memory cognitive psych
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MEMORYMemory - refers to the processes that allow us torecord, store, and later retrieve experiences andinformation. It is the means that we retain and drawon our past experiences to use that information forfuture use.
3 Common Operations of Memory1. Encodingtransforming sensory data into a form
of mental representation
2. StorageKeeping the encoded information inmemory
3. RetrievalPull out, access or use informationstored in memory
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MODELS OF MEMORY1. The Traditional Model
A) William James Memory Structures:1.primary memorywhich holds temporary
information currently in use
2. secondary memorywhich holdsinformation permanently
B) Atkinsons and Shiffrins Memory Stores:
1. sensory store capable of storing limited
amounts of information for a very brief period;initial repository of information
1.1iconic storea discrete visual sensory
register that holds information briefly.
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2. short-term storecapable of storing information forsomewhat longer periods but of relatively limited capacity aswell
3. long-term storeof very large capacity capable of
storing information for a very long periods perhapsindefinitely.
permastorerefers to a very long-term storage ofinformation, such as knowledge of foreign language and
mathematics.
2. The Levels of Processing Model/Frameworkthispostulates that memory does not comprise three or evenany specific number of separate stores, but rather variesalong a continuous dimension in terms of depth encoding.That is the level at which information is stored will dependin large part on how it is encoded.
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Craiks and Tulvings Level of Processing:
1. Physical - visually apparent features of letters
2. Phonologicalsound combinations associated with
the letters3. Semanticmeaning of the word
3. The Integrative Model: Working Memory Model
probably the most widely used and accepted modeltoday. The key feature of this model is the role of theworking memory. Like the other models this alsopoints out the components of memory but its
approach is different with the other two models.While the three-store model emphasizes structuralreceptacles for stored information, this modelunderscores the functions of working memory ingoverning the processes of memory.
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3 Components of the Working
Memory Model:
1. Sensory memorybriefly holds incoming sensory
information. It comprises different subsystems
called sensory registers, which are initialinformation processors. (Like our visual sensory
register is called iconic store. Some information
reaches working memory and long-term memory,where it is represented by memory codes,
(visual, phonological, semantic or motor codes).
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Memory Codesare mental representations of
some type of information or stimulus.
Various forms of sensory memory codes:
1. Visual codesmental images2. Phonological codescode something by sound
3. Semantic codesfocus on the meaning of stimulus
4. Motor codesphysical actions, patterns ormovement
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2. Working/Short-Term Memorya memory store
that temporarily holds a limited amount of
information; thus it is a limited-capacity system
that temporarily stores and processes information
(Baddeley, 2002).
5 Elementsof working memory:
1. Visuospatial sketchpadbriefly stores visual and
spatial information
2. Phonological loopbriefly stores sensations of
sounds like inner speech for verbal comprehension
and acoustic rehearsal.
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2 Critical Components of Phonological loop:
1. Phonological storageholds information in
memory
2. Subvocal rehearsalwhich is used to put the
information in the memory in the first place
Articulatory suppression a phenomenon thatoccurs when the subvocal rehearsal is inhibited ,
the new information is not stored.
3. Central Executivewhich both coordinates
attentional activities and governs responses.
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Central Executive directs the overall action. It plansand controls the sequence of actions that need to beperformed, divides and allocates attention to the
other subsystems, and integrates information withinthe episodic buffer. It may also monitor the progressas interim steps are completed (DeStefano & LeFevre,2004)
4. Subsidiary Slave Systems - performs othercognitive or perceptual tasks (Baddeley, 1989, p. 36)
5. Episodic bufferprovides a temporary storage
space where information from long term memory,phonological, visuospatial be integrated, manipulated,and made available for conscious awareness(Baddeley, 2002).
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3.Long-Term Memory - - is our vast library of more
durable stored memories. It stores large amounts of
information for up to a lifetime
Types of Long-term memory:
Declarative memoryinvolves factual knowledge
and includes two subcategories.
Episodic memoryis our store of knowledge
concerning personal experiences: when, where, and
what happened in the episodes of our lives.
Semantic memoryrepresents general factual
knowledge about the world and language, including
memory for words and concepts.
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Procedural (non-declarative) memoryis reflected
in skills and actions (Gupta & Cohen, 2002).
Explicit memoryinvolves conscious or intentional
memory retrieval, as when you consciously recognize
or recall something. Recognition requires us to decide
whether a stimulus is familiar. Recall involves
spontaneous memory retrieval.
Implicit memoryoccurs when memory influences
our behavior without conscious awareness (May et
al., 2005).
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MEMORY PROCESSES3 Memory Operations in which each one likewiserepresents a stage in memory processing:
1. Encodingrefers to how you transform a physical,sensory input into a kind of representation thatcan be placed into memory
2. Storagerefers to how you retain encodedinformation in memory
3. Retrievalrefers to how you gain access to
information stored in memory.These operations are often viewed as sequential
stages, however they interact with each other andare interdependent.
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Memory models in Memory Processes:
According to the integrative working memory model,information enters into sensory memory (ENCODING)
then reaches into short-term memory where it istemporarily stored and is processed and is transferredinto the long term memory (STORAGE). The holdingsof the long-term memory like those of a library mustbe organized if information are to be made availablewhen one wish to retrieve them (RETRIEVAL).Effective encoding is a must then.
Levels of Processing Framework emphasizes depth ofencoding. That is the level at which information isstored will depend in large part on how it is encoded.
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HOW ARE INFORMATIONS STORED
2 basic types of Encoding:
1. Effortful processingencoding that is initiatedintentionally and requires conscious attention
(Hasher & Zacks, 1979).
(Ex. When you rehearse information, make lists, and
take notes, you are engaging in effortful
processing)
2. Automatic processingencoding that occurs
without intention and requires minimal attention.
Information about frequency spatial location, and
sequence of events is often encoded automatically
(Jimenez & Mendez, 2001).
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Levels of Processingthe more deeply we process
information, the better we will remember it (Craik &
Lockhart, 1972).
Forms of Encoding according to its depth:
1. Structural (shallow) encodinghow the word,
figure, or stimulus looks
2. Phonemic (deeper) encodinghow the word,
figure, or stimulus sounds
3. Semantic (deepest) encodingrequires focus to
the meaning of the word, figure, or stimulus
Deeper processing enhances memory
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Devices that deepen encoding: Rehearsalrote repetition or repeated repetition
of an item. It may be overt that is aloud andobvious to anyone and covert in this case silent
and hidden. Effects of rehearsal are calledpractice
effects.
2 kinds of Rehearsal
1. Maintenance rehearsalinvolves simple rote
repetition2. Elaborative rehearsalwhich involves focusing on
the meaning of information or expanding (ex.
elaborating) on it in some way
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Mnemonic devicesspecific techniques for
deeper encoding:
Hierarchiesorganizing material in a hierarchy, that
is organizing items from top to down, uses the
principle that memory is enhanced by associations
between concepts (Bower et al., 1969).
Chunkingcombining individual items into larger
units of meaning. Ex:(I R S Y M C A I B M C I A F B I)
Dual Codingfrom dual coding theory
- encoding information using both verbal and visual
codes enhances memory because the odds improve
that at least one of the codes will be available later to
support recall.
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Visual imageryit is recommended to use visual
imagery with dual coding.
Categorical Clusteringorganize a set of items into
categories
Interactive Imagesthe objects represented by
words are recalled as if the objects are interacting
with each other in some way
Pegword systemassociate each word with a word
in a previously memorized list and form an interactive
image between the two words
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Method of locia memory aid that associates
information with mental images of physical locations
or land marks and link those visual landmarks to
specific items remembered
Acronyms devise a word or expression by
combining a letter usually the first letter of each
information we want to recall in which each (first)letter stands for a certain other word or concept
Acrosticsform a sentence rather than a single
word to help one remembers new words
Keyword systemcreate an interactive image that
links the sound and meaning of a foreign word with
the sound and meaning of a familiar word
I VAL
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RETRIEVAL:
FROM SHORT TERM MEMORY4 possible predictions in retrieval:1. Parallel processing refers to simultaneous handling
of multiple operations; items retrieved all at once
2. Serial processing refers to operations being doneone after another; items are retrieved insuccession
3. Exhaustive serial processingwhere one alwayschecks one digit against all digits in the positive set
4. Self-terminating serial processingwhere onewould check the test digit against only those digits
needed to make a response
RETRIEVAL
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RETRIEVALFROM LONG TERM MEMORY
Retrieval from memory could be recall andrecognition,implicit and explicit, and declarativeknowledge and procedural memory tasks.
Recall- one produce a fact, a word or another item
from memoryTypes of Recall Tasks:
1. Serial Recallrecalling items in the exact orderthey are presented
2. Free Recallrecalling items in any order from agiven list
3. Cued Recallrecalling items in pairs in which oneof a certain pair is considered as the cue
i i k l i h i
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Recognition Tasksselection or otherwise
identification of an item as being one that you have
been exposed to previously.
Implicit Memory Taskdrawing on information in
memory without consciously aware that one is doing
so.
oProcedural Knowledge Memory Taskalso known
as memory for processes can also be drawn from
implicit memory task. It is remembering learned skills
and automatic behaviorsrather than facts.
oPriming is the facilitation of ones ability to utilize
missing information
E li i M T k i ll i f
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Explicit Memory Taskconscious recollection of
particular information.
oDeclarative Knowledge Memory Taskrecollection
of facts.
FORGETTING
Why do we forget?2 Theories of Forgetting
1. Interference Theoryrefers to the view that
forgetting occurs because recall of certain wordsinterferes with recall of other words
2 ki d f I f
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o2 kinds of Interference:
1. Retroactive interferenceoccurs when newly
acquired knowledge impedes the recall of older
material.
2. Proactive interferencewhen materials that was
learned in the past impedes the learning of new
material.
Serial Position Curvea statistical curve
demonstrating that first and last group of items in a
given list of five groups of items for recall are likely to
be remembered more that items in the 2nd, 4thand the
least likely to be remembered are the items on the 3rd
group.
R Eff t f t i ll f d
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Recency Effect refers to superior recall of words
at and near the end of the list.
Primacy Effect refers to the superior recall of
words at and near the beginning of a list
Schemas are mental frameworks that represent
knowledge in a meaningful way. Prior knowledge
has an enormous effect on memory, sometimes
leading to interference or distortion.
2. Decay Theoryasserts that information is
forgotten because of the gradual disappearance
rather than displacement of memory trace.
THE CONSTRUCTIVE NATURE OF MEMORY
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THE CONSTRUCTIVE NATURE OF MEMORY
Memory retrieval is not only reconstructivethat is
involving the use of various strategies for retrieving
the original memory; but also it is constructive in that
prior experience affects how we recall things and
what we actually recall from memory.
Autobiographical memory refers to memory of
an individuals history.
Flashbulb memory a memory of an event so
powerful that a person remembers the event as vividly
as if it were indelibly preserved on film.
3 I t h i t lik l t
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3 Instances where a memory is most likely to
become flashbulb memory:
1. The memory trace is important to the individual
2. The memory trace is surprising
3. The memory trace has emotional effect on the
individual
MEMORY DISTORTIONS Schacters 7 sins of memory:
1. Transiencememory fades quickly
2. Absent-mindedness inattention
3. Blocking - information is blocked
4 Mi tt ib ti i tt ib ti th
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4. Misattribution misattributing the memory
5. Suggestibility - people are susceptible to
suggestion
6. Biaspeople are often bias in their recall
7. Persistencepeople sometimes remembers things
as consequential when in broad context is
inconsequential.
Repressed Memories memories that are alleged to
have been pushed down into unconsciousness
because of the distress they cause. Such memories
according to psychologists who believed in them are
very inaccessible but they can be dredged out.
R h f l i t f
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Research on false memories suggests reasons for
skepticism of some psychologists about repressed
memories:
1. Some therapists may inadvertently plant ideas in
their clients head.
2. Showing that implanted memories are false are
often extremely hard to do.
At present no compelling evidence points to the
existence of such memories; but psychologists also
have not reached the point where their existence
can be ruled out definitively , therefore no clear
conclusion can be reached at this time.
Source monitoring error occurs when a person
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Source-monitoring erroroccurs when a personattributes a memory derived from one source toanother source.
Spreading activation
every time an item isstudied, one think of other items related to that item.
The Effect of Context in Memory
Encoding Specificityhow items are encoded hasa strong effect both on how , and on how well itemsare retrieved. What is recalled depends on what isencoded (Tulving & Thomson, 1973)
SOURCE: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY, Sternberg &
Sternberg 2012