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Social enterprises are social mission driven organizations which apply market-based

strategies to achieve a social purpose. The movement includes both non-profits that

use business models to pursue their mission and for-profits whose primary purposes

are social. Their aim – to accomplish targets that are social and/or environmental as

well as financial – is often referred to as the triple bottom line. Investment in social

enterprises is often now referred to as "blended value investment." Many commercial

businesses would consider themselves to have social objectives, but social enterprises

are distinctive because their social or environmental purpose remains central to their

operation.

Rather than maximizing shareholder value, the primary aim of social enterprises is to

generate profit to further their social and/or environmental goals. This can be

accomplished through a variety of ways and depends on the structure of the social

enterprise. The profit from a business could be used to support a social aim, such as

funding the programming of a non-profit organization. Moreover, a business could

accomplish its social aim through its operation by employing individuals from

disadvantaged backgrounds or lending to micro-businesses that have difficulty in

securing investment from mainstream lenders.

The Social Enterprise World Forum was established in 2008 to provide an opportunity

for social enterprise leaders and practitioners from around the world to collaborate in

support of social enterprise development. To date over 1500 people have attended the

annual world forums, these have been held in Edinburgh (2008), Melbourne (2009)

and San Francisco (2010). The 2011 World Forum is being held in Johannesburg and

the SEWF steering group is receiving expressions of interest for the 2012 World

Forum to be held in Asia.

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History and Philosophy

The idea of social enterprise has a long history in the UK [1][2] and worldwide under a

number of different names and encompassing different tendencies [3]. In the UK it can be understood as a way of organising activity which is neither part of the public nor

private sector. Organisations which use a social enterprise logic usually combine

social and economic missions and so can be seen as type of hybrid.[4]. They draw from a legacy of philanthropic and mutual approaches that go back over three

centuries (a good example of a "mutual organization" might be a worker or consumer

co-operative offers). Such organisations are not for private profit but in some cases

they may own other private companies and/or work in partnership with government on

particular projects.

It is important to distinguish 'social enterprise' as an idea, or aspiration from a 'social

enterprise organisation.' Many organisations can be analysed as working in a social

enterprise way and simple definitions (such as suggesting an arbitrary percentage of

'traded income' to qualify an organisation as a social enterprise) tend to either include

or exclude agencies in an idiosyncratic way. European scholars Borzaga and

Defourney [5][6] have suggested a nine-part framework (including economic and social mission criteria) for analysing social enterprises.

Some writers have focussed on social enterprise activity in particular policy fields

such as work and training for unemployed people.[7] Readable but thoughtful accounts

of the complexity of the field can be found.[8] Other resources include the Social

Contents [hide]

1 History and Philosophy

2 In Australia

3 In North America

4 In India

5 In Ghana

6 In Kenya

7 In Europe

7.1 Czech Republic

7.2 Finland

7.3 Italy

7.4 United Kingdom

7.5 Scotland

7.5.1 Examples

7.5.2 Social firms

8 Awards

9 See also

10 References

11 Sources

12 Further reading

13 External links

[edit]

Enterprise Journal and the Annals of Co-operative Study which publish research

studies in the field. The European Social Enterprise Research network (EMES), and

the Co-operative Research Unit (CRU) at the Open University have undertaken and

published research. Network organisations such as Co-ops UK, Development Trusts

Association, Social Enterprise Coalition provide research, information and policy

briefings in this area.

In Australia

The forms social enterprises can take and the industries they operate in are so many

and various that it has always been a challenge to define, find and count social

enterprises. In 2009 Social Traders partnered with the Australian Centre for

Philanthropy and Nonprofit Studies (ACPNS) at Queensland University of Technology

to define social enterprise and, for the first time in Australia, to identify and map the

social enterprise sector: its scope, its variety of forms, its reasons for trading, its

financial dimensions, and the individuals and communities social enterprises aim to

benefit.

This Finding Australia’s Social Enterprise Sector project produced its final report in

June 2010. The project was led by Associate Professor Jo Barraket, Australia’s

leading social enterprise academic.

One of the key features of this Australian research is its intention to define social

enterprise in a way that was informed by and made sense to those working in or with

social enterprises.

The research design therefore included workshops to explore and test what social

enterprise managers, researchers, and relevant policy makers meant by the term

‘social enterprise’. This was the resulting definition:

Social enterprises are organisations that:

a. Are led by an economic, social, cultural, or environmental mission consistent with a

public or community benefit;

b. Trade to fulfil their mission;

c. Derive a substantial portion of their income from trade; and

d. Reinvest the majority of their profit/surplus in the fulfilment of their mission.

In North America

The Social Enterprise Alliance (SEA), based in the USA, defines a “social enterprise”

as “an organization or venture that advances its primary social or environmental

mission using business methods.”

SEA advocates for the social enterprise field, acts as a hub of information and

education for its members, and promotes the continued growth of this vibrant sector.

Every year, the Social Enterprise Alliance puts together the largest gathering of

leaders representing enterprising non-profits, fair trade, digital inclusion, micro-

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finance, for-benefit companies, and others pursuing a social or environmental mission

using market-driven approaches. The event is known as the Social Enterprise Summit.

Much of the field in North America has been driven by thinking from REDF (formerly

the Roberts Enterprise Development Fund; http://www.redf.org/ ), which pioneered

Social Return on Investment Analysis in connection with funding numerous social

enterprises in the San Francisco region. Working Assets, a San Francisco-based

company, created a model of social enterprise through its mobile, credit card and long

distance services that automatically generate donations to progressive organizations

when customers use its services. Other leading North American examples of social

enterprise include Greyston Bakery (which produces ingredients for Ben & Jerry's ice

cream) and Housing Works in New York, Rubicon Programs in California and Kidslink

in Ontario. Another leading organization in the social enterprise field is Community

Wealth Ventures (http://www.communitywealth.com/ ), which is the largest social

enterprise consulting firm in the country.

The Social Enterprise Reporter (http://sereporter.com ) covers news for and about

nonprofit entrepreneurs in North America.

Marc Lane's book on best corporate governance practices, "Representing Corporate

Officers and Directors," was first published in 1987.[9][10] He revisited his treatise on

corporate governance in 2005.[11][12] The new version is updated annually with the

most recent supplement for the year 2010.[13][14] With the goal of promoting positive social change, Lane provides companies and their directors, officers, auditors and

shareholders with insights for the compliance of new legislation, rules and

responsibilities in response to the avalanche of corporate accounting scandals.[15][16]

In India

In India, a social enterprise may be a non-profit Non-governmental organization(NGO),

often registered as a Society under Indian Societies Registration Act, 1860, a Trust

registered under various Indian State Trust Acts or a Section 25 Company registered

under Indian Companies Act, 1956.[17] India has around 1-2 million NGOs, including number of religious organizations, religious trust, like Temples, Mosque and

Gurudwara associations etc., who are not deemed as social enterprises.

A social enterprise in India is primarily NGOs, who raise funds through some services

(often fund raising events and community activities) and occasionally products.

Despite this, in India the term, Social Enterprise is not widely used, instead terms like

NGOs and NPOs (Non-profit organizations) are used, where these kind of

organizations are legally allowed to raise fund for non-business activities. Child Rights

and You and Youth United, are such examples of social enterprise, who raise funds

through their services, fund raising activities (organizing events, donations, and

grants) or sometimes products, to further their social and environmental goals.

In Ghana

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The registered non-profit Trashy Bags was launched in 2007 in order to increase

public awareness of Ghana's solid plastic waste problem and clean up sachets from

the streets of Accra. This company buys waste from collectors. After washing and

drying the sachets, it sews them into fashionable bags and other products which are

then sold in Accra and exported to eight other countries around the world. The Trashy

Bags Company has collected 20 million plastic sachets since its founding, and

employs 60 machinists.

In Kenya

In Kenya many NGOs, use business models to improve lives of people mainly in rural

Kenya. An example of this is RISE Kenya [1] that runs project to mitigate climate

change in the semi arid Eastern Province of Kenya. They also run weaving projects

where by women who would traditionally engage in weaving make products that are

marketed in the capital city Nairobi and in over seas markets of Europe and America.

In Europe

The best established European research network in the field, EMES , works with a

more articulated definition - a Weberian 'ideal type' rather than a prescriptive definition

- which relies on nine fuzzy criteria:

Economic criteria:

1. continuous activity of the production and/or sale of goods and services (rather

than predominantly advisory or grant-giving functions).

2. a high level of autonomy: social enterprises are created voluntarily by groups of

citizens and are managed by them, and not directly or indirectly by public authorities

or private companies, even if they may benefit from grants and donations. Their

shareholders have the right to participate ('voice') and to leave the organisation ('exit').

3. a significant economic risk: the financial viability of social enterprises depends on

the efforts of their members, who have the responsibility of ensuring adequate

financial resources, unlike most public institutions.

4. social enterprises' activities require a minimum number of paid workers, although,

like traditional non-profit organisations, social enterprises may combine financial and

non-financial resources, voluntary and paid work.

Social criteria:

5. an explicit aim of community benefit: one of the principal aims of social

enterprises is to serve the community or a specific group of people. To the same end,

they also promote a sense of social responsibility at local level.

6. citizen initiative: social enterprises are the result of collective dynamics involving

people belonging to a community or to a group that shares a certain need or aim.

They must maintain this dimension in one form or another.

7. decision making not based on capital ownership: this generally means the

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principle of 'one member, one vote', or at least a voting power not based on capital

shares. Although capital owners in social enterprises play an important role, decision-

making rights are shared with other shareholders.

8. participatory character, involving those affected by the activity: the users of social

enterprises' services are represented and participate in their structures. In many

cases one of the objectives is to strengthen democracy at local level through economic

activity.

9. limited distribution of profit: social enterprises include organisations that totally

prohibit profit distribution as well as organisations such as co-operatives, which may

distribute their profit only to a limited degree, thus avoiding profit maximising

behaviour.

Ongoing research work characterises social enterprises as often having multiple

objectives, multiple stakeholders and multiple sources of funding. However their

objectives tend to fall into three categories:

integration of disadvantaged people through work (work integration social

enterprises or WISEs)

provision of social, community and environmental services

ethical trading such as fair trade

Despite, and sometimes in contradiction to, such academic work, the term social

enterprise is being picked up and used in different ways in various European

countries:

Czech Republic

In the Czech Republic a working party stemming from the development partnerships

in the EQUAL programme agreed on the following distinctions (April 2008):

Social economy

It is a complex of autonomous private activities realized by different types of

organizations that have the aim to serve their members or local community first of

all by doing business. The social economy is oriented on solving issues of

unemployment, social coherence and local development. It is created and

developed on the base of concept of triple bottom line – economic, social and

environmental benefits. Social economy enables citizens to get involved actively in

the regional development. Making profit/surplus is desirable, however is not a

primary goal. Contingent profit is used in preference for development of activities

of organization and for the needs of local community. Internal relations in the

social enterprises are headed to the maximum involvement of

members/employees in decision-making and self-management while external

relations strengthen social capital. Legal form of social economy entities is not

decisive – what is crucial is observing public benefit aims as listed in the articles.

Subjects of the social economy are social enterprises and organizations

supporting their work in the areas of education, consulting and financing.

[edit]

Social entrepreneurship

Social entrepreneurship develops independent business activities and is active on

the market in order to solve issues of employment, social coherence and local

development. Its activities support solidarity, social inclusion and growth of social

capital mainly on local level with the maximum respect of sustainable development.

Social enterprise

Social enterprise means "a subject of social entrepreneurship", i.e. legal entity or

its part or a natural person which fulfils principles of the social enterprise; social

enterprise must have appropriate trade license.

The above mentioned definitions stem from the four basic principles which should

be followed by all social enterprises. Standards with a commentary were settled

for each principle. These standards were settled as the minimum so that they

should be observed by all legal entities and all types of social enterprises.

Specific types of enterprises, that are undergoing pilot verification within CIP

EQUAL projects and that are already functioning in the Czech Republic, are

social firms employing seriously disadvantaged target groups, and municipal

social cooperatives as a suitable form of entrepreneurship with the view of

development of local communities and microregions.

The legal form a social enterprise takes is not important, however they must be

subject of private law. According to the existing legal system, they can function in

a form of cooperatives, civic associations, public benefit associations, church

legal entities, Ltd., stock companies and sole traders. Budgetary organizations

and municipalities should not be social enterprises as they are not autonomous -

they are parts of public administration.

Social entrepreneurship is defined very broadly. Beside employment of the

people disadvantaged at the labour market it also includes organizations providing

public benefit services in the area of social inclusion and local development

including environmental activities, individuals from the disadvantaged groups

active in business and also complementary activities of NGOs destined to reinvest

profit into the main public benefit activity of an organization. Social

entrepreneurship defined in such a wide way should not be directly bound to legal

benefits and financial support because the concept of social entrepreneurship

might be then threatened by misuse and disintegration. Conditions of eventual

legal and financial support should be discussed by experts.

Finland

In Finland a law was passed in 2004 that defines a social enterprise as being any

sort of enterprise that is entered on the relevant register and at least 30% of whose

employees are disabled or long-term unemployed. As of March 2007, 91 such

enterprises had been registered, the largest with 50 employees. In the UK the more

specific term "social firm" is used to distinguish such "integration enterprises";

[edit]

Italy

Italy passed a law in 2005 on imprese sociali, to which the government has given form

and definition by Legislative Decree, 24 March 2006, no. 155 Under Italian law a

social enterprise is a private entity that provides social utility goods and services,

acting for the common interest and not for profit. The first general aspect that has to

be highlighted is that a social enterprise is neither a new legal form, nor a new type of

organization, but a legal category in which all eligible organizations may be included,

regardless of their internal organizational structure. Therefore, the eligible

organizations could in theory be cooperatives (i.e. employee-, producer-, or

customer-owned firms), investor-owned firms (i.e. business corporations), or

traditional nonprofit organizations (i.e. associations and foundations). This is the so-

called principle of “neutrality of the legal forms” adopted by the Italian law. Hence,

social enterprise is like a legal “brand” that all eligible organizations can obtain and use

in the marketplace. The requirements are: - being a private organization; - performing

an entrepreneurial activity of production of social utility goods and services (The Law

prescribes that this must be the main activity, that is, it has to account for at least 70%

of the total income of the organization); - acting for the common interest and not for

profit. In order to be defined as a social enterprise, an organization needs to

simultaneously possess all these attributes.

United Kingdom

The original use of the term social enterprise was first developed by Freer Spreckley

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in 1978, and later included in a publication called Social Audit – A Management Tool

for Co-operative Working published in 1981 by Beechwood College. In the original

publication the term social enterprise was developed to describe an organisation that

uses Social Audit. Freer went on to describe a social enterprise as:[18]

An enterprise that is owned by those who work in it and/or reside in a given

locality, is governed by registered social as well as commercial aims and

objectives and run co-operatively may be termed a social enterprise.

Traditionally, 'capital hires labour' with the overriding emphasis on making a

'profit' over and above any benefit either to the business itself or the

workforce. Contrasted to this is the social enterprise where 'labour hires

capital' with the emphasis on social, environmental and financial benefit.

Later on the three areas of social, environmental and financial benefits used for

measuring social enterprise became known as the Triple Bottom Line.

Twenty years later Freer Spreckley and Cliff Southcombe established the first[19] specialist support organisation in the UK Social Enterprise Partnership Ltd. in March

1997.

In the British context, social enterprises include community enterprises, credit

unions, trading arms of charities, employee-owned businesses, co-operatives,

development trusts, housing associations, social firms, and leisure trusts.

Whereas conventional businesses distribute their profit among shareholders, in social

enterprises the surplus tends to go towards one or more social aims which the

business has – for example education for the poor,vocational training for disabled

people, environmental issues or for animal rights.

Social enterprises are distinct from charities (although charities are also increasingly

looking at ways of maximising income from trading), and from private sector

companies with policies on corporate social responsibility. An emerging view,

however, is that social enterprise is a particular type of trading activity that sometimes

gives rise to distinct organisation forms reflecting a commitment to social cause

working with stakeholders from more than one sector of the economy

The first agency in the UK - Social Enterprise London (SEL) - was established in 1998[20] after collaboration between co-operative businesses (Poptel, Computercraft Ltd, Calverts Press, Artzone), a number of co-operative development agencies (CDAs),

and infrastructure bodies supporting co-operative enterprise development (Co-

operative Training London, Co-operative Party, London ICOM, Co-operatives UK).

SEL's first chief executive, Jonathan Bland, brought experience from Valencia where a

business support infrastructure for co-operative enterprise was established using

learning from the Mondragon region of Spain[21]. SEL did more than provide support to emerging businesses. It created a community of interest by working with the London

Development Agency (LDA) to establish both an undergraduate degree in social

enterprise at the University of East London (led by Jon Griffith) and a Social

Enterprise Journal (now managed by Liverpool John Moores University and published

by Emerald Publishing).

Two years later, The National Council for Voluntary Organisations (NCVO) established

the Sustainable Funding Project. Using funds from FutureBuilders, Centrica and

Charity Bank, this project promoted the concept of sustainability through trading to

voluntary groups and charities.[22].

In 2002, the British government launched a unified Social Enterprise Strategy[23], and established a Social Enterprise Unit (SEnU) to co-ordinate its implementation in

England and Wales. After a consultation on a new type of company (see CIC below),

policy development was increasingly influenced by organisations in the conventional

"non-profit" sector rather than those with their origins in employee-ownership and co-

operative sectors. The 2003 DTI report on the consultation shows the disproportion

influence of charitable trusts and umbrella organisations in the voluntary sector, and

evidence now exists that the voice of progressive employee-owned organisations were

marginalised in the course of producing the report.[24][25]

The Social Enterprise Unit was initially established within the Department of Trade and

Industry (DTI), and in 2006 became part of the newly created Office of the Third

Sector, under the wing of the Cabinet Office.

Following broad consultation, SEnU adopted a broader definition which is independent

of any legal model. This latitudinarian definition could include not only companies

limited by guarantee, and industrial and provident societies but also companies limited

by shares, unincorporated associations, partnerships and sole traders.

A survey conducted for the SEnU in 2004 found that there were 15,000 social

enterprises in the UK (counting only those that are incorporated as companies limited

by guarantee or industrial and provident societies). This is 1.2% of all enterprises in

the UK. They employ 450,000 people, of whom two-thirds are full-time, plus a further

300,000 volunteers. Their combined annual turnover is £18 billion, and the median

turnover is £285,000. Of this, 84% is from trading. In 2006, the government revised

this estimate upwards to 55,000, based on a survey of a sample of owners of

businesses with employees, which found that 5% of them define themselves as social

enterprises[26]. The most up to date estimates suggest that there are approximately

62,000 social enterprises in the UK, contributing £24 billion to the UK economy [27].

Branding In February 2010 the Social Enterprise Coalition launched the new Social

Enterprise Mark. Like the Fair Trade brand, the Social Enterprise Mark aims to

increase the visibility of socially motivated businesses. More than this, the mark

represents the growing commercial identity of social enterprises and a deliberate

attempt to carve out a recognisable niche for such organisations in the business

community. Qualification for the mark requires that a business conform to set criteria,

e.g. companies must earn at least 50% of their income from trade and spend at least

50% of their profits on socially beneficial purposes [28]. The mark has been received with mixed responses in some corners with suggestions that the qualifying criteria is

not strict enough [29].

Scotland

In Scotland, social enterprise is a devolved function and is part of the remit of the

Scottish Government.[30] Activities are co-ordinated by the Scottish Social Enterprise Coalition, and intellectual leadership is provided by the Social Enterprise Institute at

Herriot-Watt University (Edinburgh), established under the directorship of Declan

Jones. Senscot based in Edinburgh supports social entrepreneurs through a variety of

activities including a weekly email bulletin by co-founder Lawrence Demarco.[31] The Social Enterprise Academy "deliver leadership, enterprise, and social impact

programmes" throughout Scotland[32] and further support is provided by Development

Trusts Association Scotland and Co-operative Development Scotland.[33][34]

Examples

Some well known social enterprises include John Lewis, Welsh Water (Glas Cymru),

Cafédirect, The Eden Project, Divine Chocolate (Kuapa Kokoo), The Big Issue, the

Co-operative Group, Duchy Originals, the London Symphony Orchestra, and Jamie

Oliver's Restaurant - 15.

Three common characteristics of social enterprises as defined by Social Enterprise

London are:

1. Enterprise orientation: They are directly involved in producing goods or

providing services to a market. They seek to be viable trading organisations,

with an operating surplus.

2. Social Aims: They have explicit social aims such as job creation, training or the

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[edit]

provision of local services. They have ethical values including a commitment to

local capacity building, and they are accountable to their members and the

wider community for their social environmental and economic impact.

3. Social ownership: They are autonomous organisations with governance and

ownership structures based on participation by stakeholder groups (users or

clients, local community groups etc.) or by trustees. Profits are distributed as

profit sharing to stakeholders or used for the benefit of the community.

The UK has also developed a new legal form called the community interest company

(CIC). CICs are a new type of limited company designed specifically for those wishing

to operate for the benefit of the community rather than for the benefit of the owners of

the company. This means that a CIC cannot be formed or used solely for the personal

gain of a particular person, or group of people. Legislation caps the level of dividends

payable at 35% of profits and returns to individuals are capped at 4% above the bank

base rate.

CICs can be limited by shares, or by guarantee, and will have a statutory "asset lock"

to prevent the assets and profits being distributed, except as permitted by legislation.

This ensures the assets and profits are retained within the CIC for community

purposes, or transferred to another asset-locked organisation, such as another CIC or

charity.

A CIC cannot be formed to support political activities and a company that is a charity

cannot be a CIC, unless it gives up its charitable status. However, a charity may apply

to register a CIC as a subsidiary company.

The national body for the social enterprise movement in Britain is the Social Enterprise

Coalition (SEC) and this liaises with similar groups in each region of England, and in

Northern Ireland, Scotland & Wales. The definition of social enterprise propagated by

the SEC is slightly broader than the original DTI definition and acknowledged that the

social purpose of an organisation can be "embedded in its structure and governance"[35]. As such, social businesses that adopt inclusive governance structures and

employee-ownership are brought fully into the fold of the movement.[36]

The Social Enterprise Mark is a symbol which tells customers that a product or

service comes from a social enterprise. Enterprises wanting to use the mark must

provide evidence against an agreed set of criteria that proves they are a social

enterprise. The Social Enterprise Mark was launched as a pilot project in South West

region in November 2007 and in 2009 it started to be used by social enterprises in

other regions. Social enterprises can apply online at Social Enterprise Mark

Social firms

Another example of a type of social enterprise is the social firm, a business set up

specifically to create employment for people otherwise severely disadvantaged in the

labour market.

Awards

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[edit]

There are several awards that recognize and reward social enterprises.

The Enterprising Solutions Award is the UK's national award for social enterprise. Run

by the Social Enterprise Coalition in partnership with the Office of the Third Sector in

the Cabinet office and the Community Banking branch of the RBS Group, the awards

recognize the work undertaken by many organizations within the social enterprise

movement.

The Edge Upstarts Awards are run annually by the New Statesman in the UK.

The Hong Kong Social Enterprise Challenge is the first and the only inter-collegiate

social ventures business competition in Hong Kong.

See also

Social business enterprise

Social firm

Impact maximization

Social entrepreneurship

Social business

Social responsibility

Public/social/private partnership

Grameen family of organizations

Social venture capital

Corporate social responsibility

Corporate Social Entrepreneurship

Citizen enterprise

List of social enterprises

Microenterprise

MicroConsignment

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http://www.thirdsector.co.uk/go/contactus/ Accessed 26 March 2010

30. ^ Social Enterprise in Scotland Retrieved 30 June 2007.

31. ^ Senscot

32. ^ Social Enterprise Academy

33. ^ DTAS

34. ^ CDS

35. ^ New Economics Foundation / Shorebank Advisory Services (2004) Unlocking the

Potential, London: The Social Enterprise Coalition, page 8.

36. ^ EAO (2008) "The voice of co-owned business"

Sources

Aiken, M. (2010) Taking the Long View: Conceptualising the challenges facing UK

third sector organisations in the social and welfare field in Evers, A. and Zimmer,

A. (eds) Turbulent environments: The impact of commercialisation on

organisational legitimacy and the quality of services. Baden-Baden: Nomos

Publishing.

Billis, D. (2010). Hybrid Organizations in the Third Sector. Basingstoke: Palgrave

MacMillan.

Borzaga, C. and Defourney, J. (2001). The Emergence of Social Enterprise.

London: Routledge).

Nyssens, M. ed. (2006). Social Enterprises in Europe: Between Market, Public

Policies and Communities. London: Routledge.

Pearce, J. (1993). At the Heart of the Community Economy. London: Calouste

Gulbenkian Foundation.

Spear, R. (2001). United Kingdom: Labour Market Integration and Employment

Creation, in Tackling Social Exclusion in Europe, eds. Spear, R., Defourney, J.,

Favreau, L. & Laville, J-L. Aldershot: Ashgate.

Woodin, T., Crook, D., and Carpentier, V. (2010). Community and Mutual

Ownership: A historical review. York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation.

Wyler, S. (2009). A History of Community Asset Ownership. London:

Development Trusts Association.

Further reading

A Developed World : An online social publication featuring the stories of social

entrepreneurs from around the world.

Can the World Change? Perspectives on Social Entrepreneurship and Social

Innovation

Fostering Social Enterprise : An examination of the development of social

enterprise in the US and Europe.

How to Change the World: Social Entrepreneurs and the Power of New Ideas :

David Bornstein profiles nine leading social entrepreneurs.

Social Enterprise: A Financial Perspective : An alternative view on social

enterprise which incorporate the agency theory and other analysis.

The Meaning of Social Entrepreneurship This 1998 article by J. Gregory Dees,

Professor of the Practice of Social Entrepreneurship and Nonprofit Management at

Duke University's Fuqua School of Business, attempts to define what makes a

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social entrepreneur.

The Power of Unreasonable People: How Social Entrepreneurs Create Markets

that Change the World : John Elkington and Pamela Hartigan describe how

innovations by social entrepreneurs are addressing a variety of social, economic

and environmental problems.

The Social Audit Toolkit This is the latest in a series of publications on social

enterprise and social audit by Freer Spreckley who pioneered social enterprise in

the late 1970s.

Mark B. Durieux and Robert A. Stebbins. Social Entrepreneurship for Dummies,

Wiley, 2010.

External links

Social Traders

Social Enterprise Alliance and 10th Anniversary Social Enterprise Summit

Third Sector Forums

Community Wealth Ventures

The Canadian Social Entrepreneurship Foundation

Catalyst Fund Management and Research

Socialinvestments.com

Bringing Capital to Social Enterprises

The Canadian Community Economic Development Network

The Laurel Centre for Social Entrepreneurship

Skoll Foundation

Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship

Ashoka: Innovators for the Public

ClearlySo: Online marketplace for social business

Scottish Social Enterprise Coalition

Inter-cultural Education

Global Social Venture Competition

Social Enterprise Search

Categories: Social economy | Social enterprise

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