. Thi' &a&)caal'

p)6!er 6a' prepare! # a 'pecial i&/h)'e ')l/

gel meh)!. Thi' caal' 6a' exp)'e! ) hereaca& car#)& ')rce ga' &!er appr)priae

c)&!ii)&' )( (l)6 rae$ pre''re$ a&! empera/

re ) pr)!ce *T'. & he pre'e& 6)r;$

&aral ga' 6a' 'e! a' he ga'e)' car#)&

')rce a&! i 6a' !ile! 6ih carrier ga'e' a

am)'pheric pre''re a&! am#ie& empera/

re. Tra&'mi''i)&' elecr)& micr)'c)p -TE

image' )( *T' 6ere )#ai&e! 'i&g a hilip'

m)!el T 2%% FGE elecr)& micr)'c)pe. Rama&

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Science and Technology A. Ghajari$ K. Gh)li&eha!$ J. )la&ia&$ a&! . A. )raai



12

'pecr)'c)p 6a' 'e! ) mea're he pri )(

car#)& &a&)#e'. *T' !iameer 6a' #e6ee&

1%/2% &a&)meer' a&! *T' le&gh 6a' 1%

micr)meer. The pri )( he *T' 6a' 95

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18

Ta"le 1) Cement slurry recipes

AmountComponent

Slurry um"er 4Slurry um"er 8Slurry um"er 2Slurry um"er 1

11% l#11% l#11% l#11% l#AP (ell cement class -

3.3 l#0'x2.2 l#0'x1.1 l#0'x/Car"on nanotu"e11.88 l#0'x11.88 l#0'x35.2 l#0'x2%.5 l#0'xSalt

35.2 l#0'x35.2 l#0'xI5.2 l#0'x9% l#0'x$idense

%.77 l#0'x%.77 l#0'x%.77 l#0'x%.3 l#0'x9oric acid

3I.743I.74 l#0'x3I.74 l#0'x/%icroma

1.1 l#0'x1.1 l#0'x1.1 l#0'x/+luid loss controler

1.98 l#0'x1.98 l#0'x1.98 l#0'x/Cement friction reducer

5.I7 gal0'x5.I7 gal0'x5.I7 gal0'x%.9581 (3/ater

A' *ee!e!A' *ee!e!A' *ee!e!A' *ee!e!Antifoam

l#0'x: p)&!' per 'ac;? gal0'x: gall)& per 'ac;

Ta"le 2) Properties of the cement slurries

.heological Properties

:)mpre''ie'+re&g+h-p'i

Thic;e&i&g+ime-mi&

Fli!l)''-cc

Free6a+er-cc

re''re(p'i

"

)6&h)le'+a+ic+empera+re-NF

Alrr6eigh+-:F

Aample

=iel! )i&

-l#01%%(2

)

la'ic

Oi'c)'i -cp3( ) 6( ) 100( ) 200( ) 300( ) 600( )

351442%355412921%%

32I

1%%

2%

1%7%%

21%

14I

1

2424913151%719%273P3%%3I5%

245

3%3

1%7%%

21%

14I

2

1724915191%%1812IIP3%%277%

22%

2%2

1%7%%

21%

14I

3

22.5253.513171%719527IP3%%215%

2%%

15

%.5

1%7%%

21%

14I

4

Rheological Properties

Acc)r!i&g ) he mea're! rhe)l)gical pr)per/

ie' )( ()r 'lrr 'ample'$ he 'lrrie' e&! )

hic;e& 6ih i&crea'i&g he *T c)&ce&rai)&

-Ta#le 1. ample &m#er 1 ha' he 'eli&g

pr)#lem )( he Ji!e&'e a&! he )her 'ample'

&ee! he ceme& (rici)& re!cer. Thic;er 'lrr

ha' m)re ''pe&!i&g capa#ili a&! lea!' ) a

m)re h)m)ge&ie! ceme& 'heah a&! c)&'a&

ceme& ')&e pr)perie' al)&g he ca'i&g 'ri&g.

The 'eli&g )( he Ji!e&'e )& he real 6ell 6ill

re'l i& a ceme& 'heah 6ih &)&/&i()rm

pr)perie' al)&g he 6ell. A he #))m$ he

high c)&ce&rai)& )( he Ji!e&'e 6ill lea! )

hea ceme& 6ih l)6 c)mpre''ie 're&gh

a&! a he )p here 6ill #e ligh$ hi&$ a&! 6)/

pha'e 'lrr.

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14

Ta"le 8) -lastic properties of cement stones

%arun714: modified cement elastic properties

PropertiesSample

Poisson;s .atio

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1=

&ee!' m)re 6aer ) #e c)ere! a&! here#

!ecrea'i&g he am)& )( (ree 6aer i& he

'lrr C13D. *a&)paricle' (ill he )i!' #e6ee&

he ceme& grai&'$ 6hich re'l' i& he imm)/

#iliai)& )( (ree 6aer -(iller e((ec. *T' ac

a' &a&)(iller' a&! impr)e he re'i'a&ce )

6aer permea#ili )( ceme& 'lrr ca;e )& he

6ell#)re 6all. ell/!i'per'e! &a&)paricle'

i&crea'e he i'c)'i )( he liHi! pha'e )( he

'lrr lea!i&g ) a le'' (li! l)'' C9D. & a!!ii)&$

he rapi! ()rmai)& )( h!rae! pr)!c'

c)&'me' he 6aer c)&e& )( he 'lrr C13D.

imilar re'l' are al') ()&! i& )her '!ie' C9/

1%$ 13/14D.

Thickening Time

The pre'e&ce )( he *T' i& he ceme& 'lrr

!ecrea'e' he hic;e&i&g ime a' 'h)6& i&

Figre 5.

+igure =) Thic>ening time of the slurries

ca& #e 'ee& (r)m Figre 5 a&! Ta#le 2 ha

alh)gh he hic;e&i&g ime i' 32I mi&e' ()r

he 'ample 6ih) *T$ i !ecrea'e' ) 245$

22%$ a&! 2%% mi&e' ()r he 'ample' 6ih 1$ 2$

a&! 3 6.< )( &a&)/a!!iie re'peciel. a&

'imilar re'l' hae al') #ee& rep)re!

el'e6here C8/9$ 13/19D. ell/!i'per'e! &a&)/

paricle' ac a' ce&er' ()r he cr'alliai)& )(

ceme& h!rae'$ 6hich accelerae' he h!ra/

i)& C9D. Frherm)re$ he &a&)paricle' !i'/

per'e! &i()rml i& a ceme& pa'e 6ill accel/

erae ceme& h!rai)& !e ) heir higher

acii C2%D. The rae )( h!rai)& i' a((ece! #

he !)'age a&! 'ie )( he &a&)'ie! paricle'

C21D. Tha i'$ a& i&crea'e i& he rae )( reaci)& i'

pr)p)ri)&al ) he c)&ce&rai)& )( he *T'.

)re)er$ 'maller paricle' 6ere ()&! )

accelerae he reaci)& m)re ha& larger

paricle'. A !ecrea'e i& he hic;e&i&g ime 6ih

i&crea'i&g he c)&e& )( &a&)paricle' i' al')

rep)re! i& ')me )her 6)r;' C13$ 15/18D.

Compressive Strengths and Elastic

Properties

The c)mpre''ie 're&gh' )( 4 ceme& 'ample'

are mea're! # lra')&ic ceme& a&aler

-A. Figre I 'h)6' he 24/h)r c)mpre''ie

're&gh )( 4 'ample'.

+igure ?) Compressi&e strength of the slurries

ca& #e 'ee& (r)m hi' (igre ha he

c)mpre''ie 're&gh' )( he 'ample' 6ih

*T' are higher ha& he )&e 6ih) *T'.

The i&crea'e i& he Ha&i )( hi' pr)per i'

73.8< 6he& )&l 1 6.< )( *T i' a!!e! ) he

ceme& 'lrr. A higher c)mpre''ie 're&gh

mea&' a higher l)a!/#eari&g capaci )( he

ceme& 'heah a&! higher c)llap'e re'i'a&ce )(

he ca'i&g 'ri&g C22D. The c)mpre''ie 're&gh

i' primaril c)&r)lle! # he )al p)r)'i C2%D.

The &a&)paricle' 6ill (ill p)re'$ 6hich lea!' )

i&crea'i&g 're&gh a&! impr)i&g he micr)/

'rcre )( he ceme& i( he &a&)paricle' are

&i()rml !i'per'e! C23/24D. & a!!ii)&$ &a&)/

paricle' #ehae a' a pr)m)er )( p))la&ic

reaci)& C23D. The i&crea'e i' !e ) he

()rmai)& )( m)re h!rae! pr)!c' i& he

pre'e&ce )( &a&)paricle' C13D. rac; arre' a&!

i&erl)c;i&g e((ec' #e6ee& he 'lip pla&e'

%

5%1%%

15%

2%%

25%

3%%

35%

Alrr

*m#er1

Alrr

*m#er2

Alrr

*m#er3

Alrr

*m#er4

%

1%%%

2%%%

3%%%

4%%%

Alrr

*m#er1

Alrr

*m#er2

Alrr

*m#er3

Alrr

*m#er4

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1?

pr)i!e! # *T' impr)e he )gh&e''$

'hear$ e&'ile 're&gh$ a&! (lexral 're&gh )(

ceme&/#a'e! maerial' C9D. Acc)r!i&g ) Figre

I$ 'lrr 'ample &m#er 2 6ih 1.1 l#0'x *T'

exhi#i' he maximm i&crea'e i& c)mpre''ie're&gh c)mpare! 6ih he #a'e 'lrr. Acc)r!/

i&gl$ # i&crea'i&g he c)&ce&rai)& )(

&a&)paricle' ) 2.2 a&! 3.3 l#0'x i& 'lrr

'ample' &m#er 3 a&! 4$ he 'ample' 'h)6 a

le'' 'ig&i(ica& i&crea'e i& c)mpre''ie 're&gh

#ei&g 32< a&! 2.5< re'peciel. There()re$ he

e((ecie&e'' )( *T' i& i&crea'i&g he c)m/

pre''ie 're&gh )( he 'ample' !ecrea'e' #

i&crea'i&g he )lme (raci)&. & )her 6)r!'$

a& i&crea'e i& he a!!iie c)&ce&rai)& ca'e'

re!ce! c)mpre''ie 're&gh$ 6hich i' #eca'e

)( he &'ia#le !i'per'i)& )( &a&)paricle'

a&! heir aggregai)& i& he c)&cree marix

C24D. Thi' mea&' ha here i' a& )pimm leel

)( 'e )( *T' C15D. imilar re'l' are al')

rep)re! ()r *T &a&)paricle' i& he lierare

C25/28D. Frherm)re$ he i&crea'e i& he c)m/

pre''ie 're&gh )( he ceme& ')&e' # &a&)/

a!!iie' i' rep)re! i& ma& '!ie' C8/9$ 13$

15/17$ 24D.

The ela'ic pr)perie' )( he ceme& ')&e ()r

he m)!i(ie! ceme& c)mp)'ii)&' 6ih 3

c)&ce&rai)&' )( *T' are al') mea're! i&

hi' '! -Ta#le 3. Figre' 7 a&! 8 'h)6 he

axial a&! ra!ial 're''/'rai& cre )( 6)

ceme& ')&e 'ample'.

+igure :) Aial and radial stress strain cur&e for

slurry sample num"er 1

+igure @) Aial and radial stress strain cur&e for

slurry sample num"er 4

The =)&g>' m)!l' a&! )i'')&>' rai) are

!eermi&e! (r)m he cre. imilar ) he

prei)'l me&i)&e! pr)perie'$ a& i&crea'e i&

he )i'')&' rai) a&! he =)&g>' m)!l' ca&

#e )#'ere! -Figre' 9 a&! 1%.

+igure ) Poisson;s ratio of the samples

+igure 10)

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1:

rai) a&! 3.I ()r =)&g>' m)!l'$ 6herea' he

mea'reme&' ()r he #a'e 'ample 'h)6 l)6er

ale' )( %.%3 a&! 2.43 ()r )i'')&' rai) a&!

=)&g>' m)!l' re'peciel. Ela'ic ceme&

''em' hae 'h)6& ) impr)e he c)llap'e

re'i'a&ce )( he ca'i&g'. A ceme& ')&e marix

c)&'i'' )( 6) ela'ic a&! rigi! pha'e'. &!er

he exp)'e! e&'i)&'$ he rigi! pha'e re'i'' a&!

he ela'ic pha'e !e()rm'. M i&crea'i&g he

ela'ic pha'e$ he 6h)le ''em e&!' )

i&crea'e he )erall ela'ici. Thi' re'l' i& he

ela'ic pha'e plai&g he maj)r r)le. The im/

pr)eme& i& ela'ic pr)perie' i' al') !e )

he ()rmai)& )( m)re h!rae! pr)!c' i& he

pre'e&ce )( &a&)paricle' C13D. a'i&g c)llap'ere'i'a&ce i' er 'e&'iie ) ceme& )i'')&'

rai) a&! ceme& =)&g' m)!l' C3D. A higher

=)&g>' m)!l' mea&' ha ceme& ')&e ha'

emp)rar a&! reer'i#le !e()rmai)&' &!er a

cerai& 're'' a&! 6ih'a&!' higher 're''e'

6ih) #rea;i&g. A higher )i'')&>' rai) ca&

!i'ri#e 're''e' a&! pree& he creai)& )(

high/'re'' p)i&'. The ()rce' 6ill #e !i'ri#e!

al)&g he ceme& 'heah a&! he 6h)le ceme&

'heah 6ill 'h)6 a& ela'ic #ehai)r a)i!i&g

#rea;age # ela'ic !e()rmai)&. The e((ecie/

&e'' )( *T i& i&crea'i&g he =)&g' m)!l'

)( he 'ample' !ecrea'e' # i&crea'i&g i'

)lme (raci)&. & )her '!ie'$ i ha' al')

#ee& 'h)6& ha he =)&g>' m)!l' )(

ceme& m)rar' i' e&ha&ce! 6ih a!!i&g *T'

C29D.

CONCLUSIONS

Thi' '! c)&(irm' he re'l' )#ai&e! i& he

prei)' '!ie' a&! pr)i!e' &e6 experime&al

re'l' ()r impr)i&g he ela'ic pr)perie' )(

ceme& ')&e # a!!i&g &a&)paricle'. )re/

)er$ i ha' #ee& !em)&'rae! herei& ha:

1.*T' impr)e he pr)perie' )( he

ceme& 'lrr a&! ')&e?

2.A!!i&g *T' ) ceme& 'lrr i&crea'e'

he i'c)'i$ here# impr)i&g he

''pe&!i&g a#ili )( he 'lrr?

3.Free 6aer a&! (li! l)'' are al') !e/

crea'e! # i&crea'i&g he c)&ce&rai)& )(

*T'. Thi' re!ci)& c)l! #e a' high a'

85< ()r (ree 6aer a&! 7%< ()r (li! l)'' a

1 6.< )( *T'?

4.The e((ecie&e'' )( he &a&)/a!!iie i&

!ecrea'i&g he (ree 6aer a&! (li! l)'' i'

higher a l)6er c)&ce&rai)&'?

5.The hic;e&i&g ime !ecrea'e' # i&crea'e/

i&g he c)&ce&rai)& )( *T'. hile i i'

32I mi&e' ()r he 'ample 6ih) *T$ i

!ecrea'e' ) 245$ 22%$ a&! 2%% mi&e' ()r

he 'ample' 6ih 1$ 2$ a&! 3 6.< )( &a&)/

a!!iie re'peciel?I.There i' a& i&crea'e i& c)mpre''ie

're&gh$ =)&g>' m)!l'$ a&! )i'')&>'

rai) )( he ceme& ')&e 'ample'?

7.The i&crea'e i& he a!!iie c)&ce&rai)&

ca'e' re!ce! c)mpre''ie 're&gh a&!

=)&g>' m)!l' #eca'e )( &'ia#le

!i'per'i)& )( &a&)paricle' i& he ceme&

')&e marix? h' a& )pimm leel )(

*T' 'h)l! #e 'e!.

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. .$ a&! )&!al .$ #anoscale 6)!i(ica/

i)& )( eme&ii)' aerial'$ Pu"lic

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$aterial Technologies$ *T$ i&gap)re$

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jp st 4011412886600

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