learning sets of rules 学习规则集合 2004. 12 edited by wang yinglin shanghai jiaotong...
TRANSCRIPT
Learning sets of rulesLearning sets of rules 学习规则集合学习规则集合
Learning sets of rulesLearning sets of rules 学习规则集合学习规则集合
2004. 122004. 12
Edited by Wang YinglinEdited by Wang Yinglin
Shanghai Jiaotong UniversityShanghai Jiaotong University
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注意:图书馆资源
www.lib.sjtu.edu.cn
馆藏资源电子数据库Kluwer
Elsevier
IEEE
….
中国期刊网万方数据…
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Introduction
Set of “If-then” rules The hypothesis is easy to interpret.
Goal Goal
Look at a new method to learn rulesLook at a new method to learn rules
Rules Propositional rules (rules without variables)
First-order predicate rules (with variables)
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Introduction
So far . . .Method 1: Learn decision tree rules
Method 2: Genetic algorithm , encode rule set as a bit string
From now . . . New method!Learning first-order rule
Using sequential covering
First-order rule Difficult to represent using a decision tree or other propositional representation
If Parent(x,y) then Ancestor(x,y)
If Parent(x,z) and Ancestor(z,y) then Ancestor(x,y)
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Introduction
contentsIntroduction
Sequential Covering Algorithms
First Order Rules
First-order inductive learning (FOIL)
Induction as Inverted Deduction
Summary
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Sequential Covering Algorithms
Algorithm1. Learn one rule that covers certain number of positive examples
2. Remove those examples covered by the rule
3. Repeat until no positive examples are left
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Sequential Covering Algorithms
Require that each rule has high accuracy but any coverageHigh accuracy the predicate : correct
Accepting low coverage the predicate NOT for every training example
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Sequential Covering Algorithms
Sequential-Covering
(Target-Attribute, Attributes, Examples, Threshold)
Learned-Rules {}
Rule Learn-One-Rule (Target-Attribute, Attributes, Examples)
WHILE Performance (Rule, Examples) > Threshold DO
Learned_rules ← Learned_rules + Rule // add new rule to set
Examples ← Examples - {examples correctly classified by Rule}
Rule Learn-One-Rule (Target-Attribute, Attributes, Examples)
Sort-By-Performance (Learned-Rules, Target-Attribute, Examples)
RETURN Learned-Rules
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Sequential Covering Algorithms
One of the most widespread approaches to learning disjunctive sets of rules.
Learning disjunctive sets of rules sequence of single problem ( a rule : conjunction of attr. value )
It performs a greedy search (no backtracking); as such it may not find an optimal rule set.
It sequentially covers the set of positive examples until the performance of a rule is below a threshold.
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Sequential Covering Algorithms : General to Specific Beam Search
How do we learn each individual rule?
Requirements for LEARN-ONE-RULEHigh accuracy, need not high coverage
One approach is . . .To proceed as decision tree learning (ID3)
BUT, by following a single branch with best performance at each search step
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Sequential Covering Algorithms : General to Specific Beam Search
IF {Humidity = Normal}THEN Play-Tennis = Yes
IF {Wind = Strong}THEN Play-Tennis = No
IF {Wind = Light}THEN Play-Tennis = Yes
IF {Humidity = High}THEN Play-Tennis = No
…
IF {}THEN Play-Tennis = Yes
…
IF {Humidity = Normal,Outlook = Sunny}
THEN Play-Tennis = Yes
IF {Humidity = Normal,Wind = Strong}
THEN Play-Tennis = Yes
IF {Humidity = Normal,Wind = Light}
THEN Play-Tennis = Yes
IF {Humidity = Normal,Outlook = Rain}
THEN Play-Tennis = Yes
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•Idea: organize the hypothesis space search in general to specific fashion.
•Start with most general rule precondition, then greedily add the attribute that most improves performance measured over the training examples.
Sequential Covering Algorithms : General to Specific Beam Search
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Sequential Covering Algorithms : General to Specific Beam Search
Greedy search without backtracking
danger of suboptimal choice at any step
The algorithm can be extended using beam-searchKeep a list of the k best candidates at each step
On each search step, descendants are generated for each of these k best candidates.
And resulting set is again reduced to the k best candidates.
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Sequential Covering Algorithms : General to Specific Beam Search
Learn_One_Rule (target_attr,attributes,examples,k)Best-hypothesis = 0Candidate-hypotheses = {Best-hypothesis}While Candidate-hypotheses is not empty do
1. Generate the next more specific candidate hypotheses 2. Update Best-hypothesis For all h in new-candidates if (Performance(h) > Performance(Best-hypothesis)) Best-hypothesis = h3. Update Candidate-hypotheses Candidate-hypotheses = best k members of new-candidates
Return rule : “IF Best-hypothesis THEN prediction” (predication: most frequent value of target_attr. among examples covered by Best-
hypothesis)
Performance(h, examples, target_attr.) - h_examples = the subsets of examples covered by h - Return Entropy(h_examples)
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•All_constraints 所有形式为 (a=v) 的约束集合,其中, a 为Attributes 的成员, v 为出现在当前 Examples 集合中的 a 的值•New_candidate_hypotheses
对 Candidate_hypotheses 中每个 h ,循环
对 All_constraints 中每个 c ,循环
通过加入约束 c 创建一个 h 的特化式•New_candidate_hypotheses 中移去任意重复的、不一致的或非极大特殊化的假设
Generate the next more specific candidate hypotheses:
Sequential Covering Algorithms : General to Specific Beam Search
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Day Outlook Temp Humid Wind PlayTennis
D1 Sunny Hot High Weak No
D2 Sunny Hot High Strong No
D3 Overcast Hot High Weak Yes
D4 Rain Mild High Weak Yes
D5 Rain Cool Low Weak Yes
D6 Rain Cool Low Strong No
D7 Overcast Cool Low Strong Yes
D8 Sunny Mild High Weak No
D9 Sunny Cool Low Weak Yes
D10 Rain Mild Low Weak Yes
D11 Sunny Mild Low Strong Yes
D12 Overcast Mild High Strong Yes
D13 Overcast Hot Low Weak Yes
D14 Rain Mild High Strong No
1.best-hypothesis = IF T THEN PlayTennis(x) = Yes
Learn-One-Rule Example
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Day Outlook Temp Humid Wind PlayTennis
D1 Sunny Hot High Weak No
D2 Sunny Hot High Strong No
D3 Overcast Hot High Weak Yes
D4 Rain Mild High Weak Yes
D5 Rain Cool Low Weak Yes
D6 Rain Cool Low Strong No
D7 Overcast Cool Low Strong Yes
D8 Sunny Mild High Weak No
D9 Sunny Cool Low Weak Yes
D10 Rain Mild Low Weak Yes
D11 Sunny Mild Low Strong Yes
D12 Overcast Mild High Strong Yes
D13 Overcast Hot Low Weak Yes
D14 Rain Mild High Strong No
1.best-hypothesis = IF T THEN PlayTennis(x) = Yes
2.candidate-hypotheses = {best-hypothesis}
Learn-One-Rule Example
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Day Outlook Temp Humid Wind PlayTennis
D1 Sunny Hot High Weak No
D2 Sunny Hot High Strong No
D3 Overcast Hot High Weak Yes
D4 Rain Mild High Weak Yes
D5 Rain Cool Low Weak Yes
D6 Rain Cool Low Strong No
D7 Overcast Cool Low Strong Yes
D8 Sunny Mild High Weak No
D9 Sunny Cool Low Weak Yes
D10 Rain Mild Low Weak Yes
D11 Sunny Mild Low Strong Yes
D12 Overcast Mild High Strong Yes
D13 Overcast Hot Low Weak Yes
D14 Rain Mild High Strong No
1. best-hypothesis = IF T THEN PlayTennis(x) = Yes
2. candidate-hypotheses = {best-hypothesis}
3. all-constraints = {Outlook(x)=Sunny, Outlook(x)=Overcast, Temp(x)=Hot, ......}
Learn-One-Rule Example
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Day Outlook Temp Humid Wind PlayTennis
D1 Sunny Hot High Weak No
D2 Sunny Hot High Strong No
D3 Overcast Hot High Weak Yes
D4 Rain Mild High Weak Yes
D5 Rain Cool Low Weak Yes
D6 Rain Cool Low Strong No
D7 Overcast Cool Low Strong Yes
D8 Sunny Mild High Weak No
D9 Sunny Cool Low Weak Yes
D10 Rain Mild Low Weak Yes
D11 Sunny Mild Low Strong Yes
D12 Overcast Mild High Strong Yes
D13 Overcast Hot Low Weak Yes
D14 Rain Mild High Strong No
1. best-hypothesis = IF T THEN PlayTennis(x) = Yes
2. candidate-hypotheses = {best-hypothesis}
3. all-constraints = {Outlook(x)=Sunny, Outlook(x)=Overcast, Temp(x)=Hot, ......}
4. new-candidate-hypotheses = {IF Outlook=Sunny THEN PlayTennis=YES, IF Outlook=Overcast THEN PlayTennis=YES, ...}
Learn-One-Rule Example
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Day Outlook Temp Humid Wind PlayTennis
D1 Sunny Hot High Weak No
D2 Sunny Hot High Strong No
D3 Overcast Hot High Weak Yes
D4 Rain Mild High Weak Yes
D5 Rain Cool Low Weak Yes
D6 Rain Cool Low Strong No
D7 Overcast Cool Low Strong Yes
D8 Sunny Mild High Weak No
D9 Sunny Cool Low Weak Yes
D10 Rain Mild Low Weak Yes
D11 Sunny Mild Low Strong Yes
D12 Overcast Mild High Strong Yes
D13 Overcast Hot Low Weak Yes
D14 Rain Mild High Strong No
1. best-hypothesis = IF T THEN PlayTennis(x) = Yes
2. candidate-hypotheses = {best-hypothesis}
3. all-constraints = {Outlook(x)=Sunny, Outlook(x)=Overcast, Temp(x)=Hot, ......}
4. new-candidate-hypotheses = {IF Outlook=Sunny THEN PlayTennis=YES, IF Outlook=Overcast THEN PlayTennis=YES, ...}
5. best-hypothesis = IF Outlook=Sunny THEN PlayTennis=YES
Learn-One-Rule Example
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Sequential Covering Algorithms : Variations
Learn only rules that cover positive examplesThe fraction of positive example is small
in this case, we can modify the algorithm to learn only from those rare example
Instead of entropy, use a measure that evaluates the fraction of positive examples covered by the hypothesis
AQ-algorithmDifferent covering algorithm
Searches rule sets for particular target value
Different single-rule alg.
Guided by uncovered positive examples
Only attributes satisfied in examples are used
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Summary : Points for Consideration
Key design issue for learning sets of rules
Sequential or simultaneous?Sequential : isolate components of hypothesis
Simultaneous : whole hypothesis at once
General-to-specific or Specific-to-general?GS : learn-one-rule
SG : Find-S
Generate-and-Test or Example-Driven?G&T : search thru syntactically legal hypotheses
E-D : Find-S, Candidate-Elimination
Post-pruning of Rules?Popular overfitting recovery method
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Summary : Points for Consideration
What statistical evaluation method?Relative frequency :
nc/n (n : matched by rule, nc: classified by rule correctly)
M-estimate of accuracy :
(nc + mp) / (n + m)
P : the prior probability that a randomly drawn example will have classification assigned by the rule
m : weight ( or # of examples for weighting this prior)
Entropy
a i
c
ii ppSEntropy 2
1
log)(
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Learning first-order rules
From now . . .We consider learning rule that contain variables (first-order rules)
Inductive learning of first-order rules : inductive logic programming (ILP)
Can be viewed as automatically inferring Prolog programs
Two methods are considered
FOIL
Induction as inverted deduction
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Learning first-order rules
First-order ruleRules that contain variables
Example
Ancestor (x, y) Parent (x, y).
Ancestor (x, y) Parent (x, z) ^ Ancestor (z, y) :recursive
More expressive than propositional rules
IF (Father1 = Bob)&(Name2 = Bob)&(Female1 = True),THEN Daughter1,2 = True
IF Father(y,x) & Female(y), THEN Daughter(x,y)
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Learning first-order rules :Terminology
Terminology常量 ---Constants: e.g., John, Kansas, 42
变量 ---Variables: e.g., Name, State, x
谓词 ---Predicates: e.g., Father-Of, Greater-Than
函数 ---Functions: e.g., age, cosine
项 ---Term: constant, variable, or function(term)
文字 ----Literals (atoms): Predicate(term) or negation
例如: , Greater-Than(age(John), 42) , Female(Mary), ¬Female(x)
子句 ---Clause: disjunction of literals with implicit universal quantification
例如:∀ x : Female(x) Male(x)∨
Horn 子句 ----Horn clause: at most one positive literal
(H L1 L2 … Ln)
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Learning first-order rules :Terminology
First Order Horn Clauses Rules that have one or more preconditions and one single consequent. Predicates may have variables
The following Horn clause is equivalent
H L1 … Ln
H (L1 … Ln )
If L1 … Ln) then H
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Learning first-order rules :First-Order Inductive Learning (FOIL)
Natural extension of “Sequential covering + Learn-one-rule”
FOIL rule : similar to Horn clause with two exceptionsSyntactic restriction : no function
More expressive than Horn clauses :
Negation allowed in rule bodies
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Learning first-order rules :First-Order Inductive Learning (FOIL)FOIL (Target_predicate, Predicates, Examples)
Pos (Neg) ← those Examples for which the Target_predicate is True (False)
Learned_rules ← { }
while Pos is not NULL, do
New Rule ← the rule that predicts Target_predicate with no preconditions
New RuleNeg ← Neg
while NewRuleNeg, do
Candidate_literals ← candidate new literals for NewRule
Best_literal ← argmax Foil_Gain (L, NewRule)
Add Best_literal to preconditions of NewRule
NewRuleNeg ← subset of NewRuleNeg (satisfies NewRule precondi.)
Learned-rules ← Learned_rules + NewRule
Pos ← Pos – {members of Pos covered by NewRule}
Return Learned_rules
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Learning first-order rules :First-Order Inductive Learning (FOIL)
FOIL learns rules when the target literal is true.Cf. sequential covering learns both rules that are true and false
Outer loop Add a new rule to its disjunctive hypothesis
Specific-to-General search
Inner loopFind a conjunction
General-to-Specific search on each rule by starting with a NULL precondition and adding more literal (hill-climbing)
Cf. sequential covering performs a beam search.
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FOIL: Generating Candidate Specializations in FOIL
Generate new literals, each of which may be added to the rule preconditions.
Current Rule : P(x1, x2, … , xk) <- L1 … Ln
Add new literal Ln+1 to get more specific Horn clause
Form of literal
Q(v1, v2, … , vk) : Q in predicates
Equal( Xj, Xk ) : Xj and Xk are variables already present to the rule
The negation of above
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FOIL : Guiding the Search in FOIL
Consider all possible bindings (substitution) : prefer rules that possess more positive bindings
Foil_Gain(L, R)
L candidate predicate to add to rule R
p0 number of positive bindings of R
n0 number of negative bindings of R
p1 number of positive bindings of R + L
n1 number of negative bindings of R + L
t number of positive bindings of R also covered by R + L
Based on the numbers of positive and negative bindings covered before and after adding the new literal
00
0
11
1 lglgnp
p
np
pt Gain-Foil
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FOIL : Examples
ExamplesExamples
Target literalTarget literal : GrandDaughter(x, y) : GrandDaughter(x, y)
Training Examples Training Examples : GrandDaughter(Victor, Sharon): GrandDaughter(Victor, Sharon)Father(Sharon,Bob)Father(Sharon,Bob) Father(Tom, Bob) Father(Tom, Bob)
Female(Sharon) Female(Sharon) Father(Bob, Victor)Father(Bob, Victor)
Initial stepInitial step : GrandDaughter(x, y) ← : GrandDaughter(x, y) ←
positive binding : {x/Victor, y/Sharon}positive binding : {x/Victor, y/Sharon}
negative binding : othersnegative binding : others
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FOIL : Examples
Candidate additions to the rule preconditions : Equal(x,y), Female(x), Female(y), Father(x,y),
Father(y,x), Father(x,z), Father(z,x), Father(y,z),
Father(z,y) and the negations
For each candidate, calculate FOIL_Gain
If Father(y, z) has the maximum value of FOIL_Gain, select Father(y, z) to add precondition of ruleGrandDaughter(x, y) ← Father(y,z)
Iteration…
We add the best candidate literal and continue adding literals until we generate a rule like the following:
GrandDaughter(x,y) Father(y,z) ^ Father(z,x) ^ Female(y)
At this point we remove all positive examples covered by the rule and begin the search for a new rule.
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FOIL : Learning recursive rules sets
Predicate occurs in rule head.
Example
Ancestor (x, y) Parent (x, z) Ancestor (z, y).
Rule: IF Parent (x, z) Ancestor (z, y) THEN Ancestor (x, y)
Learning recursive rule from relation
Given: appropriate set of training examples
Can learn using FOIL-based search
Requirement: Ancestor Predicates
Recursive rules still have to outscore competing candidates at FOIL-Gain
How to ensure termination? (i.e. no infinite recursion)
[Quinlan, 1990; Cameron-Jones and Quinlan, 1993]
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Induction as inverted deduction
Induction : inference from specific to general
Deduction : inference from general to specific
Induction can be cast as a deduction problem
( < x∀ i, f(xi) > D) (B h x∈ ∧ ∧ i)├ f(xi)D : a set of training data
B : background knowledge
xi : ith training instance
f(xi) : target value
X├ Y : “Y follows deductively from X”, or “X entails Y”
For every training instance xi, the target value f(xi) must follow
deductively from B, h, and xi
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Induction as inverted deduction
Learn target : Child(u,v) : child of u is v
Positive example : Child(Bob, Sharon)
Given instance: Male(Bob), Female(Sharon), Father(Sharon,Bob)
Background knowledge : Parent(u,v) Father(u,v)
Hypothesis satisfying the (B h x∧ ∧ i)├ f(xi)
h1 : Child(u, v) ←Father(v, u) : no need of B
h2 : Child(u, v) ←Parent(v, u) : need B
The role of Background KnowledgeExpanding the set of hypotheses
New predicates (Parent) can be introduced into hypotheses(h2)
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Induction as inverted deduction
In view of induction as the inverse of deduction
Inverse entailment operators is required
O(B, D) = h such that ( < x∀ i, f(xi) > D) (B h x∈ ∧ ∧ i)├ f(xi)
Input : training data D = {< xi, f(xi)>}
background knowledge B
Output : a hypothesis h
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Induction as inverted deduction
Attractive features to formulating the learning task1. This formulation subsumes the common definition of learning
2. By incorporating the notion of B, this formulation allows a more rich definition
3. By incorporating B, this formulation invites learning methods that use this B to guide search for h
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Induction as inverted deduction
Practical difficulties to formulating1. The requirement of the formulation does not naturally accommodate noisy training data.
2. The language of first-order logic is so expressive, and the number of hypotheses that satisfy the formulation is so large.
3. In most ILP system, the complexity of the hypothesis space search increases as B is increased.
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Inverting Resolution
Resolution rule
P L∨
¬ L R ∨
P R ∨ (L: literal P,R : clause)
Resolution Operator (propositional form)Given initial clauses C1 and C2, find a literal L from clause C1 such
that ¬ L occurs in clause C2.
Form the resolvent C by including all literal from C1 and C2, except
for L and ¬ L. More precisely, the set of literals occurring in the conclusion C is
C = (C1 - {L}) (C∪ 2 - { ¬ L})
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Inverting Resolution
Example 1 C2: KnowMaterial ∨ ¬ Study
C1: PassExam ∨ ¬ KnowMaterial
C: PassExam ∨ ¬ Study
Example 2C1: A B C ┐D∨ ∨ ∨
C2: ┐B E F ∨ ∨
C : A C ┐D E F∨ ∨ ∨ ∨
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Inverting Resolution
O(C, C1)
Perform inductive inference
Inverse Resolution Operator (propositional form)
Given initial clauses C1 and C, find a literal L that occurs in clause
C1, but not in Clause C.
Form the second clause C2 by including the following literals
C2 = (C - (C1 -{L})) {∪ ¬ L}
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Inverting Resolution
Example 1 C2: KnowMaterial ∨ ¬ Study
C1: PassExam ∨ ¬ KnowMaterial
C: PassExam ∨ ¬ Study
Example 2C1: B D , C : A B∨ ∨
C2 : A ┐D (if, C∨ 2 : A ┐D B ??)∨ ∨
Inverse resolution is nondeterministic
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Inverting Resolution : First-Order Resolution
First-Order ResolutionSubstitution ( 置换 )
Mapping of variables to terms
Ex) θ = {x/Bob, z/y}
Unifying Substitution (合一置换)For two literal L1 and L2, provided L1θ = L2θ
Ex) θ = {x/Bill, z/y}
L1=Father(x, y), L2=Father(Bill, z)
L1θ = L2θ = Father(Bill, y)
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Inverting Resolution : First-Order Resolution
Resolution Operator (first-order form)
Find a literal L1 from clause C1, literal L2 from clause C2, and
substitution θ such that L1θ= ¬ L2θ.
From the resolvent C by including all literals from C1θ and C2θ,
except for L1θ and ¬ L2θ. More precisely, the set of literals
occurring in the conclusion C is
C = (C1 - {L1})θ (C∪ 2 - {L2})θ
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Inverting Resolution : First-Order Resolution
ExampleC1= White(x) ← Swan(x), C2 = Swan(Fred)
C1 = White(x)∨ ¬ Swan(x),
L1= ¬ Swan(x), L2=Swan(Fred)
unifying substitution θ = {x/Fred}
then L1θ = ¬ L2θ = ¬ Swan(Fred)
(C1-{L1})θ = White(Fred)
(C2-{L2})θ = Ø
∴ C = White(Fred)
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Inverting Resolution : First-order case
Inverse Resolution : First-order case
C=(C1-{L1})θ1 (C∪ 2-{L2})θ2
(where, θ = θ1θ2 (factorization))
C - (C1-{L1})θ1 = (C2-{L2})θ2
(where, L2 = ¬ L1θ1θ2-1 )
∴ C2=(C-(C1-{L1})θ1)θ2-1 {∪ ¬ L1θ1θ2
-1}
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Inverting Resolution : First-order case
Multistep Inverse Resolution
Father(Tom,Bob) GrandChild(y,x)∨¬ Father(x,z)∨¬ Father(z,y)
{Bob/y,Tom/z}
Father(Shannon,Tom) GrandChild(Bob,x)∨¬ Father(x,Tom)
{Shannon/x}
GrandChild(Bob,Shannon)
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Inverting Resolution
C=GrandChild(Bob,Shannon)
C1=Father(Shannon,Tom)
L1=Father(Shannon,Tom)
Suppose we choose inverse substitution
θ1-1={}, θ2
-1={Shannon/x)
(C-(C1-{L1})θ1)θ2-1= (Cθ1)θ2
-1 = GrandChild(Bob,x)
{ ¬ L1θ1θ2-1} = ¬ Father(x,Tom)
∴ C2 = GrandChild(Bob,x) ∨¬ Father(x,Tom)or equivalently GrandChild(Bob,x) ← ¬ Father(x,Tom)
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逆消解小结
逆消解提供了一种一般的途径以自动产生满足式子 ( < x∀ i, f(xi) > D) (B h x∈ ∧ ∧ i)├ f(xi) 的假设
与 FOIL 方法的差异逆消解是样例驱动, FOIL 是生成再测试逆消解在每一步只考虑可用数据中的一小部分, FOIL 考虑所有的可用数据看起来基于逆消解的搜索更有针对性且更有效,但实际未必如此
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Summary
Learning Rules from Data
Sequential Covering Algorithms序列覆盖算法学习析取的规则集,方法是先学习单个精确的规则,然后移去被此规则覆盖的正例,再在剩余样例上重复这一过程序列覆盖算法提供了一个学习规则集的有效的贪婪算法,可作为由顶向下的决策树学习算法的替代算法,决策树算法可被看作并行覆盖,与序列覆盖相对应Learning single rules by search
Beam search
Alternative covering methods :这些方法的不同在于它们考察规则前件空间的策略不同
Learning rule sets
First-Order RulesLearning single first-order rules
Representation: first-order Horn clauses
Extending Sequential-Covering and Learn-One-Rule: variables in rule preconditions :学习一阶规则集的方法是将 CN2 中的序列覆盖算法由命题形式扩展到一阶表示。
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Summary
FOIL: learning first-order rule sets :可学习包括简单递归规则集在内的一阶规则集
Idea: inducing logical rules from observed relations
Guiding search in FOIL
Learning recursive rule sets
Induction as inverted deduction
学习一阶规则集的另一个方法是逆演绎,通过运用熟知的演绎推理的逆算子来搜索假设Idea : inducing logical rule as inverted deduction
O(B, D) = h – such that ( < x∀ i, f(xi) > D) (B h x∈ ∧ ∧ i)├ f(xi)
逆消解是消解算子的逆转,而消解是普遍用于机器定理证明的一种推理规则,
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