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Cartography in the 21st Century

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Nedjeljko FRANULA

University of Zagreb - Faculty of Geodesy, Institute for Cartography, Kaieva 26, Zagreb, HR-10000,

[email protected], www.geof.hr/~nfrancul

Abstract: Maps have a thorough and indispensable

role as one of the basis of our civilization. The majority

of human activities connected with space can hardly

be realized without adequate cartographic

presentations. In the past, many people who had any

contact with maps were only users. Today, however,

especially with larger and larger possibilities of

interactivity on web, so called democratisation of

cartography encourages larger and larger number of

people to use their cartographic possibilities to fullextent. The paper reminds of greater and greater

importance of the data obtained by means of remote

sensing in the production of various cartographic

presentations. It also refers to the present situation in

the production of paper and multimedia (electronic)

maps and to the importance of GPS, GIS, Internet

and LBS (Location Based Services) in modern

cartography.

Key words: Cartography, 21st Century, GPS, GIS,

LBS

1. Introduction

There is a small but important difference between thepast and todays understanding of cartography. In thepast, there was a clear distinction between the authorand the userof maps. Today, however, especially withincreasing possibilities of interaction on the web, the so-called democratisation of cartography encourages anincreasing number of people to use their cartographicpotentials to the full extent. They become users ofcartography, and not just users of maps others havecreated(Wood 2001).

Writing about the world in the 21st century, Wood(2001) concluded that there is no future withoutcartography. On the web pages of the Canadian

Cartographic Association (URL 1) is being given that anessential characteristic of contemporary cartography isits importance. Maps have a fundamental andindispensable role as one of the underpinnings ofcivilization. Most human activities related to space arehard to realise without adequate cartographicrepresentations. Some of them are land use planning,property ownership, weather forecasting, roadconstruction, location analysis, emergency response,

forest management, mineral prospecting, navigation etc.At the beginning of this article, there is a comment on

the remote sensing, which is soon going to be the mostimportant geospatial data collection method incartography. It is followed by a description of mainproducts of contemporary cartography - paper andmultimedia or electronic maps. After that follows arepresentation of relations of GPS, LBS, the Internet andcartography. There is also a review of the role ofcartography in the geoinformation science and theimportance of official topographic-cartographicinformation systems and 3D visualization of landscape

is stressed.At the conference Cartography, Geoinformation and

New Technologies organized by the CroatianCartographic Society in Zagreb, September 16-18, 2004,I held an invited lecture Cartography in the 21st Century.

A more adequate title of the lecture and this article wouldbe Cartography Today, because I really cant foresee what

will happen to the end of this century.

2. Remote Sensing and Cartography

Remote sensing is a method of gathering andinterpreting information about remote objects without aphysical contact with them. Airplanes, satellites, andspace probes are usual platforms for observation inremote sensing.


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Kartografija u 21. stoljeu

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Nedjeljko FRANULA

Sveuilite u Zagrebu - Geodetski fakultet, Zavod za kartografiju, Kaieva 26, Zagreb, HR-10000,

[email protected], www.geof.hr/~nfrancul

Saetak: Karte imaju temeljnu i prijeko potrebnu ulogu

kao jedna od osnova nae civilizacije. Veina ljudskih

djelatnosti vezanih uz prostor teko je ostvariva bez

odgovarajuih kartografskih prikaza. U prolosti

veina ljudi, koji su imali bilo kakve kontakte s kartama,

bili su samo korisnici. Danas, meutim, posebno sa

sve veim mogunostima interaktivnosti na webu, tzv.

demokratizacija kartografije ohrabruje sve vei broj

ljudi da u punoj mjeri iskoriste svoje kartografske

potencijale. U lanku je ukazano na sve veu vanost

podataka dobivenih daljinskim istraivanjima u izradi

razliitih kartografskih prikaza. Dan je osvrt na

dananje stanje u izradi papirnatih i multimedijskih

(elektronikih) karata te je ukazano na vanost GPS-

a, GIS-a, interneta i LBS-a (poloajno vezanih usluga)

u suvremenoj kartografiji.

Kljune rijei: kartografija, 21. stoljee, GPS, GIS,

internet, LBS


1. Uvod

U shvaanju kartografije u prolosti i danas postojimala, ali bitna razlika. U prolosti je postojala jasnarazlika izmeu autora i korisnika karata. Danas, meutim,posebno sa sve veim mogunostima interaktivnosti na

webu, tzv. demokratizacija kartografije ohrabruje sve veibroj ljudi da u punoj mjeri iskoriste svoje kartografskepotencijale. Oni postaju korisnici kartografije, a ne samokorisnici karata koje su drugi izradili(Wood 2001).

Piui o svijetu u 21. stoljeu, Wood (2001) je ustvrdioda nema budunosti bez kartografije. Takoer i na web-

stranicama Kanadskoga kartografskog drutva (URL 1)navodi se da je bitna karakteristika suvremenekartografije njezina vanost. Karte imaju temeljnu i prijekopotrebnu ulogu kao jedna od osnova nae civilizacije.

Veina ljudskih djelatnosti vezanih uz prostor teko jeostvariva bez odgovarajuih kartografskih prikaza.Nabrojimo samo neke: prostorno planiranje, evidencijavlasnitva nad zemljitem, prognoza vremena, izgradnjaprometnica, hitne slube, upravljanje umama,iskoritavanje mineralnih sirovina, navigacija itd.

Na poetku ovog lanka dan je osvrt na metodudaljinskih istraivanja, u bliskoj budunosti najvanijumetodu prikupljanja podataka u kartografiji. Slijedi osvrt

na glavne proizvode suvremene kartografije, papirnate imultimedijske ili elektronike karte, prikaz odnosa GPS-a, LBS-a, interneta i kartografije. Daje se osvrt na ulogukartografije u geoinformacijskoj znanosti, naglaavavanost slubenih topografsko-kartografskih informa-cijskih sustava i 3D-vizualizacije krajolika.

Na savjetovanju Kartografija, geoinformacije i novetehnologije to ga je u Zagrebu 16.-18. rujna 2004.organiziralo Hrvatsko kartografsko drutvo odrao sampozvano predavanje Kartografija u 21. stoljeu. Prikladnijinaziv predavanja i ovoga lanka bio bi Kartografija danas,

jer to e se dogoditi do kraja ovog stoljea, zaista nisamu stanju predvidjeti.

2. Daljinsko istraivanje i kartografija

Daljinsko istraivanje (engleski remote sensing) jemetoda prikupljanja i interpretacije informacija o udaljenimobjektima bez fizikog dodira s objektom. Zrakoplovi,sateliti i svemirske sonde su uobiajene platforme zaopaanja u daljinskim istraivanjima.

Mogunost primjene podataka daljinskih istraivanjau kartografiji bitno je poboljana uspjenim lansiranjem

satelita IKONOS-2 amerike tvrtke Space Imagine u rujnu1999. Podaci s tog satelita s prostornom rezolucijom od1 m u pankromatskom podruju i 4 m u multispektralnompodruju (sl. 1) komercijalno su dostupni od oujka 2000.


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The possibility of applying remote sensing data incartography was significantly improved with the successfullaunching of the IKONOS-2 satellite of the Americancompany Space Imagine in September 1999. Data fromthat satellite with spatial resolution of 1 m in panchromaticchannel and 4 m in multispectral channel (Fig. 1) have beencommercially available since March 2000.

In October 2001 DigitalGlobe (former EarthWatch), aprivate American company, launched the Quickbird (2)satellite with spatial resolution of 0,61 m in panchromaticchannel and 2,44 m in multispectral channel. For civilneeds, this is so far the best spatial resolution forrecording the Earth from space (Olui 2002).

Members of OEEPE decided, within the scope of aresearch project, to research the possibility of usingimages from IKONOS for the production and revision oftopographic maps. The research has shown limitedavailability of images from IKONOS and prices greaterthan usual prices of aerophotogrammetrical survey. Theresearch conducted by the Natural Land Survey ofSweden has shown that the images from IKONOS canbe used to revise most objects on a map in scale 1:10 000(Holland et al. 2002).

3. Paper Maps

Vanessa Lawrence, the director general of OrdnanceSurvey - the national mapping organisation of GreatBritain, points out that today, when Ordnance Surveybecomes a true e-business, investment in digital products

will not be at the expense of traditional paper mapsbecause both have an equal importance for distribution

of information. Technological advances have broadenedthe possibilities in which paper maps can be accessedand delivered. For example, web sites where the sectionsof map can be printed or special kiosks with similarcapabilities (Lawrence 2002).

Today, paper maps are almost exclusively producedby digital technology. The equipment required - apersonal computer and cartographic software areinexpensive and available to everyone. The Institute forCartography of the Faculty of Geodesy in Zagrebacquired the OCAD software in 1998. The software hassince been applied in teaching and for the production of

various maps, in the more recent times also Internetmaps (Fig. 2) (upan, Frange 2003). A copy of OCAD8 Professional, which supports working with a database,costs 853 euros (URL 3).

The production of maps is going to be facilitated evenmore when most of the required data is in digital form.For the area of Croatia, we especially point out the needfor the creation a base of geographic names. That is aproject within the scope of the work of the CroatianGeodetic Institute (URL 4).

4. Multimedia or Electronic Maps

A multimedia or electronic map is a map connectedwith texts, graphs, photographs, pictures, satellite or aerialimages, other maps, sound or motion picture etc. intomultimedia in order to provide an additional level ofinformation and a more complete view of reality (StateGeodetic Administration 2003).

The greatest advantage of multimedia maps, andespecially of a multimedia atlas with respect to the printedone is the speed of searching, scale change, moving fromone part of the Earth to another, looking for a specific

name etc. Besides, we are not limited by given formats,since we choose the section we are interested in.Furthermore, one is able to print maps supplemented byhis or her own data. Projection deformations have noeffect on measured values, in other words we are lookingat a digital globe. This is particularly evident on small-scale maps in Microsofts Encarta atlas (Franula 1997),

where we can view only a hemisphere at once, becauseall maps are in the orthographic projection. Goodchild(2000) points out this orthographic view as a specialadvantage, because he believes that, for an average user,

working with such a digital globe is much simpler thanworking with e.g. a digital map in the Mercator projection.

The end of the 20th century is the time of creatingelectronic navigation. At first with the help of unofficialElectronic Chart Systems (ECS), and today, finally, witha significant use of official system of the InternationalMaritime Organization (IMO) titled Electronic ChartDisplay and Information System (ECDIS) (Fig. 3), andElectronic Navigational Charts (ENC) related to it (Racetin2004).

Electronic navigational charts are databases withstandardised content, structure and format. For use withECDIS, they are published by official and authorized

hydrographic offices. ENC contains all information of achart required for safe navigation. It may also containinformation other than those included by paper maps (e.g.navigation directions), which can be deemed necessaryfor safe navigation (Racetin 2004).

Fig. 1. IKONOS-2 satellite image of Olympic stadiumin Athens (URL 2)

Sl. 1. Olimpijski stadion u Ateni snimljen s IKONOS-a(URL 2)


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Amerika tvrtka DigitalGlobe(prije EarthWatch) lansirala je ulistopadu 2001. satelit QuickBird (2)s prostornom rezolucijom od 0,61 mu pankromatskom podruju i 2,44 mu multispektralnom podruju. To jedo sada najbolja prostorna rezolucija

u snimanju Zemlje iz svemira zacivilne potrebe (Olui 2002).

lanice OEEPE-a odluile su uokviru istraivakog projektaistraiti mogunost upotrebesnimaka s IKONOS-a za izradu iobnovu topografskih karata.Ispitivanje je pokazalo ogranienudostupnost snimaka s IKONOS-a ivee cijene od uobiajenih cijenaaerofotogrametrijske izmjere.Ispitivanje koje je proveo Natural

Land Survey of Sweden pokazaloje da se snimci s IKONOS-a moguupotrijebiti za obnavljanje veine objekata s karte mjerila1:10 000 (Holland i dr. 2002).

3. Papirnate karte

V. Lawrence, direktorica Ordnance Surveya - dravnegeodetsko-kartografske institucije V. Britanije, istie dadanas, kada Ordnance Survey ulazi u pravo e-poslovanje,investicije u digitalne proizvode ne idu na troaktradicionalnih papirnatih karata, jer oba medija imaju

jednaku vanost u i ren ju informacija. Tehnolokinapredak proirio je mogunosti na koje se papirnatekarte mogu distribuirati. Primjer su web-stranice s kojihse karte mogu iscrtavati ili posebni kiosci sa slinimmogunostima (Lawrence 2002).

Papirnate karte izrauju se danas gotovo iskljuivodigitalnom tehnologijom. Potrebna oprema - osobnoraunalo i kartografski softver jeftini su i svima dostupni.Zavod za kartografiju Geodetskog fakulteta u Zagrebunabavio je 1998. godine softver OCAD, koji se od tadaprimjenjuje u nastavi i praktinom radu za izraduraznovrsnih karata, u posljednje vrijeme i internetskih (sl.

2) (upan, Frange 2003). Cijena inaice OCAD 8Professional, koja podrava rad s bazom podataka, iznosi853 eura (URL 3).

Izrada karata jo e se vie olakati kada veinapotrebnih podataka bude u digitalnom obliku. Za podrujeHrvatske ovdje posebno istiemo potrebu za izradom bazegeografskih imena. To je jedan od projekata u djelokrugurada Hrvatskoga geodetskog instituta (URL 4).

4. Multimedijske ili elektronike karte

Multimedijska ili elektronika karta je karta povezanas tekstom, grafikonima, fotografijama, slikama, satelitskimili zranim snimcima, drugim kartama, zvukom ilipokretnim slikama itd. u multimediju radi pruanja

dodatne razine informacija i potpunijeg pogleda nastvarnost (DGU 2003).

Najvea prednost multimedijske karte, a posebnomultimedijskog atlasa, s obzirom na otisnuti je brzinapretraivanja, mijenjanje mjerila, prebacivanje s jednogdijela Zemljine kugle na drugi, traenje odreenog imena isl. Osim toga, nismo ogranieni danim formatima, veisjeak koji nas zanima biramo sami. Nadalje, svaku kartudopunjenu vlastitim podacima moemo otisnuti na papir.Sve mjerene veliine osloboene su utjecaja deformacija

projekcije, drugim rijeima imamo pred sobom digitalniglobus. To posebno dolazi do izraaja na kartama sitnihmjerila u Microsoftovom Encarta atlasu (Franula 1997),kada jednim pogledom, kao na globusu, moemo obuhvatitisamo polusferu, jer su sve karte izraene u ortografskojprojekciji. Goodchild (2000) istie taj ortografski pogledkaoposebnu prednost, jer smatra da je prosjenom korisnikurad s takvim digitalnim globusom mnogo jednostaviji odrada s npr. digitalnom kartom u Mercatorovoj projekciji.

Kraj 20. stoljea bilo je doba stvaranja elektronikenavigacije. U poetku pomou neslubenih elektronikihsustava pomorskih karata (Electronic Chart Systems -

ECS), a danas, konano, znaajnom uporabomslubenog sustava Meunarodne pomorske organizacije(International Maritime Organization - IMO) pod nazivominformacijski sustav i prikaz elektronikih karata

(Electronic Chart Display and Information System -ECDIS) (sl. 3), te uz njega vezane elektronike pomorskenavigacijske karte (Electronic Navigational Chart - ENC)(Racetin 2004).

Elektronika pomorska navigacijska karta jest bazapodataka s normiranim sadrajem, strukturom i formatom.Nju za upotrebu s ECDIS-om izdaju slubeni i ovlatenihidrografski uredi. ENC sadrava sve informacije

pomorske karte nune za sigurnu navigaciju. Moesadravati i dodatne informacije osim onih to ih sadravapapirnata karte (npr. smjerovi plovidbe), a mogu sesmatrati nunima za sigurnu navigaciju (Racetin 2004).

Fig. 2. A section of a map produced with OCAD

Sl. 2. Isjeak karte izraene OCAD-om


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5. GPS and CartographyGPS (Global Positioning System) is a network of

satellites that continuously transmits encoded information,which enables precise positioning on the Earth. GPS isbased on a group of satellites of the Ministry of Defenceof the USA that orbit the Earth. Satellites transmit very

weak radio signals enabling the GPS receiver todetermine its position on the Earth. GPS has variousapplications on land, sea and in the air. Basically, GPSenables the precise positioning and facilitate navigation.

There are also small handheld GPS receivers with the

possibility of saving a detailed map from a CD-ROM. Mapdata can be integrated into the receiver either by using adata card or loading directly from a CD to a GPS receiver.Some receivers can have data saved directly into internalmemory without the need of a data card (URL 6).

GPS is slowly becoming a usual tool in automobiles.Sophisticated systems are able to indicate the positionof a vehicle on an electronic map enabling the drivers tomark their positions and look for an address, for examplea street, a restaurant, a hotel or another destination. Somesystems can even automatically create a route andprovide instructions for each turning, until the desired

position is reached (Lapaine et al. 2004).The company Mireo d.o.o. (URL 7) produced a digital

map of Croatian roads in a format suitable for MicrosoftPocket PC (Fig. 4). Pocket PC with an integrated GPS orconnected with it via Bluetooth wireless technologyprovides driving instructions from the current position toany address in Croatia. It is not necessary to look at themap during the drive, it is sufficient to follow vocalinstructions in Croatian.

Using a GPS receiver and a handheld computer withadequate cartographic or GIS software, one is able toundertake a topographic survey of a small area. Theycan also efficiently be applied to the terrain work ontopographic map revision on the basis of anaerophotogrammetric survey.

6. Location Based Services and

Cartography

Location Based Services (LBS) and telecartographybelong to the field of newest research in cartography.Location Based Services include all the information auser can obtain via a cell phone or a handheld computer

and are related to the position (location) he or she iscurrently at. For example, the user is in a certain cityand would like to find the nearest hotel, hospital or abank etc. A lot of such information can be transferred tothe user most efficiently in the form of cartographicrepresentations on the display of the cell phone or thehandheld computer. The goal of cartography is to createcartographic representations suitable for small displaysof those devices. Because of very small displays ofportable devices, it is necessary to integrate multimediaelements into the cartographic communication process(Gartner 2004).

The company GISDATA is a pioneer in the field ofLocation Based Services in Croatia. For Zagreb, Rijeka,Split, and Osijek, they provide information aboutrestaurants, gas stations, post offices, cinemas, theatres,hotels, banks, rent-a-cars, public garages, pharmacies,and pizza parlours (URL 8).

The company VIP.net d.o.o. offers the VIP.navigatorservice. Data at VIP.navigators disposal, and that is morethan 200 object categories (restaurants, hotels, cinemas,theatres, museums, banks etc.) and 270 thousandaddresses for 34 Croatian cities and 7000 settlementsare available over the Internet free of charge, and via acell phone for a fee. Digital geographic maps with plottedlocations of objects (for the entire territory of Croatia)

Fig. 3. ECDIS installation in the ship (URL 5)

Sl. 3. ECDIS na zapovjednikom mostu broda (URL 5)

Fig. 4. Pocket PC with an integrated digital map ofCroatia (URL 7)

Sl. 4. Pocket PC s digitalnom kartom Hrvatske (URL 7)


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5. GPS i kartografija

GPS (Global Positioning System) je mrea satelitakoja kontinuirano odailje kodirane informacije, s pomoukojih je omogueno precizno odreivanje poloaja naZemlji. GPS se temelji na skupini satelita Ministarstvaobrane SAD-a koji stalno krue oko Zemlje. Sateliti

odailju vrlo slabe radio signale omoguujui GPS-prijamniku da odredi svoj poloaj na Zemlji. GPS imaraznovrsne primjene na kopnu, moru i u zraku. U osnovi,GPS omoguuje da se zabiljee poloaji toaka na Zemljii pomogne navigacija do tih toaka i od njih.

Postoje ve i mali runi GPS-prijamnici s mogunostispremanja detaljne karte s CD-ROM-a. Podaci karte moguse ugraditi u prijamnik bilo upotrebom kartice s podacimaili uitavanjem izravno s CD-a u GPS-prijamnik. Nekiprijamnici mogu imati podatke napunjene izravno u internumemoriju bez potrebe za karticom s podacima (URL 6).

GPS sve vie postaje uobiajeno pomagalo i uautomobilu. Sofisticirani sustavi mogu pokazati poloajvozila na elektronikoj karti dajui vozaima mogunostda obiljee svoje poloaje i potrae neku adresu, npr. ulicu,restoran, hotel ili neko drugo odredite. Neki sustavi moguak automatski kreirati trasu (rutu) i davati upute za svakoskretanje do traenog poloaja (Lapaine i dr. 2004).

Tvrtka Mireo d.o.o. (URL 7) izradila je digitalnu kartucesta Hrvatske u formatu prikladnom za Microsoft PocketPC (sl. 4). Pocket PC s ugraenim GPS-om ili povezan snjim Bluetooth tehnologijom privren na vjetrobranskostaklo automobila prua upute za vonju od trenutnog

poloaja do bilo koje adrese u Hrvatskoj. Tijekom vonjenije potrebno gledati kartu ve je dovoljno pratiti glasovneupute na hrvatskom jeziku.

GPS i runo raunalo s odgovarajuim kartografskimili GIS-softverom omoguuju geodetsku izmjeru nekogmanjeg podruja. Efikasno se mogu primijeniti uterenskom dijelu posla na obnovi topografskih karata naosnovi aerofotogrametrijske izmjere.

6. Poloajno vezane usluge i

kartografija

Podruje najnovijih istraivanja u kartografiji supoloajno vezane usluge (Location Based Services -LBS) i telekartografija. Poloajno vezane usluge su sveone informacije koje korisnik moe dobiti preko mobitelaili runog raunala, a odnose se na poloaj (lokaciju) nakojem se trenutano nalazi. Npr. nalazi se u nekom gradui trai najblii hotel, bolnicu, bankomat i sl. Mnoge takveinformacije najefikasnije se mogu prenijeti do korisnika uobliku kartografskih prikaza na ekranu mobitela ili runograunala. Zadatak je kartografije da stvori kartografskeprikaze prikladne za male ekrane tih ureaja. Zbog vrlomalih ekrana mobilnih ureaja, nuno je u kartografskikomunikacijski proces ukljuiti multimedijske elemente(Gartner 2004).

Na podruju poloajno vezanih usluga u Hrvatskojpionirsku ulogu ima tvrtka GISDATA. Za Zagreb, Rijeku,Split i Osijek nude informacije o: restoranima, benzinskimpumpama, potama, kinima, kazalitima, hotelima,bankama, bankomatima, iznajmljivanju vozila (rent-a-car), javnim garaama, ljekarnama i picerijama (URL 8).

Tvrtka VIP.net d.o.o. nudi uslugu VIP.navigator. Podacikojima raspolae VIP.navigator, a rije je o vie od 200kategorija objekata (restorani, hoteli, kina, kazalita, muzeji,

banke, bankomati, i drugo) te 270 tisua adresa za 34hrvatska grada te ostalih 7000 naselja dostupni subesplatno preko interneta, a preko mobitela uzodgovarajuu naplatu. Takoer su na raspolaganju digitalnegeografske karte s ucrtanim lokacijama objekata (zapodruje cijele Hrvatske) te brojne dodatne informacije oobjektima (URL 9). Nalazimo li se na Trgu bana JosipaJelaia u Zagrebu i zatraimo li informacije o Privrednojbanci dobit emo lokacije najbliih banaka (sl. 5).

Da suvremena tehnologija prua izvanrednemogunosti nadarenim mladim ljudima, dokaz je iaplikacija za mobilne telefone mobyMAP, to su je izradila

dvojica bivih uenika karlovake gimnazije i buduihstudenta Fakulteta elektrotehnike i raunarstva (URL 10).MobyMAP (sl. 6) omoguuje pregledavanje karata namobilnom telefonu, ima ugraeno pretraivanje ulica,moe prikazati smjer najblieg objekta koji traite(ljekarna, banka, benzinska postaja). Do sada sudostupne karte Zagreba i Karlovca. Za ostale gradovekarte su u izradi. Autori nude tvrtkama izradu perso-naliziranih karata gradova koje sadre samo glavne ulicei pristupne putove do te tvrtke te iz bilo kojeg mjesta ugradu iscrtavaju put do te tvrtke. U odnosu na prethodnospomenuti VIP.navigator, koji je on-line usluga, mobyMAP

je Java-aplikacija, to znai da ga jednom uitamo na

svoj mobitel i potom se njime stalno koristimo. Stoga jebri i jeftiniji.

Fig. 5. VIP.navigator

Sl. 5. VIP.navigator


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and much additional object information are also available(URL 9). If we are at the Josip Jelai square and we

would like information about Privredna banka, we aregoing to get the locations of nearest banks (Fig. 5).

Another proof for the statement that contemporarytechnology provides extraordinary possibilities to giftedyoung people is an application for cell phones titled

mobyMAP, produced by two students of a high schoolfrom Karlovac (URL 10). mobyMAP (Fig. 6) enablesviewing maps on the cell phone, has an integrated streetsearch, can show the direction of the nearest object youare looking for (pharmacy, bank, gas station). Maps ofZagreb and Karlovac are available at this moment. Mapsof other cities are being produced. The authors offercompanies the production of personalized city maps,

which only contain the main streets and ways to accessthe company, and they plot the route to the company fromany location in the city. In contrast to the on-line service

VIP.navigator, mobyMAP is a Java application, whichmeans that we only have to load it into a cell phone once,

and are able to constantly use it afterwards. This makesit quicker and cheaper.

7. Internet and Cartography

7.1. Free programs for cartography and GIS

There are some programs on the Internet that may be freely(together with their source program code) used, copied,changed and distributed. They are called free software andopen source (URL 11). Programs GEOTRANS and GRASSare examples of exceptionally valuable free programs.

GEOTRANS (Geographic Translator) (Fig. 7) is aprogram that enables one to transform coordinates betweenvarious coordinate systems, map projections and geodeticdatums (URL 12). It currently supports over 200 geodetic

datums and 25 map projections. It enables thetransformation of a single point or an entire file. A list oftransformation parameters between various geodeticdatums is a feature that makes the program so valuable.There are transformation parameters between the datumstill used in Croatia, the one with a fundamental pointHermannskgel near Vienna and the WGS84 datum. This

is especially useful for using handheld GPS devices whenthere is no need for great precision (about 10 meters) (Tuti2004a). There is a precision of one millimetre whentransforming points inside the same datum; for example,

when transforming coordinates from the 5th and 6th systemof Gauss-Krger projection in Croatia to the system withthe mean meridian with the longitude of 1630'.

GRASS (Geographic Resources Analysis SupportSystem) is a free GIS capable of processing raster andvector data, and works on various operating systems(URL 13). American Military started its development in1982, and today it is used by many American government

agencies. GRASS consists of more than 350 programsand tools used for plotting maps and images on themonitor or on the paper, processing raster, vector andsites data (Tuti 2004a). On the basis of a digital reliefmodel, GRASS enables, among other things, therepresentation of relief by shading (Fig. 8).

7.2. Maps on the Internet

Maps on the Internet are also called web maps. Thereare static and dynamic web maps. Both groups includemaps that can only be viewed and those that are interactive.

Fig. 6. mobyMAP

Sl. 6. mobyMAP

Fig. 7. GEOTRANSs interface

Sl. 7. Suelje GEOTRANS-a


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7. Internet i kartografija

7.1. Slobodni programi za kartografiju i GIS

Na internetu postoje programi koji se slobodno(zajedno s izvornim programskim kodom) moguupotrebljavati, kopirati, mijenjati i dalje distribuirati.Nazivaju se free software i open source (URL 11). Da imeu slobodnim programima ima izuzetno vrijednihprograma ilustrirat u s nekim mogunostima programaGEOTRANS i GRASS.

GEOTRANS (Geographic Translator) (sl. 7) jeprogram koji omoguuje transformaciju koordinataizmeu razliitih koordinatnih sustava, kartografskihprojekcija i geodetskih datuma. (URL 12). Trenutano jepodrano preko 200 geodetskih datuma i 25 kartografskihprojekcija. Omoguuje transformaciju jedne toke ili cijeledatoteke. Ono to je posebno vrijedno u tom programu

je popis transformacijskih parametara izmeu razliitihgeodetskih datuma. Tako postoje i parametri zatransformaciju izmeu, jo uvijek u Hrvatskoj vaeegdatuma s fundamentalnom tokom Hermannskgel blizuBea, i datuma WGS84. To je posebno od koristi prilikomupotrebe runih GPS-ureaja kada zahtijevana tonostnije prevelika (reda veliine 10 metara) (Tuti 2004a). Utransformaciji toaka unutar istog datuma, npr. utransformaciji koordinata iz 5. i 6. sustava Gauss-Krgerove projekcije u Hrvatskoj u sustav sa srednjimmeridijanom geografske duine 1630', postie semilimetarska tonost.

GRASS (Geographic Resources Analysis SupportSystem) je slobodni GIS s mogunostima obraderasterskih i vektorskih podataka, a radi na razliitimoperacijskim sustavima (URL 13). Njegov razvoj zapoela

je amer ika vo js ka 1982 . godine , a danas gaupotrebljavaju mnoge amerike vladine agencije. GRASSse sastoji od vie od 350 programa i alata kojima seiscrtavaju karte i slike na ekranu monitora ili na papiru,obrauju rasterski, vektorski i tokasti prostorni podaci(Tuti 2004a). Na osnovi digitalnog modela reljefaGRASS, izmeu ostalog, omoguuje i prikaze reljefasjenanjem (sl. 8).

7.2. Karte na internetu

Karte na internetu nazivamo i web-kartama. Onemogu biti statike i dinamike. Obje skupine ukljuujukarte koje se mogu samo pregledavati (view only) iinteraktivne. Veina karata na webu danas su jo uvijekstatike i nisu interaktivne. To su npr. skenirane kartepostavljene na web. Neke vrlo stare i teko dostupnekarte postaju na taj nain dostupne mnogima. Statikekarte mogu biti i interaktivne. Osim veze na neku drugu

web-stranicu na kojoj moe biti druga karta ili neki podatak,pod interaktivnou se podrazumijeva i mogunost uvea-vanja/smanjivanja, pomicanja po karti, definiranjakartografskog sadraja iskljuivanjem i ukljui-vanjem

razliitih slojeva. Dinamike karte se odlikuju razliitimanimaci-jama, npr. kretanjem oblaka na meteorolokimkartama. Interaktivna dinaminost omoguava trodimenzi-onalne prikaze i kretanje kroz prostor.

Oblikovanje karata za web je proirenje djelatnostikartografa, koje zahtijeva nove naine oblikovanja.Kartografi se moraju intenzivno posvetiti tom novom posluako ne ele taj vaan dio trita prepustiti strunjacimadrugih struka (Franula, Tuti 2002).

Na sl. 9. prikazana je interaktivna web-karta Dubrovnikai njegove okolice (URL 14). Karta (plan grada) nastala je u

okviru diplomskoga rada na Geodetskom fakultetu (mentorprof. dr. sc. S. Frange), a interaktivnu kartu na internet jepostavio mr. sc. Robert upan, asistent u Zavodu zakartografiju. Karta sadri ove informacije: popis ulica,deurne slube, hoteli, zdravstvene usluge, prehrana,usluge i servisi, kultura i zabava, ustanove. Ako meuustanovama Kulture i zabave traimo npr. Pomorski muzej,tada ga potraimo u popisu s lijeve strane i klikom dobivamoisjeak plana grada u krupnom mjerilu sa strelicom kojapokazuje muzej. U tekstualnom prozoru s desne strane jeime ustanove, adresa, telefon i druge korisne informacije.

Internetske interaktivne karte izrauju i studenti

Geodetskog fakulteta na usmjerenju Fotogrametrija ikartografija (URL 15).

7.3. Kartografski tekstovi na internetu

Na webu postoji dosta sveuilinih udbenika koji susamo elektronska inaica klasinoga tiskanog udbenika.S vremenom e se uee obrazovnih metrijala izvornopisanih u hipertekstualnom obliku poveavati. Osnovnatehnika znaajka hipertekstualnih tekstova su veze (link).

Veze povezuju dijelove teksta s drugim dijelovima teksta,najee preko kljunih rijei, ali jednako tako moguukljuiti i stranice koje su pohranjene na nekom drugom

posluitelju na sasvim drugom kraju svijeta. Uhipertekstualni dokument gotovo su redovito ukljueneslike, video-sekvence, animirane i zvune ilustracije.

Najpopularniji materijali koji se u velikom broju pojavljujuna webu su razni prirunici, rjenici, leksikoni i enciklopedije.Tako se na web-stranici Geoinformatik-Service SveuilitaRostock (URL 16) nalazi rjenik i leksikon iz geoinformatike.Pod opcijom Wrterbuch (Rjenik) nalazi se trailica u kojuse moe upisati rije na engleskom ili njemakom jeziku iona e prikazati sve termine vezane uz tu rije. Definicijesu dane samo na njemakom jeziku.

8. Geoinformacijska znanost i

kartografija

Geoinformacijski sustavi (GIS) datiraju iz sredine1960-ih godina. Ekspanziju doivljavaju krajem 1980-ihzahvaljujui napretku raunalne tehnologije i veojdostupnosti prostornih baza podataka. Grki znanstvenikKavouras (1995) ukazuje da su u primjeni GIS-a estouoljive etiri faze: GIS-fobija, GIS-manija, GIS-euforija ina koncu GIS-razoaranje. Rezultat je to nedovoljnogulaganja u razvoj potrebne teorije. U svrhu napretka na

tom podruju osnovan je 1988. u Sjedinjenim AmerikimDravama National Center for Geographic Informationand Analysis (NCGIA), konzorcij triju sveuilita sazadaom provoenja temeljnih istraivanja. Upravo je taj


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Today, most maps on the Internet are still static and arentinteractive. Examples of such maps are scanned maps puton the Internet. Some very old maps difficult to accessbecome available to many people this way. Static mapscan also be interactive. It may have a link to another webpage with another map or some data, interaction alsoencompasses the possibility to zoom in and out, movearound the map, and define cartographic content by turning

various layers on and off. Dynamic maps are characterisedby various animations, for example moving clouds onmeteorological maps. Interactive dynamics enable three-dimensional representations and moving through space.

Creating maps for the web is anextension of cartographersactivities, and it requires newcreating methods. Cartographershave to dedicate themselves to thisnew work vigorously orprofessionals of other professions

will seize that important part of the

market (Franula, Tuti 2002).Fig. 9. shows an interactive web

map of Dubrovnik and itssurroundings (URL 14). The map(city plan) was produced within thescope of a diploma thesis at theFaculty of Geodesy (mentor Prof. S.Frange), and the interactive map

was put on the Internet by MSc.Robert upan, assistant at theDepartment for Cartography. Themap contains this information: a list

of streets, services on duty, hotels,health services, food, services andrepair shops, culture and

entertainment, public institutions. If, for example, we arelooking for the Maritime Museum among institutions ofCulture and Entertainment, we are going to look for it inthe list on the left, and clicking on it a section of the cityplan at a large scale will show up, with an arrow pointingat the museum. The textual window at the right showsthe name of the institution, its address, phone number,

and other useful information.Internet interactive maps are also produced by

students of the Faculty of Geodesy, orientation -Photogrammetry and Cartography (URL 15).

7.3. Cartographic texts on the Internet

On the web, there are university textbooks that arejust electronic copies of classical printed textbooks. Withthe passage of time, the portion of educational materialoriginally written in hypertextual form will increase. Basictechnical characteristic of hypertextual texts are links.Links connect parts of text with other parts of texts, most

often via key words, but may also include pages storedon another server at a completely different part of the

world. Various pictures, video sequences, animated andsound illustrations are integrated into a hypertextualdocument very often.

The most popular material appearing on the web ingreat numbers are various handbooks, dictionaries,lexicons, and encyclopaedias. For example, the webpage of the Geoinformatik-Service of the RostockUniversity (URL 16) contains a geoinformatics dictionaryand lexicon. The option Wrterbuch (Dictionary) includesa search program, into which a word in English or

German can be entered, and it will show all terms relatedto that word. The definitions are just in German.

Fig. 8. Representation of relief by shading withGRASS (Tuti 2004b)

Sl. 8. Prikaz reljefa sjenanjem pomou GRASS-a(Tuti 2004b)

Fig. 9. Interactive web map of Dubrovnik

Sl. 9. Internetska interaktivna karta Dubrovnika


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konzorcij, ve 1991., bio inicijator osnivanja organizacije smnogo veim brojem lanica. Tada je nastao UniversityConsortium for Geographic Information Science (UCGIS)

u koji je danas ulanjeno vie od 60 sveuilita i istraivakihorganizacija iz SAD-a (URL 17). Svrha UCGIS-a jepromocija i unapreenje nove znanosti. UCGIS naglaavamultidisciplinarnu prirodu geoinformacijske znanosti i

potrebu za uravnoteenou i suradnjom svih disciplina.Navedene su: kartografija, kognitivna znanost, raunalnaznanost, praktina i inenjerska geodezija, znanosti ookoliu, satelitska i fizikalna geodezija, geografija, pejsanaarhitektura, pravo i javna politika, fotogrametrija i daljinskaistraivanja, statistika.

Koliko je geoinformacijska znanost bitna za kartografijuvidljivo je i iz prijedloga da podnaslov Meunarodnogkartografskog drutva (International Cartographic

Association - ICA) bude The International Society forCartography and Geographic Information Science.

Na samom poetku stratekog plana 2003-2011, ICA

istie da eli biti prepoznata kao autoritativno tijelo zakartografiju i geoinformacijsku znanost (GIScience)(URL 18).

9. Slubeni topografsko-kartografski

informacijski sustavi

Mnoge ljudske aktivnosti trebaju geografske informacijeda bi bile uspjene. Organizacije koje osiguravaju temeljnuokosnicu na koju se naslanjaju sve ostale prostorneinformacije jesu dravne geodetsko-kartografske

organizacije (National Mapping Organizations). U Hrvatskojje to Dravna geodetska uprava. Budui da se danas"industrija" geografskih informacija oslanja na raunala ibaze podataka, bitno je da ta geodetsko-topografskaokosnica bude normirana, lako razumljiva, estoosuvremenjivana i dobro dokumentirana.

Jedan od oblika te geodetsko-topografske okosnicejesu i slubeni topografsko-kartografski informacijskisustavi. Najpoznatiji takav sustav danas je njemaki

ATKIS (Amtliches-topographisch-kar tographischesInformationssystem).

Po uzoru na ATKIS u Hrvatskoj se stvara STOKIS(Slubeni topografsko-kartografski informacijski sustav).Osnovu tog sustava ini Hrvatski topografski informacijski

sustav (CROTIS). Kartografskim modelom podataka(KPM) ostvarena je konformnost s CROTIS-om ime ebiti omoguena izrada kartografske baze iz topografske(Biljecki i dr. 2003).

STOKIS e u budunosti biti slubena osnova za veinudrugih prostornih informacijskh sustava u Hrvatskoj. Uplanerskim i projektantskim radovima CROTIS e zamijeniti

papirnate topografske karte. Kartografska baza omoguite izradu papirnatih topografskih karata.

10. 3D-vizualizacija krajolika

U dananje vrijeme sve su ei zahtjevi zatrodimenzionalnim modelima za razliite analize,simulacije i vizualizacije (sl. 10). Jedan od naina izradetakvih modela je kombinacija postojeih podataka(digitalni modeli reljefa, topografske karte) i odgovarajuihpostupaka modeliranja. Postupak ukljuuje sljedee faze:

1. vizualizacija reljefa na osnovi digitalnih modelareljefa (DMR)

2. trodimenzionalna vizualizaci ja si tuaci je(kombinacija reljefa i karte)

3. vizualizacija 3D-objekata.

3D-modeli krajolika mogu se izraditi i izmjeromlaserskim skenerima (LIDAR-ima) iz zrakoplova ilihelikoptera. Poloaj LIDAR-a u prostoru odreuje seGPS-om i inercijalnim mjernim ureajima, a LIDAR mjerihorizontalne i vertikalne kutove te udaljenosti do velikogbroja toaka na Zemljinoj povrini omoguujui takoodreivanje prostornih koordinata tih toaka.

Veina geoinformacijskih sustava danas su 2D GIS-ovi, jer su nastajali na osnovi digitalizacije postojeihkarata. Brzi razvoj raunalne tehnologije, grafike i metodaprikupljanja podataka (GPS, LIDAR) stimuliraju stvaranje3D GIS-ova. Budui da je krajolik objekt u tri dimenzije,to i modeliranje krajolika zahtijeva 3D-pristup. 3D GIS-ovi omoguit e, izmeu ostalog, i 3D-vizualizacijukrajolika u realnom vremenu (URL 19).

11. Zakljuak

Kartografi nikada u povijesti nisu imali tako irokopodruje rada kao danas.

Potreba za papirnatim kartama, prema mojoj procjeni,uvijek e postojati. Meutim, na mnogim podrujima drugioblici kartografskih prikaza zamijenit e papirnate karte.Planinari, turisti, izletnici, za snalaenje u prostoru itraenje odreenih informacija sve vie e se sluitirunim GPS-om, runim raunalima i mobitelima.

U pomorskoj navigaciji papirnate karte sluit e ubudunosti samo kao rezervna varijanta.

Planeri i projektanti sluit e se GIS-ovima i 3D-

modelima krajolika zasnovanim na slubenimtopografsko-kartografskim informacijskim sustavima. 3DGIS-ovi bit e idealno rjeenje.Fig. 10. 3D model of settlement (URL 8)

Sl. 10. 3D model naselja (URL 8)


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8. Geoinformation Science and

Cartography

Geographic information systems (GIS) date from themiddle of 1960s. They expanded at the end of 1980sthanks to the advancement of computer technology andgreater availability of spatial databases. The Greek scientist

Kavouras (1995) points out four phases that can often beseen in the application of GIS: GIS-phobia, GIS-mania, GIS-euphoria, and finally, GIS-disappointment. This is the resultof insufficient investment in the development of a requiredtheory. In order to advance this field, the National Centerfor Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA) wasfounded in the United States of America in 1988. It is aconsortium of three universities with the task of conductingfundamental research. It was this consortium that was, in1991, the initiator of establishing an organization with agreater number of members. That organization was theUniversity Consortium for Geographic Information Science

(UCGIS) that has over 60 universities and researchorganizations from the USA as members (URL 17). Thepurpose of UCGIS is the promotion and advancement ofthe new science. UCGIS stresses multidisciplinary natureof the geoinformation science and the need for balanceand collaboration of all the disciplines. These are listed:cartography, cognitive science, computer science,engineering and land surveying, environmental sciences,geodetic science, geography, landscape architecture, lawand public policy, remote sensing and photogrammetry,statistics. The importance of the geoinformation sciencefor cartography can also be seen from the proposal thatthe International Cartographic Association (ICA) should bequalified with the sub-title The International Society forCartography and Geographic Information Science. At thevery beginning of its strategic plan for the 2003-2011 period,ICA points out that its wish is to be recognized as theauthoritative body for cartography and GIScience (URL 18).

9. Official Topographic-Cartographic

Information Systems

Many human activities require geographic informationin order to be successful. Organizations that insure the

basic framework for all other spatial information areNational Mapping Organizations (NMO). The NMO inCroatia is The State Geodetic Administration. Since thetodays industry of geographic information relies oncomputers and databases, it is necessary for thisgeodetic-topographic framework to be standardised, easyto understand, often modernised and well documented.

Official topographic-cartographic information systemsare a form of such a geodetic-topographic framework. Themost famous such system is the German ATKIS (Amtliches-topographisch-kartographisches Informationssystem).

On the model of ATKIS, Croatia is producing STOKIS(Official Topographic-Cartographic Information System).Croatian Topographic Information System (CROTIS) isthe base for STOKIS. The Cartographic data model has

established the conformity with CROTIS and enabledgeneration of cartographic database (Biljecki et al. 2003).

In the future, STOKIS is going to be the official basefor most other spatial information systems in Croatia.CROTIS is going to replace paper topographic maps inplanning and project works.

10. 3D-Visualization of Landscape

There is an increasing number of requests for three-dimensional models for various analyses, simulations andvisualizations (Fig. 10). One method of producing suchmodels is to combine existing data (digital elevationmodels, topographic maps) and corresponding modellingprocedures. The procedure includes following phases:

1. Relief visualization on the basis of digital elevationmodels

2. Visualization of three-dimensional situation(combination of relief and a map)

3. 3D-object visualization.

3D landscape models can also be produced bysurveying with laser scanners (LIDARs) from an airplaneor a helicopter. The position of a LIDAR in space isdetermined by a GPS and inertial measuring units, andthe LIDAR measures horizontal and vertical angles anddistances to a large number of points on the Earths surfaceenabling the determination of spatial coordinates of thosepoints.

Most of todays geoinformation systems are 2D GIS,because they were created on the basis of digitalisationof existing maps. Rapid development of computertechnology, graphics and data gathering methods (GPS,LIDAR) stimulate the production of 3D GIS. Since thelandscape is a three-dimensional object, landscapemodelling also requires a 3D-approach. 3D GIS willenable, among other things, 3D landscape visualizationin real time (URL 19).

11. Conclusion

Never in history have the cartographers had such awide scope as today.

My estimation is that there will always be a need forpaper maps. However, other forms of cartographicrepresentation are going to replace paper maps in manyfields. Mountaineers, tourists, and excursionists are goingto use handheld GPS, handheld computers and cell phonesfor orientation in space and looking for certain information.

In the future, paper maps will be used in maritimenavigation only as back-up document.

Planners and designers are going to utilize GIS and

3D landscape models based on official topographic-cartographic information systems. 3D GIS are going tobe the ideal solution.


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References / Literatura

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geoinformacije 2, 118-127.

DGU (2003): Geodetski rjenik, Konani izvjetaj. Zavod za kartografiju Geodetskog fakulteta Sveuilita u Zagrebu, Dravna

geodetska uprava, Zagreb.Franula, N. (1997): Microsofts Encarta 97 world atlas. Geodetski list 2, 165-167.

Franula, N., Tuti, D. (2002): Cartography, GIS and Internet; Kartografija, GIS i internet. Kartografija i geoinformacije 1, 170-185.

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Goodchild, M. F. (2000): Cartographic futures on a digital earth. Cartographic perspectives Number 36, 1-9. http://www.nacis.org/

cp/cp36/goodchild.pdf (12. 7. 2004)

Holland, D., Guilford, B., Murray, K. (2002): Oeepe-Project on topographic mapping from high resolution space sensors. OEEPE

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Kavouras, M.: (1995): Future of surveying engineering a perspective from Greece. Journal of Surveying Engineering. 3, 128-135.

Lapaine, M., Lapaine, Mir., Tuti, D. (2004): GPS za poetnike. www.kartografija.hr (12. 7. 2004).Lawrence, V. (2002): Mapping out a digital future for Ordnance Survey. The Cartographic Journal 1, 77-80.

Olui, D. (2002): Lansiran novi satelit QuickBird. Geodetski list 1, 65-66.

Racetin, I. (2004): Elektronike pomorske karte i sustavi Rjenik. Knjievni krug Split.

Tuti, D. (2004a): Slobodni programi za kartografiju i GIS. Ekscentar 6, 28-33.

Tuti, D. (2004b): Digitalna izrada sjena na kartama. Savjetovanje Kartografija, geoinformacije i nove tehnologije, Zagreb.

Wiechert, A.: (2004): Lidar data market still growing. GIM 8, 54-55.

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Zanini, M. (1998): Dreidimensionale synthetische Landschaften Wissensbasierte dreidimensionale Rekonstruktion undVisualisierung raumbezogener Informationen. Institut fr Geodsie und Photogrammetrie an der ETH Zrich, Mitteilungen Nr.

66, Zrich.upan, R., Frange, S. (2003): Application of OCAD in cartographic subjects at the Faculty of geodesy. Proceedings of the 25thInternational Conference on Information Technology Interfaces, Cavtat : SRCE - University Computing centre, 87-91. http://

bib.irb.hr/datoteka/134168.revision.doc (12. 7. 2004).

URLs

URL 1: The Canadian Cartographic Association, Digital Pamphlet: Careers in Cartography http://www.geog.ubc.ca/cca/

career_1.html (23. 6. 2004)

URL 2: Space Imaging http://www.spaceimaging.com/

URL 3: OCAD for Cartography http://www.ocad.com (8. 7. 2004)

URL 4: Hrvatski geodetski institut http://www.hgi.htnet.hr/ (12. 7. 2004)

URL 5: Australian Hydrographic Service - http://www.hydro.gov.au/eproducts/echarting/explained.htm (20. 7. 2004)

URL 6: Navigo Sistem d.o.o. http://navigo-sistem.hr (25. 8. 2004)

URL 7: Mireo http://www.mireo.hr (12. 10. 2004)URL 8: GISDATA Effective solutions http://www.gisdata.hr (12. 7. 2004)

URL 9: VIP.navigator http://vip.navigator.hr (31. 8. 2004)

URL 10: mobyMAP http://mobymap.eldam.hr (26. 8. 2004)

URL 11: FreeGIS http://www.freegis.org (14. 7. 2004)

URL 12: 2.2.4. Geographic Translator http://earth-info.nga.mil/GandG/geotrans (14. 7. 2004)

URL 13: GRASS GIS Homepage http://grass.itc.it (14. 7. 2004)

URL 14: Interaktini plan grada Dubrovnika http://www.geof.hr/~rzupan/dubrovnik/dubrovnik.htm (25. 8. 2004)

URL 15: Studenti na usmjerenju Fotogrametrija i kartografija http://www.geof.hr/kartogra/studenti.htm

URL 16: Geoinformatik-Service, Universitt Rostock http://www.geoinformatik.uni-rostock.de (26. 8. 2004)

URL 17: University Consortium for Geographic Information Science http://www.ucgis.org (31. 8. 2004)

URL 18: International Cartographic Association http://www.icaci.org (31. 8. 2004)URL 19: Geo Model s.r.o. http://www.geomodel.sk/research/grass/3dgis.htm (6. 8. 2004)

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