Major Issues in Migration (Asia Pacific)

國際遷移 小組報告國際遷移 小組報告Group 5Group 5

社會系 王姵心機械系 冷 毅

Asia-Pacific Region1950~

„PROSPECT“

International Migration in the Asia–Pacific Region: Emerging Trends and Issues(Graeme Hugo 2004)

Migration in the Asia-Pacific region(Graeme Hugo 2005)

Forced migration

South-north migration

Overseas contract workers

North-south migration

Other Non-permanent migration

Forced migration

到 1995為止，亞洲有 5.2million refugees，佔了所有的 35% ( 一 )main flows阿富汗→巴基斯坦、伊朗 (附圖 )印度支那→第三世界國家 political change+opening up of Indochinese→refugee flows declined in the 1990s

( 二 )smaller but locally significant flows(1)religious refugeesRohinga Muslims : Myanmar→Bangladesh (2)political refugeesstudents&intellectuals: Myanmar→Thailand(mostly曼谷 )

south-north migration

Until the late 1960s, however, these programs discriminated in favor of Europeans.

1970s removal of discrimination in immigration programs →immigration selection ： skills & family reunion

圖表就文章兩張 (table5.2+5.3)新文章兩張 (table3+4)

South-north movement is very selective.

Table 5.2. Immigration to North America, Australia, and New Zealand by region of origin and period

Nationality

1960s(%)

1970s(%)

1980s(%)

1990s(%)Nationality

1960s(%)

1970s(%)

1980s(%)

1990s(%)

United States Australia

Europe 33.8 17.8 10.4 14.9Europe 80.1 57.9 36 20.7

Asia 12.9 35.3 37.3 30.8Asia 3.2 11.3 27.3 29.4

Americas

51.7 44.1 49.3 47.3Americas

2.4 4.4 3.6 2.8

Other 1.6 2.8 3 7Pacific Islands

1.5 7 13.9 15.4

N 3,321 4,493 7,338 7,605Other 12.8 19.4 19.2 31.7

N 1,113 957 1,084 901

Canada New Zealand

Europe 69 35.7 25.7 19Europe 58.6 38.1 21.9

Asia 13.5 32.9 46.9 57.1Asia 0 25.6 51.6

Americas

14.3 23.8 20.5 15.6Americas

5.1 5.8 3.3

Other 3.2 7.6 6.9 8.3Pacific Islands

36.3 27.4 12

N 788 996 1,092 1,039Other 0 3.1 11.2

N 187 187 111 306Sources: U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (2002); Statistics Canada (2002); Australian Department of Immigration and Multicultural Affairs (2001); New Zealand Immigration Service (2002).

Table 5.3. Average annual number of immigrants to selected European countries by region of origin, 1960–89

Region 1960–4 1965–9 1970–4 1975–9 1980–4 1985–9

Developed Countries

89.90% 79.50% 72.10% 63.40% 65.20% 72.40%

Sub-Saharan Africa

1.8 3.4 3.9 4.6 4.4 4.2

North Africa-Middle East

6.2 8.9 17.1 18.4 14.7 9.3

Asia 1.5 6.2 5.3 10.3 12.7 12.5

Latin America-Caribbean

0.6 1.9 1.6 3.3 2.8 2.1

Total (000) 729.2 1,100.50 1,297.40 912 842.9 1,229.40

Source: Zlotnik (1993).

overseas contract workers(OCWs)

Temporary labor migration has its historical roots ：” Collie”

The first major post-independence contract labor migration(former South Vietnam)(late 1960s &early 1970s)

history(?)new era(1973石油危機 ) ： scale & complexityGulf(Persian Gulf)的移民來源 :南亞→ +東亞 ,東南亞

移民至亞洲Over the last decade, destinations have also become more diverse, with other Asian nations overtaking the Middle East as points of destination.

(亞洲各國有多少外國人 )(total 六百萬 )

亞洲內部移民The estimated contemporary stocks of Asian origin migrant workers in foreign countries(Table 6: Asian countries: estimates of stocks of migrant workers in other countries )

Two systems of labour migration involving Asian OCWs.1 3D (dirty, dangerous and difficult)(mainly)Despite the growth of skilled migration, most overseas contract workers continue to be employed in poorly paid, low status jobs that require little skill and are eschewed by local citizens.”(p12) ex: table5.82 highly skilled professionals(small in number but significant)

Table 5.8. Employment sector of foreign workers in Taiwan and Malaysia and from Indonesia

Industrial sector Taiwan Indonesia Malaysia

1994 1989–94 1991

Agriculture/Plantation(%) 0.8 22.5 45.8

Manufacturing 68.6 0 3.4

Construction 21.6 0.1 26.6

Social/Personal Services 8.9 60.7 19.1

Transport 0 13.9 0

Other 0.1 3.8 5.1

Total (N) 199,553 642,268 1,200,920Source: Hugo (1995a); Stahl and PECC-HRD Task Force (1996).

Table 5: Classification of Asian nations on the basis of their international labour migration situation

Mainly emigration Philippines Bangladesh Cambodia LaosChina Sri Lanka Indonesia VietnamIndia Pakistan Burma Nepal

Mainly immigration South Korea Taiwan SingaporeJapan Hong Kong Brunei

Both significant immigration and emigration

MalaysiaThailand

in the contemporary situation all Asian nations are to some extent both emigration and immigration nations with highly skilled workers moving in to even labour surplus nations because of shortages of skills in fast growing economies and the spread of MNCs(Multinational corporations).

north south migration

reverse flow to the south-north migration ，” reverse brain drain” ： a repatriation of nationals and former nationals who have spent a considerable period livingand working overseas in an MDC. (gathering momentum throughout the late 1980s and 1990s)

The influx of professionals, business people and technical workers from MDCs is associated with...

1 burgeoning opportunities in the rapidly growing, restructuring and labor shortage economies of their home country. ←→the movement(“reverse brain drain”)…accelerated in the early 1990s when dynamic economic growth across Asia coincided with recessions in Europe and North America

2 The massive growth of investment by multinational operations →intra-company transferees

3 The mismatches between the education and training systems and labour market skillneeds in rapidly growing economies

4 (1990s) a deliberate policy to attract back former emigrants who have particular technical, professional and business skills

Remarkable influx of highly trained people from developed nations1 documented workers2 “many skilled workers enter Asian nation with tourist visa and subsequently take a job”(p13)

“Astronauting”

Other Non-permanent migration(tourism, business and education)

One movement (non-permanent movements) of particular significance is the increasing number of students from Asian countries undertaking programs outside their country

This indicates that over the 1998-2003 period these numbered some 2.6 million with the labors numbers being from China, Korea and India. (亞洲學生從哪來 )

Asia is a major source of foreign students in most of the countries with the largestnumbers of such students(亞洲學生去那裡 )

以澳洲為例 (The fact that such movement has increased greatly over the last decade is shown by taking the case of Australia.)

FeminizationFeminization

FeminizationCharacteristics A gendered process & Associated with the age and status

of women

Not equal access to higher education – More unskilled

Taking up low wage, low status 3D (dirty, dangerous, difficult) jobs, eschewed by locals

Small number of occupations unskilled female migrants from Asia concentrated

Feminization Types

Domestic Workers (Short-term)

Sex & Entertainment Workers (Short-term)

Marriage Migration (Long-term/Permanent)

More than two million womenNot only elsewhere in other Asian countries but other regions especially the Middle East and EuropeMainly from the Philippines, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and ThailandOpen to greater exploitation than people working in a factory or other workplace

左邊那扇門的後面是廚房，右邊的們通向浴室。我們的客廳則是在右側，監視器正對著的地方。

Feminization

選自《凝視驛鄉》

Voyage 15840

移工攝

影集

垃圾分類是非常好的習慣，可以避免空氣污染並保護環境。很不公平的是，每當有人放錯分類，大家都怪到我們頭上。

Feminization

選自《凝視驛鄉》

Voyage 15840

移工攝

影集

移工們花大把的鈔票在打電話上，我也不例外。看到我手機的這些電話卡嗎？這讓人不難理解移工們有多寂寞。

Feminization

選自《凝視驛鄉》

Voyage 15840

移工攝

影集

The main origins of women in this industry are in the Philippines and Thailand but there are also flows from Indonesia to Malaysia and Singapore and from Burma and Laos into Thailand.

FeminizationMarriage Migration Substantial numbers, especially from the Philippines

and Thailand moving to northern countries as part of the Mail-order bride schemes

Mail-order bride is a label applied to a woman who publishes her intent to marry someone from another usually more financially developed – country

Significant numbers of Filipino brides in Japan, Australia, North America and Europe. Under family reunion categories of immigration programs in Canada, Australia etc.

Feminization《性別與移動—日本與台灣的亞洲新娘》 -- 邱婌雯著

“ 菲律賓女性承受來自接待社會的污名化特別多”無論非法或合法，許多菲律賓女性進入日本之後所從事的工作多與性產業有關，這使得他們不得不在族群，性別，職業上承受來自接待社會的三種邊緣化：那就是亞洲人，女人，特種營業工作的人。日本人再現下的菲律賓女性有兩種：一是大都會的表演工作者：她們和賣春婦，惡女等印象相連接，是被黑社會或暴力組織拐騙毒打，可憐又可惡的女人。二是農村的外籍新娘：特別是在東北地區，他們被再現成傳統的，聽話的，善解人意的亞洲新娘。學者鈴木伸枝認為，這兩種對在日菲律賓女性的再現都是單一的，片斷的，而且以偏概全的。

Feminization《不要叫我外籍新娘》 -- 夏曉娟著

（來自印尼）黃莉莉

其實這樣被媒體不尊重對待的經驗並不是第一次，許多姊妹都有被媒體“騙”的經驗。我想說的是：希望記者或社會大眾，想要採訪或瞭解我們的時候，請不要用看不起的眼光看待我們這群“新移民女性”，雖然你們叫我們“外籍新娘”，但是我們也跟台灣的女性一樣，有人格和自尊，希望受到大家的尊重…

Undocumented MigrationUndocumented Migration

Undocumented Migration

• =

Undocumented Migration

Why is it that so many Asian workers have adopted undocumented migration strategies?

RemittancesRemittances

In Sri Lanka the government has stated that overseas remittances ‘have now become the backbone of the country’s economy’ (Asian Migration News, 31 August 2001).

“Bread winner no more”, by Barbara Ehrenrecich and Arlie Russell Hochschild

Remittances

ConclusionConclusion