Lecture on LinguisticsLecture on Linguistics

For Advanced EnglishFor Advanced English

Books to recommendBooks to recommend

戴炜栋，何兆熊，戴炜栋，何兆熊， (2002)(2002) ，《新编简，《新编简明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出明英语语言学教程》，上海外语教育出版社。版社。

Widdowson, H. Widdowson, H. LinguisticsLinguistics ，上海外，上海外语教育出版社，语教育出版社， 20002000

I. What is languageI. What is language

a system of arbitrary vocal symbols usa system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.ed for human communication.

1. arbitrariness1. arbitrariness No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connectiNo logical (motivated or intrinsic) connecti

on between sounds and meanings.on between sounds and meanings.. E.g.: spitting. E.g.: spitting --What’s today? --Today is Thursday.--What’s today? --Today is Thursday. (French) Bonjour. Salut.(French) Bonjour. Salut.

2. Productivity/creativity2. Productivity/creativity

----Peculiar to human languages----Peculiar to human languages ，， users of lusers of language can understand and produce senanguage can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before, e.g. tences they have never heard before, e.g. we can understand sentence like we can understand sentence like “ A red-“ A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the hotel beeyed elephant is dancing on the hotel bed”d”, though it does not describe a commo, though it does not describe a common happening in the world.n happening in the world.

A gibbon call system is not productive for A gibbon call system is not productive for gibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repgibbon draw all their calls from a fixed repertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making ertoire which is rapidly exhausted, making any novelty impossible. any novelty impossible.

Duality (double articulation)Duality (double articulation) Lower level----sounds (meaningless)Lower level----sounds (meaningless) Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning)Higher level----meaning (larger units of meaning) A communication system with duality is considerA communication system with duality is consider

ed more flexible than one without it, for a far greed more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small nuater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped inmber of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), anto a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearrd the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. anged into an infinite number of sentences. (we (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot mamake dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.ke a dictionary of sentences of that language.

Duality (double Duality (double articulation) articulation)

Lower level----sounds (meaningless)Lower level----sounds (meaningless) Higher level----meaning (larger units of Higher level----meaning (larger units of

meaning)meaning) A communication system with duality is A communication system with duality is

considered more flexible than one without it, for considered more flexible than one without it, for a far greater number of messages can be sent. a far greater number of messages can be sent. A small number of sounds can be grouped and A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of regrouped into a large number of units of meaning (words), and the units of meaning can meaning (words), and the units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences. number of sentences. (we make dictionary of a (we make dictionary of a language, but we cannot make a dictionary of language, but we cannot make a dictionary of sentences of that language.sentences of that language.

DisplacementDisplacement ----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not ----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not

present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. future, or in far-away places.

A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last yearyear

There is something special about the bee dance though. There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.they speculate about future discoveries.

Cultural transmissionCultural transmission----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching ----Language is culturally transmitted (through teaching

and learning; rather than by instinct).and learning; rather than by instinct).

Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All Animal call systems are genetically transmitted. All cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost cats, gibbons and bees have systems which are almost identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.identical to those of all other cats, gibbons and bees.

A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not A Chinese speaker and an English speaker are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one culturally transmitted. That is, it is pass on from one generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather generation to the next by teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.than by instinct.

The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a The story of a wolf child, a pig child shows that a human being brought up in isolation simply does not human being brought up in isolation simply does not acquire human language. acquire human language.

The scope or major branches of The scope or major branches of linguisticslinguistics

Theoretical linguisticsTheoretical linguistics1.1. PhoneticsPhonetics2.2. PhonologyPhonology3.3. MorphologyMorphology4.4. SyntaxSyntax5.5. SemanticsSemantics Use of linguisticsUse of linguistics1.1. Applied linguisticsApplied linguistics2.2. SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics3.3. PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics …… ……

Descriptive vs prescriptiveDescriptive vs prescriptive

Descriptive ---- describe/analyze Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language linguistic facts observed or language people actually use (modern linguistic)people actually use (modern linguistic)

Prescriptive ----lay down rules for Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using “correct” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar)language (traditional grammar)

Synchronic vs diachronicSynchronic vs diachronic Synchronic Synchronic

study---- study---- description of a description of a language at some language at some point of time point of time (modern (modern linguistics)linguistics)

Diachronic Diachronic study---- study---- description of a description of a language through language through time (historical time (historical development of development of language over a language over a period of time)period of time)

Speech vs writingSpeech vs writing

Speech ---- primary medium of languageSpeech ---- primary medium of language

Writing ---- later developedWriting ---- later developed

Langue vs parole (F. de SaussuLangue vs parole (F. de Saussure)re)

Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.all members of the speech community.

Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.

Saussure takes a sociological view of language and Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventiohis notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.ns.

Competence and performance Competence and performance (Chomsky)(Chomsky) Competence ---- the ideal user’s Competence ---- the ideal user’s

knowledge of the rules of his language knowledge of the rules of his language

Performance ---- the actual realization of Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic this knowledge in linguistic communication communication

Chomsky looks at language from a Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of competence is a property of the mind of each individual.each individual.

Phonetics & phonologyPhonetics & phonology

Both are concerned with the same aspect of Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.approach and focus.

Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.they have, how they can be classified, etc.

Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

MorphologyMorphology

Morphology refers to the study of the Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rinternal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.ules by which words are formed.

Morpheme--the minimal unit of Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaningmeaning---Words are composed of morphemes. Words may co---Words are composed of morphemes. Words may co

nsist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.nsist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g. 1-morpheme boy, desire1-morpheme boy, desire 2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble 3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity 4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness,4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ityun+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity 5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism 6-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism

AffixAffix

Prefix ---- morphemes that occur onPrefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g. ly before others, e.g.

un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc. Suffix ---- morphemes that occur onSuffix ---- morphemes that occur on

ly after others, e.g. ly after others, e.g. -ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, -ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion,

etc.etc.

Free morpheme & bound Free morpheme & bound morphememorpheme Free morpheme----is one that may constitute Free morpheme----is one that may constitute

a word (free form) by itself, such as a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, bed, tree, sing, dance, sing, dance, etc.etc.

Bound morpheme----is one that may appear Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc. “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.

AllomorphAllomorph Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as

“dog, bark, cat”,etc. In other instances, there may be som“dog, bark, cat”,etc. In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes e variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morpheme may be represented by:morpheme, the plural morpheme may be represented by:

map----mapmap----mapss [s] [s] dog----dogdog----dogss [z] [z] watch----watches [iz]watch----watches [iz] mouse----mmouse----miice [ai]ce [ai] ox----oxox----oxenen [n] [n] tooth----ttooth----teeeeth th sheep----shsheep----sheeeepp Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural

morpheme. morpheme.

What is syntax?What is syntax?

----a branch of linguistics that studie----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form ss how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern tentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. he formation of sentences.

CategoriesCategories

Category refers to a group of linguistic Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. The most central categories to the syntactic most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech) (traditionally, parts of speech)

Word-level categoriesWord-level categories Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep.Major lexical categories: N, V, Adj, Prep. Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi, Minor Lexical categories: Det, Deg, Qual, Auxi,

Conj. Conj.

Phrase categories and their Phrase categories and their structures structures Phrase categories----the syntactic units that are buiPhrase categories----the syntactic units that are bui

lt around a certain word category are called phrase lt around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P). categories, such as NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P).

The structure: specifier + head + complement The structure: specifier + head + complement Head---- the word around which a phrase is formedHead---- the word around which a phrase is formed Specifier---- the words on the left side of the headsSpecifier---- the words on the left side of the heads Complement---- the words on the right side of the Complement---- the words on the right side of the

headsheads

SemanticsSemantics Semantics----the study of language Semantics----the study of language

meaning.meaning.

Ogden and Richards: semantic Ogden and Richards: semantic triangletriangle

Symbol Referent/object

concept

Major sense relationsMajor sense relations

Synonymy Synonymy Antonymy Antonymy PolysemyPolysemy Homonymy Homonymy Hyponymy Hyponymy

PolysemyPolysemy Polysemy----the same one word may have mPolysemy----the same one word may have m

ore than one meaning, e.g. “table” may meore than one meaning, e.g. “table” may mean:an:

A piece of furnitureA piece of furniture All the people seated at a tableAll the people seated at a table The food that is put on a tableThe food that is put on a table A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc. Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc. …… ……

HomonymyHomonymy

Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. differendifferent meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in t words are identical in sound sound or or spellingspelling, or in both., or in both.

Homophone ---- when two words are identical in soHomophone ---- when two words are identical in sound, e.g. und, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, …rain-reign, night/knight, …

Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in speHomogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. lling, e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …

Complete homonym---- when two words are identicComplete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, e.g. al in both sound and spelling, e.g. ball, bank, watch, ball, bank, watch, scale, fast, …scale, fast, …

HyponymyHyponymy

Hyponymy----the sense relation between Hyponymy----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.a more specific word.

Superordinate: the word which is more Superordinate: the word which is more general in meaning.general in meaning.

Hyponyms: the word which is more Hyponyms: the word which is more specific in meaning.specific in meaning.

Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.superordinate.

HyponymyHyponymy

Superordinate: flowerSuperordinate: flower Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily, Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily,

chrysanthemum, peony, narcissus, …chrysanthemum, peony, narcissus, …

Superordinate: furnitureSuperordinate: furniture Hyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, Hyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser,

wardrobe, sofa, …wardrobe, sofa, …

Componential analysisComponential analysis

Componential analysis---- a way to analyze Componential analysis---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,semantic features. For example,

Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE] Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE] Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -

MALE]MALE] Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]

PragmaticsPragmatics

---- the study of language in use or la---- the study of language in use or language communication; the study of nguage communication; the study of the use of context to make inference the use of context to make inference about meaning. about meaning.

---- the study of how speakers of a la---- the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect succenguage use sentences to effect successful communication.ssful communication.

ContextContext

Context---- a basic concept in the stuContext---- a basic concept in the study of pragmatics. It is generally considy of pragmatics. It is generally considered as constituted knowledge shardered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer, sued by the speaker and the hearer, such as cultural background, situation ch as cultural background, situation (time, place, manner, etc.), the relati(time, place, manner, etc.), the relationship between the speaker and the onship between the speaker and the hearer, etc.…. hearer, etc.….

Pragmatics vs. semanticsPragmatics vs. semantics Semantics---- is the study of the literal meaning oSemantics---- is the study of the literal meaning o

f a sentence (without taking context into considef a sentence (without taking context into consideration). ration).

Pragmatics---- the study of the intended meaning Pragmatics---- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration), of a speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. e.g.

““Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatically, ytoday is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending oou can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the intention of the speaker, san the context and the intention of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation… y, making a suggestion or giving an invitation…

Speech act theorySpeech act theory

Speech acts is a term derived from tSpeech acts is a term derived from the work of the philosopher J. L. Austihe work of the philosopher J. L. Austin (1962) and now used to refer to a tn (1962) and now used to refer to a theory which analyzes the role of utteheory which analyzes the role of utterances in relation to the behavior of trances in relation to the behavior of the speaker and the hearer in interpehe speaker and the hearer in interpersonal communication. It aims to anrsonal communication. It aims to answer the question “What do we do swer the question “What do we do when using language?” when using language?”

Austin’s new model of speAustin’s new model of speech actsech acts----According to Austin’s new model, a speaker mi----According to Austin’s new model, a speaker mi

ght be performing three acts simultaneously wheght be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and n speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.perlocutionary act.

The locutionary act----an act of saying something,The locutionary act----an act of saying something, i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (lite i.e. an act of making a meaningful utterance (literal meaning of an utterance); ral meaning of an utterance);

The illocutionary act----an act performed in sayinThe illocutionary act----an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intentg something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking). ion of the speaker while speaking).

The perlocutionary act----an act performed as a rThe perlocutionary act----an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing esult of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.Y, I did Z.

For example,For example,“It is cold in “It is cold in here.”here.”

Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal mIts locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod in here;eaning the weather is clod in here;

Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to sIts illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut the window;hut the window;

Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting Its perlocutionary act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the requesthe window or his refusal to comply with the request. t.

----Analyze one more example: ----Analyze one more example: “You have left the doo“You have left the door wide open.”r wide open.”

Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is mosNote: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts t concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can meato account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say. n more than what they say.

Searle’s classification of speech acts Searle’s classification of speech acts (1969)(1969)

Assertives/representatives(Assertives/representatives( 陈述陈述 ) ) Directives(Directives( 指令指令 ) ) Commissives(Commissives( 承诺承诺 ) ) Expressives(Expressives( 表达表达 ) ) Declarations(Declarations( 宣布宣布 ) )

Assertives/representatives Assertives/representatives

---- Stating or describing, saying what the ---- Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, e.g.speaker believes to be true, e.g.

I think the film is moving. I think the film is moving. I’m certain I have never seen the man I’m certain I have never seen the man

before.before. I solemnly swear that he had got it.I solemnly swear that he had got it.

… …

DirectivesDirectives

---- Trying to get the hearer to do ---- Trying to get the hearer to do something, e.g. something, e.g.

I order you to leave right now. I order you to leave right now. Open the window, please. Open the window, please. Your money or your life!Your money or your life!

… …

Commissives Commissives

---- Committing the speaker himself ---- Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, to some future course of action, e.g.e.g.

I promise to come. I promise to come. I will bring you the book tomorrow I will bring you the book tomorrow

without fail.without fail.

… …

Expressives Expressives

----Expressing the speaker’s ----Expressing the speaker’s psychological state about psychological state about something, e.g.something, e.g.

I’m sorry for being late.I’m sorry for being late. I apologize for the sufferings that I apologize for the sufferings that

the war has caused to your the war has caused to your people.people.

… …

Declarations Declarations

----Bringing about an immediate change ----Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, e.g.in the existing state or affairs, e.g.

I now appoint you chairman of the I now appoint you chairman of the committee. committee.

You are fired.You are fired. I now declare the meeting open.I now declare the meeting open.

… …

Principle of conversation (Paul Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)Grice) Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to Cooperative principle (CP)---- According to

Grice, in making conversation, there is a Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows: expected to observe. It goes as follows:

Make your conversational contribution such Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.talk exchange in which you are engaged.

Four maxims of Four maxims of CPCP The maxim of qualityThe maxim of quality

----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. The maxim of quantityThe maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for ----Make your contribution as informative as required for

the current purpose of the exchange.the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than ----Do not make your contribution more informative than

is required.is required. The maxim of relationThe maxim of relation----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant).----Be relevant ( make your contribution relevant). The maxim of mannerThe maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be brief.----Be orderly.----Be orderly.

Conversational implicatureConversational implicature

In real communication, however, speakers dIn real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. o not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reThese maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is blantantly asons. When any of the maxims is blantantly violated, i.e. both the speaker and the heareviolated, i.e. both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language ber are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicacomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises. ture arises.

Violation of maxim of Violation of maxim of quantity quantity

At a party a young man introduces At a party a young man introduces himself by saying himself by saying “I’m Robert Sampson “I’m Robert Sampson from Leeds, 28, unmarried…”from Leeds, 28, unmarried…”

““War is war.” War is war.” ““Girls are girls.”Girls are girls.”

----A:----A:When is Susan’s farewell party?When is Susan’s farewell party?

----B:----B:Sometime next month.Sometime next month.

Violation of maxim of Violation of maxim of relation relation

----A: ----A: How did the math exam go today, How did the math exam go today, Jonnie?Jonnie?

----B: ----B: We had a basketball match with class We had a basketball match with class 2 and we beat them.2 and we beat them.

----A: ----A: The hostess is an awful bore.The hostess is an awful bore.----B: ----B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, The roses in the garden are beautiful,

aren’t they?aren’t they?

----A:----A: What time is it? What time is it?----B:----B: The postman has just arrived. The postman has just arrived.

Violation of maxim of Violation of maxim of mannermanner

----A: Shall we get something ----A: Shall we get something for the kids?for the kids?

----B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-----B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.E-A-M.

Addition of new wordsAddition of new words

coinage(coinage( 创新词创新词 ) ) clipped words(clipped words( 缩略词缩略词 ) ) blending(blending( 紧缩法紧缩法 ) ) acronyms(acronyms( 词首字母缩略词词首字母缩略词 ) ) back-formation(back-formation( 逆构词法逆构词法 ) ) functional shift functional shift borrowing borrowing

Varieties of languageVarieties of language

Dialectal varieties Dialectal varieties Register Register Degree of formality Degree of formality

RegisterRegister Register, in a restricted sense, refers to the varRegister, in a restricted sense, refers to the var

iety of language related to one’s occupation.iety of language related to one’s occupation. In a broader sense, according to Halliday, In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “la“la

nguage varies as its function varies; it differs inguage varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.”n different situations.” The type of language The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.situation is a register.

Halliday further distinguishes three social variHalliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: ables that determine the register: field of discfield of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse. ourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse.

Three social variablesThree social variables Field of discourse: what is going on: to the area Field of discourse: what is going on: to the area

of operation of the language activity. It is of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose concerned with the purpose (why)(why) and subject and subject matter matter (about what)(about what) of communication. It can of communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.)be either technical or non-technical.)

Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation in question: the situation in question: whowho are the are the participants in the communication and participants in the communication and in what in what relationshiprelationship they stand to each other. they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)(customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)

Mode of discourse: the means of Mode of discourse: the means of communication. It is concerned withcommunication. It is concerned with how how communication is carried out. (oral, written, on communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…) the line…)

Degree of formality Degree of formality

----Five stages of formality (Martin Joos)----Five stages of formality (Martin Joos) Intimate: Intimate: Up you go, chaps!Up you go, chaps! Casual: Casual: Time you all went upstairs now.Time you all went upstairs now. Consultative: Consultative: Would you mind going upstairs right aWould you mind going upstairs right a

way, please?way, please? Formal: Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs at once.Visitors should go up the stairs at once. Frozen: Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the Visitors would make their way at once to the

upper floor by way of the staircase.upper floor by way of the staircase. ----Note: Different styles of the same language can be ----Note: Different styles of the same language can be

characterized through differences at three levels: sycharacterized through differences at three levels: syntactic, lexical and phonological(P121).ntactic, lexical and phonological(P121).

Errors & mistakesErrors & mistakes

Errors ---- unintentionally deviant from Errors ---- unintentionally deviant from the target language and not self-the target language and not self-corrigible by the learner (failure in corrigible by the learner (failure in competence)competence) ；；

Mistakes ---- either intentionally or Mistakes ---- either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible (failure in performance).corrigible (failure in performance).

Interlanguage (S. Pit Corder & Larry Selinker) Interlanguage (S. Pit Corder & Larry Selinker)

Interlangauge ---- learners’ independent sysInterlangauge ---- learners’ independent system of the second language which is of neithtem of the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second languaer the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from hge, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the target language. is native language to the target language.

What learners produce, correct or wrong, are What learners produce, correct or wrong, are evidence or the approximation from their firsevidence or the approximation from their first language to the target language.t language to the target language.