Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning

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한국 멀티미디어 언어교육학회 Vol. 1, No. 1 1998 창간호

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Jerry Larson An Argument for Computer Adaptive Language Testing 9

Chunghyun Lee On Multimedia in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning 25

Soyoung Lee Interface Design with Focus on Icons, Color, and Text 51

Byoung-chul Min A Study of the Attitudes of Korean Adults toward

Technology-Assisted Instruction in English-Language Programs 63

김영화 고등학교 일본어 교육에 있어서의 멀티미디어 활용 실태 79

김정렬, 임창근 초등학교용 영어 개별적응 평가(Computer-Adaptive English

Testing) 프로그램 개발 101

성일호 인터넷을 활용한 영어 교수 계획 117

신희재, 권청자 인터넷을 통한 효과적인 작문지도 141

이덕봉 멀티미디어 언어 학습의 학습 심리 163

이창인 사용자와의 상호교류를 통한 문법학습 위주의 CLL 시스템 177

정기영, 하은애 멀티미디어 일본어학습용 프로그램 내용분석 189

조세경 전자우편의 영어교육에의 활용 방안 213

•학술대회 경과 229•입회 신청서 231•투고 요령 237

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An Argument for Computer Adaptive Language Testing

Jerry W. Larson

(Brigham Young University)

Larson, Jerry W. (1998). An Argument for Computer Adaptive Language

Testing. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 1 (1), 9～24.

This article begins by exploring benefits associated with using computers in

language testing in such areas as test preparation and test delivery, followed by

limitations. The paper then presents six steps to construction of a computer-

assisted language testing (CALT) test, i.e., (1) creating test items, (2) evaluating

test items, (3) piloting test items, (4) calibrating test items, (5) selecting items

for inclusion in the test, and (6) determining test delivery procedures. Finally,

it addresses the issues of potential advantages and disadvantages of CALT tests

-- the strengths in eight aspects: (1) tailored testing, (2) multiple equated test

forms, (3) common-metric measurement, (4) shared item banks, (5) increased

test accuracy, (6) self-paced tests, (7) greater test efficiency, and (8) improved

examinee attitude; the limitations in three areas: (1) unidimensionality (2)

exclusive use of objectively-scored items, and (3) increased test anxiety.

Ⅰ. Introduction

Over the years various techniques and innovations in language testing have been to

assess the various different language modalities. The oral proficiency interview (OPI), for

example, has become the principle technique for evaluating speaking competence.

Evaluation of reading and writing skills has included portfolio assessment and other

contextualized procedures. With the advent of more powerful desktop computers

computerized testing has found its way into many language programs. Even though the

computer is not yet able to evaluate effectively all aspects of language, it is extremely

advantageous in some areas of language assessment.

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Ⅱ. Benefits Associated with Using Computers in Language Testing

1. Test Preparation

Certain features of the computer lend themselves very well to writing and revising

language test items. A simple word processor program, for example, enables test developers

to produce a variety of language test items for inclusion in their tests, be these tests

computer-delivered or paper-and-pencil tests. Today's computers also allow test creators

to employ sound, graphics, animations, and even motion video as response elicitation

techniques in computer-delivered tests. Using these types of resources, it is possible to

create more contextualized test items, thus improving test validity. Tests employing these

enhanced test items tend to have a positive effect on students who take the tests. Students

find the items more interesting than traditional test items, which, consequently, improve

their attitude toward testing.

2. Test Delivery

Using the computer to deliver language tests offers a number of significant advantages.

Because of the computer's memory capability, it is able to store and retrieve on demand

items from a test items bank. This allows test creators to write items and have them stored

in the computer using predetermined identifiers, or flags, so that the items can be retrieved

for the student as needed during the test. The instructions for the test-delivery computer

program control the presentation of test items to the student without his or her being aware

of what is happening "behind the scenes." The storage capability of the computer makes it

possible to create large test item banks from which tests of specified or randomly-generated

items may be printed or presented on the computer. It is also possible to have multiple test

forms using comparably-difficult items from the test item bank.

The computer's memory also is able to retain a record of the students' performance on

the test. This makes it possible to give the students immediate feedback regarding how

well they did on the test. For placement purposes, this is extremely beneficial.

Since the computer is able to keep track of all the keystrokes and branching that occur

during the course of a test, it is possible to evaluate the test itself, as well as the students'

performance on the test. An item analysis can be generated to determine whether certain

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items of the test are producing the desired results. And, if not, those items can be deleted

or replaced quickly and easily with other items.

Having students take language tests directly on the computer provides the opportunity

for individualized test administration. In a university setting, for example, tests can be

administered in the computer lab, where the students go on their own time, freeing many

hours of class time for needed teacher-student interaction. This kind of testing procedure

relieves teachers of the inconvenience of handling volumes of paper and other testing

supplies. Using the computer in the lab for testing also allows for flexible test scheduling,

meaning that tests can be available to students when individual students are ready for them,

rather than having to wait for the entire class to be ready.

Computerized testing makes it possible to have self-paced tests. Many students are

very anxious about taking tests because they feel pressured to complete the test during a

limited amount of time. This anxiety, in many cases, causes them to perform at a level

below their true ability level. Computerized tests can be programmed to allow students to

work at their own pace, if so desired by teachers or test administrators.

Ⅲ. Limitations Associated with Using Computers in Language Testing

While there are a number of significant advantages to using computerized testing, there

are also some possible limitations that must be considered. First, and perhaps the most

serious disadvantage is the inability of computers to evaluate adequately the productive

language skills, i.e., speaking and writing. Developments in artificial intelligence and its

application to answer judging are not yet sophisticated enough to handle the innumerable

nuances of meaning the human mind can produce. With the exception of being able to parse

simple utterances and passages, the computer is simply not able to substitute for the teacher

when it comes to assessing oral and written language performance.

Another possible limitation associated with using computers for language testing comes

when trying to assess reading skills. Since only a limited number of lines of text can be

displayed at one time on the screen, large reading passages must either be eliminated or the

examinee will have to scroll through the text, which is possible in the Windows, Macintosh,

or similar computer environments. But even though it is possible to access the entire text

through scrolling, some reading and testing specialists claim that this kind of reading

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activity is different from reading from a printed page and will affect the validity of the

reading test itself (Bachman, 1990; Canale, 1984).

A third possible disadvantage of computerized language testing is related to test

anxiety. It is possible that having to take a test using a machine, such as the computer, may

increase test anxiety, thus affecting the examinee's test performance. While computer fear

might adversely affect some students, this is becoming less and less of a concern, since the

great majority of young people today are very comfortable around computers and other

forms of technology. Studies have shown that this concern is not as serious as once

thought, particularly if keyboard familiarization exercises are introduced at the beginning of

the test (Henning, 1991; Larson, 1989).

Finally, some administrators claim that computerized language testing is simply too

expensive. They claim that it is too costly to provide computers for testing purposes.

However, most language departments―particularly those in university and colleges―have

two or three or a number of computers already available for student use. These computers

can be used for test administration as well as for other language practice activities. It is

true, however, that there are additional expenses for developing testing programs or for

purchasing testing software and licenses.

Ⅳ. Computerized Adaptive Language Testing

Computer-assisted testing has become fairly common in language education. Teachers

are using computers for a variety of testing purposes: testing classroom achievement,

determining course placement levels, diagnosing language problem areas and deficiencies,

and performance and proficiency assessment. Computerized tests are also used to evaluate

students' command of grammatical structures, vocabulary acquisition, and cultural

knowledge. A fairly recent development in the area of computer-assisted testing is computer

adaptive language testing. Computer adaptive language testing (CALT) is a subset of

computer-assisted testing, it employs specialized computer algorithms that cause the test to

adapt to the level of ability of the student currently taking the test. For example, if the

student misses an item, the next item the computer presents will be a little easier than the

previous one. If the student answers an item correctly, the computer selects a more difficult

item to administer next. Each CALT test becomes a unique, tailored test for each examinee.

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To illustrate the adaptive nature of a CALT test a little more clearly, let me use an

analogy described by Howard Wainer (1983). He compares adaptive testing to determining

how high a man is able to jump. If we set the height of a hurdle at two feet and a person

is able to jump over that hurdle, we know that he can, indeed, jump at least two feet high,

but we do not yet know the maximum height that he is able to jump. If we place the hurdle

at a height of five feet and the person cannot jump over it, we now know the range of

jumping ability of the hurdler (between two and five feet), but we still do not know exactly

how high he is able to jump. In order to determine his precise jumping ability, we need to

do two things: first, agree on how precisely we need to measure his jumping ability (e.g.,

to the nearest inch, to the nearest centimeter, etc.), and, second have the hurdler jump over

hurdles ranging in height according to the precision requirements decided upon. To expedite

the process, we could have the jumper try to jump over a hurdle set at three feet. If he

is successful, we'll try four feet, thus narrowing the range of ability quickly and efficiently.

When we know, for example, that this person can jump somewhere between three and four

feet, we can then have him try a hurdle at three feet six inches. Now, knowing this reduced

range of ability, we can have the jumper try hurdles at every inch, or at every centimeter,

as the case requires. So it is with adaptive testing: a narrow range of ability of the

examinee is quickly determined, and then a series of questions within that range are

administered to ascertain the exact ability of the examinee.

Before examining in more detail some of the unique and beneficial features of a CALT

test, it may be helpful to know first more about the construction of such a test.

1. Construction of a CALT Test

1) Create test items

Producing a CALT test requires several phases, the first of which, obviously, is the

creation of items to be used in the test bank. Since the test is to be administered and scored

by the computer, dichotomous test items will be needed (i.e., items that are scored as either

right or wrong). The most common item of this type is multiple-choice. Matching and

short-answer items can be included, but they require a little more complex computer

programming to display and evaluate. True-false items are generally not considered

sufficiently robust for this kind of test.

The difficulty of the test items will, of course, depend upon the purpose for which the

test is being written. If, for example, the test is to be used as a placement measure for

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determining which courses students should enroll in, e.g., first-, second-, or third-semester

Spanish (or some other languages), the content of the items should span the difficulty range

normally found across these three courses. Having items representing information much

more difficult than that usually contained in these courses would be useless, since these

items would not contain pertinent, discriminating, decision-making information for placing

students. On the other hand, writing items that examine expected knowledge of students

within these course ranges would result in a very useful placement measure. It is

particularly important for a placement test to have a large number of items at the threshold

difficulty level of each of the courses in question. This makes it a little easier to

discriminate between students who are not quite ready for the next higher course and those

who are sufficiently prepared to take on the additional challenge.

Another consideration to keep in mind as one writes items to be used in a CALT test

is the need to create initially many more items than will ultimately be required for the final

version of the test. Invariably, during the subsequent evaluation phase of the created items,

many items will be found problematic in one way or another. For example, evaluators or

computer analysis may find some items to be tricky for one reason or another, or to be

biased, or even inaccurate.

2) Evaluate test items

Before items are administered to students and then subjected to computer analysis, they

must be carefully screened by testing specialists to check for any problems that will affect

the fairness of the items to all potential test takers. Particular care must be taken to ensure

that the items are not biased in any way, including ethnic and sexual biases that often creep

in inadvertently. Item evaluators need to review items closely to make sure that

multiple-choice item distractors are plausible, yet not possible; there must be a clearly

correct answer. Item reviewers must ensure that items are indeed independent; that is, that

no item gives information that will "tip off" the examinee to the answer of another item.

3) Pilot test items

After the items have been carefully reviewed, eliminating or rewriting any

unsatisfactory ones, they are administered to students who belong to the courses for which

the items were written. If possible, two to three hundred students should participate in this

effort, though as few as a hundred may be possible. (The number of students required to

allow for adequate evaluation and calibration of the test items is discussed below.) The

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greater the number of students, the more powerful the performance analysis of the items

will be. The items may be administered to the students via either computer or

paper-and-pencil forms. Once the items have been taken by this pilot group, the results are

computer analyzed to determine whether any further item deficiencies become apparent.

Often "unbiased" machine scrutiny will reveal problems not detected by human inspection.

Conventional statistical information on the items should be reviewed to check for items that

do not appear to be as discriminating as they should be.

4) Calibrate test items

In addition to conventional computer item analysis routines used to evaluate item

performance, the items must be calibrated and assigned difficulty indices, a very critical step

in preparing the items for the item bank. This statistical maneuver is possible thanks to

item response theory (IRT) statistical procedures.

Three different IRT models may be used to calibrate test items and verify their

"behavior". The one-parameter IRT model (i.e., the Rasch Model) is designed to determine

the difficulty level of items while also analyzing the ability level of the individual students

who took the test. During the IRT analysis, a "goodness-of-fit" coefficient is generated for

each item and examinee. Using this information, it is possible to detect any items that are

not "behaving" as intended. By reviewing these fit statistics it is possible to pick out items

that seem to be interdependent, unduly biased, or, for some reason, not performing as was

expected. Once these problem items are identified, they should be discarded so as not to

interfere with proper and valid assessment of students' abilities. One-parameter analyses

can be run with a relatively

small sample of students, 100-200 (Henning, 1987).

A second IRT model that can be used is the two-parameter model. This model adds a

determinability parameter to the ability/difficulty parameter examined in the one-parameter

model. Simply stated, the discrimination index reveals whether a given item fails to

differentiate among abilities as well as other items do. While this is a useful statistic, it

comes with a price: many more examinees (200-400) are required to obtain sufficient data

for this analysis.

A third, even more complex, IRT model is the three-parameter model. This model adds

a guessing parameter to the analysis, which is designed to correct for indiscriminate

guessing. Again, this third parameter requires a much greater number of examinees

(1,000-2,000) before the analysis can be done (Henning, 1987).

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Since in most language testing situations it is not possible to get responses from

extremely large groups of examinees, the one-parameter (Rasch model) is generally the

model of choice. And, as Henning (1987) explains, "For one-parameter advocates, the fact

that the scale defined by the model does not admit the full range of items discriminabilities

or guessing behaviors does not outweigh the advantages of specific objectivity or reduced

sample size constraints (pp. 116-117).

Upon completion of the IRT (one-, two-, or three-parameter) analysis, a difficulty index

for each item is calculated. This index is the key for selecting items―items that have

already passed human and machine scrutiny―to be included in the final test item bank.

5) Select items for inclusion in the test

The number of items needed in the CALT test item bank will depend upon the purpose

for which the test is created. For example, a placement test should have a sufficient number

of items to cover the range of abilities a student should possess to function adequately in

the intended courses. The more courses covered, the more items required. A proficiency

test will require many more items, since it must include items from several different

language domains at several points along the difficulty scale. Additionally, a particularly

high concentration of items is needed at the division points of the proficiency scale. In all

cases, a CALT item bank will require several items at appropriate difficulty intervals to

allow for branching back to that level without presenting a duplicate item to the examinee

during the test.

6) Determine test delivery procedures

Decisions concerning how the adaptive test will proceed are crucial to its efficiency.

What is the exact purpose of the test? At what level of difficulty should the first question

be? On what basis should the computer branch from one item to another? How wide a

difficulty range should each branch be? When should the test finish? Each of these

questions must be answered before the actual computer algorithms can be written.

Branching procedures are generally decided based upon the intended use of the test.

Henning (1987) outlines four basic types of computer adaptive tests and their corresponding

branching schemes: (1) Decision Point Tests, (2) Step Ladder Tests, (3) Error-Controlled

Tests, and (4) Multi-Stage Tests. In describing how the first type of adaptive test (a

Decision Point Test) works, Henning states:

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Essentially what happens with this kind of test is that items in the bank are

limited to difficulty points where decisions of admission, exemption, etc. must be

made. If a certain cut-off point of ability has been predetermined for admission

to or exemption from a program of instruction, then the computer presents the

candidate only with items at the corresponding difficulty levels, rather than with

items at all points along the difficulty continuum. After success and failure

patterns for a given examinee are considered for a specified number of items at

a decision point, the decision algorithm programmed into the computer may

move the item selection and presentation process to another more appropriate,

decision point along the continuum. Eventually the cut-off decision is made by

the computer algorithm at some prespecified level of acceptable error. (pp.

137-138)

The second type of test, the Step Ladder Test, contains a number of test items at

specified proficiency or achievement levels.

This [type of test] presupposes that all items have been pre-analyzed, calibrated,

and arranged in rank order on a difficulty continuum. Imagine a computer

adaptive test with 500 items arranged so that ten items appear at each of 50

difficulty steps. The computer algorithm would select some entry level for a

given examinee. Based on the experience of success or failure with a given

item, a more appropriate item would be selected at a specified number of steps

above or below the first item. After a series of such items are presented in an

iterative fashion, it would be possible to "hone in" on the appropriate step

reflective of the ability of the examinee. The algorithm could limit the iteration

distance after an initial set of items were encountered. (Henning, 1987, p. 138)

Each of the items in this kind of test is flagged after it has been presented to a given

examinee so that it will not be presented a second time in case another item of its difficulty

should be needed during the test.

A third kind of computer adaptive language test is the Error-Controlled Test.

These tests differ from the preceding approaches in that, following exposure to

a specified set of introductory items, they employ a procedure such as

unconditional maximum likelihood estimation in order to estimate examinee

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ability on the ability continuum. They then access and present the item in the

bank that is nearest in difficulty to the estimated person ability―provided the

item was not previously encountered. After each new item is encountered, a

revised estimate of person ability is provided with an associated estimate of

measurement standard error. The process continues in an iterative manner until

the estimate of measurement error drops to a prespecified level of acceptability.

(Henning, 1987, p. 138)

The fourth kind of computer adaptive language tests is the Multi-Stage Test. This

type of test is particularly well-suited for testing reading or listening. During this testing

procedure, the examinee takes a "first-stage" test, or testlet, which determines which

"second-stage" testlet he or she will take. This branching from one testlet to another may

proceed through a number of levels or stages.

The first stage of [this] computer adaptive test presents a passage with a very

broad range of item difficulty. On the basis of performance on the first passage,

the program algorithm calls for branching to a second passage the items of

which may be at one of several narrower ranges of difficulty. In this way, very

accurate estimates of reading or listening comprehension can be made with as

few as three passages, depending on the numbers of items attached to each

passage and the statistical characteristics of each item. (Henning, 1987, p. 140)

Some testing specialists view this "testlet" approach as a possible answer to some of

the criticisms of validity directed at the more item-based formats common among computer

adaptive tests. (See Young, et al, 1996; Wainer and Kiely, 1987)

2. Unique Features and Benefits of CALT Tests

A number of features and benefits are uniquely associated with CALT tests. These

advantages are due to a combination of computer capabilities and adaptive testing processes.

1) Tailored testing

As discussed briefly above, CALT tests adapt to the level of ability of the individual

examinee during the course of the test, yielding a test specifically "tailored" for that

individual. Since each examinee's test is virtually unique to him or her, there is little threat

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of cheating, even when two students of similar ability are being tested next to each other.

2) Multiple equated test forms

Associated with the uniqueness of each CALT test is the possibility of having many

equated test forms for each level being tested, which eliminates worries of using a particular

test too often, resulting in test compromise. This is often a concern with many traditional

paper-and-pencil tests, since they generally are available in only one or two alternative

forms.

3) "Common-metric" measurement

Because the items of a computer adaptive test are all calibrated to the same ability/difficulty

continuum, the test can be used across language programs. The test is not population-

dependent, as is the case with conventional paper-pencil tests. This feature allows test

administrators or teachers to test students in other classes or at other institutions and be

able to compare their performance, since they are all judged against the same, identical

standard.

4) Shared item banks

Having all items calibrated on the same difficulty scale allows sharing of items across

institutions. For example, if School X wishes to have items in addition to those currently in

a test, it is possible to write more items, administer them, and calibrate them on the same

scale as the original items, using "common, linking items" with both sets of items.

5) Increased test accuracy

Since computer adaptive tests administer significantly more items near the examinee's

actual ability level, the results are a more accurate indication of how a student is able to

perform in the language.

6) Self-paced tests

CALT tests can be programmed to allow students to take the test at their own pace.

Without the pressure to finish under a time deadline and administering items mostly around

the examinee's ability level makes for an ideal "power test".

7) Greater test efficiency

Since CALT tests quickly adapt to an examinee's ability, far fewer items are required

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to assess his or her performance level. This reduction in items encountered results in a

dramatic reduction in time for testing as well. It is common to find testing time required

for assessment cut from an hour and a half or so down to twenty-five or thirty minutes.

8) Improved examinee attitude

As one would imagine, being required to take a shorter test―in terms of both number

of items and time―results in a much better feeling about the testing situation itself. In

addition to the fact that testing time is greatly reduced, students are not forced to take

several items that are far too difficult for them, items, incidentally, that are out of their

ability range and yield no useful assessment information. Not having to face these items

eliminates a great deal of "testing frustration." Nor do the students have to take a number

of items that are far too easy for them, causing "testing boredom". All these advantages

result in significantly improved testing attitude.

3. Concerns and Limitations with CALT Tests

Although there are a number of significant advantages and benefits associated with

computer adaptive language testing, there are also some concerns.

1) Unidimensionality

Language learning is a multi-faceted affair. Few would argue that using another

language―or one's own, for that matter―is a simple matter. The various domains of

language use make ability assessment a complex task. Because of the multiple dimensions

of language, there is a great deal of debate regarding the appropriateness of using IRT

assessment, such as is used in computer adaptive testing, because of its assumption of

unidimensionality. Respected testing specialists like Bachman (1990), for example, argue that

it is inappropriate, while others claim there is justification (see Henning, 1984). This issue

will undoubtedly be discussed and debated for some time to come within language-testing

circles.

2) Exclusive use of objectively-scored items

Because artificial intelligence and answer-judging capabilities of the computer are not

sufficiently developed to allow the computer to effectively evaluate free responses, CALT

tests are limited to using only objectively-scored (e.g., dichotomous, right or wrong) items.

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While this is a legitimate limitation, "it must be recognized ... that objective, recognition

formats are still highly reliable and valid for many purposes" (Henning, 1987, p. 137).

3) Increased test anxiety

One of the concerns of computerized testing is the effect having to take a test on a

computer will have on the outcome of an examinee's test. Some testing specialists have

expressed that many students are already highly stressed when facing a testing situation

and that having to take a test using all new or unfamiliar medium will only increase that

anxiety, thus affecting the validity of that student's performance. While this may have been

a significant deterrent a few years ago, it is now rare to find a student who is not familiar

with computer technology. In a study conducted by the author, looking at the issue of

computer test anxiety, it was found that taking a test on the computer does not appear to

have a significant negative effect on examinee performance (see Larson, 1989).

Ⅴ. Conclusion

Although a great deal of research and development remains to be done in the area of

language testing, it is obvious that there are many advantages to using the computer to

assist in this endeavor. Using the unique capabilities of this medium we are now able to

produce testing programs that enable us to reduce greatly the time and frustrations

associated with language testing, while at the same time improving testing accuracy.

Among the most promising applications of computer-assisted testing is computer adaptive

language testing. CALT tests are now being used in over 150 academic institutions.

Comments from their users have been overwhelmingly positive. As further advances in

computer technology and applications emerge, present concerns regarding item format, test

presentation, and other limitations of computer adaptive language testing will surely

diminish.

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Selected Sources for Information on CAT and CALT

Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Canale, M. (1984). Considerations in the testing of reading and listening proficiency.

Foreign Language Annals, 17 (4), 349-357.

Cohen, A. (1984). Fourth ACROLT meeting on language testing. TESOL Newsletter 18 (2),

23.

Dandonoli, P. (1989). The ACTFL computerized adaptive test of foreign language reading

proficiency. In W. F. Smith (Ed), Modern technology in foreign language

education: Applications and projects (pp. 291-300). Skokie, IL: National Textbook

Company.

Dunkel, P. (1991). Computer-assisted language learning and testing: Research issues and

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Green, B. (1983a). Adaptive testing by computer. In R. Ekstrom, (Ed.), Measurement,

technology, and individuality in education. (pp. 5-12). New Directions for Testing

and Measurement, No. 17. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Green, B. (1983b). The promise of tailored tests. In H. Wainer & S. A. Messick, (Eds.),

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Academic Publishers.

Henning, G. T. (1984). Advantages in latent trait measurement in language testing.

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Henning, G. T. (1987). A guide to language testing: Development, evaluation, research.

Cambridge, MA: Newbury House Publishers.

Henning, G. T. (1991). In P. Dunkel (Ed.), Computer-assisted language learning and testing.

Research issues and practice. (pp. 209-222). New York: Newbury House.

Kaya-Carton, E., Carton, A, & Dandonoli, P. (1991). In P. Dunkel (Ed.), Computer-assisted

language learning and testing: Research issues and practice. (pp. 259-284). New

York: Newbury House.

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Larson, J. W., & Madsen, H. S. (1985). Computerized adaptive language testing: Moving

beyond computer assisted testing. CALICO Journal 2.3, 32-36.

Larson, J. W. (1989). S-CAPE; A Spanish Computerized adaptive placement exam. In W.

F. Smith (Ed.), Modern technology in foreign language education: Applications and

projects (pp. 277-289). Skokie, IL: National Textbook Company.

Larson, J. W. (1987). Computerized adaptive language testing: A Spanish placement exam.

In K. M. Bailey, T. L. Dale, & R. T. Clifford (Eds.), Language testing research (pp.

1-10), Monterey, CA: Defense Language Institute.

Larson, J. & Madsen, H. (1985). Computerized adaptive language testing: Moving beyond

computer-assisted testing. CALICO Journal 2 (3), 32-36.

Madsen, H. & Larson, J. (1986). Employing computerized adaptive language testing

techniques. In R. A. Russell, (Ed.), Selected papers from the proceedings. (pp. 117-

128) Eleventh Annual Symposium of the Deseret Language and Linguistic Society.

Millman, J. (1984). Using microcomputers to administer tests: An alternative point of view.

Educational Measurement: Issues and Practices (Summer), 20-21.

Noijons, J. (1994). Testing computer assisted language testing: Towards a checklist for

CALT. CALICO Journal 12 (1), 37-58.

Takalo, R. (1985). Language test generator. CALICO Journal 2 (4), 45-48.

Urry, V. W. (1977). Tailored testing: A successful application of latent trait theory. Journal

of Educational Measurement 14, 181-196.

Wainer, H. & Kiely, G. L. (1987). Item clusters and computer adaptive testing: A case for

testlets. Journal of Educational Measurement 24, 185-201.

Weiss, D. J. & Betz, N. E. (1973). Ability measurement. Conventional or adaptive. Research

Report 73-1. Psychometric Methods Program. Department of Psychology,

University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota.

Weiss, D. J. (Ed.). (1977). Proceedings of the 1977 computerized adaptive testing

conference. Minneapolis, Minnesota, Department of Psychology.

Wyatt, D. H. (1984). Computer-assisted teaching and testing of reading and listening.

Foreign Language Annals 17 (4), 393-407.

Young, R., Shermis, M, Brutten, S, & Perkins, K. (1996). From conventional to

computer-adaptive testing of ESL reading comprehension. System 24 (1), 23-40.

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Selected Sources of Information Concerning IRT/Latent Trait Analysis

Andrich, D. (1988). Rasch models for measurement. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications,

Inc.

Hambleton, R. K, & Cook, L. L. (1977). Latent trait models and their use in the analysis

of educational test data. Journal of Educational Measurement 38, 75-96.

Hambleton, R. K., Swaminathan, H. & Rogers, H. J. (1991). Fundamentals of item response

theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Henning, G. (1984). Advantages of latent trait measurement in language testing. Language

Testing 1 (2), 123-133.

Henning, G., Hudson, T. & Turner, J. (1985). Item response theory and assumption of

unidimensionality for language tests. Language Testing 2 (2), 141-154.

Lord, F. M. (1980). Applications of item response theory to practical testing problems.

Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum

Wainer, H. (1983). On item response theory and computerized adaptive tests. The Journal

of College Admissions 28 (4), 9-16.

Woods, A., & Baker, R. (1985). Item response theory. Language Testing 2 (2), 119-140.

Wright, B. D., & Stone, M. H. (1979). Best test design. Chicago: Mesa Press.

Wright, B. D., & Mead, R. J. (1976). BICAL: Calibrating items with the Rasch model.

Research Memorandum No. 23, Statistical Laboratory, Department of Education,

University of Chicago.

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On Multimedia in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

Chunghyun Lee

(Hanyang University)

Lee, Chunghyun. (1998). On Multimedia in Foreign Language Teaching and

Learning. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 1(1), 25～50.

The use of multimedia, particularly CD-ROM multimedia, appears to be

available now, to some extent in foreign language teaching and learning (FLT/L)

in higher education, and even at school level in Korea, due to continuing

development in technology based on computers and microelectrics, and rapid

expansion in its use in today's society. The majority of Korean teachers and

students seem to have positive views on the potential and value of multimedia

in FLT/L. They sometimes seem to regard multimedia as 'omnipotent', because

of its distinctive attribute, i.e., a combination of various technologies. Like other

media technologies, however, the most important consideration in using

multimedia in FLT/L does not lie with the technology itself, but in the questions

of what multimedia can contribute to FLT/L, what it can actually do, and how

it can be used effectively in FLT/L. This paper describes each of these in turn,

including the definition of multimedia. The paper also presents briefly a

comparison of multimedia (interactive videodisc and CD-ROM multimedia) with

other media technologies such as audio, video, computers, etc. in terms of the

technical and pedagogical aspects.

Ⅰ. Introduction

There has been an increasing awareness of the limitations of using media technology1,

e.g., videos or computers, alone, and a considerable interest in multimedia in which

1) Media technology can be defined as modern teaching and learning machines (e.g., audio, TV, video, computers,

multimedia, etc.) for supporting teaching and learning in education, by delivering or transmitting media (e.g.,

sound, vision, text, etc.).

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various media are integrated into the computer to support and extend its instructional

capability in FLT/L. It is often claimed that the limitations will be solved, when

multimedia is available in the language classroom. Teachers believe that it will provide

something of real value for learners, such as allowing them to move beyond drills and

pattern-practice, and passive learning to include as much interaction (both

learner-machine and inter-learners) as possible, and increasing the availability of

specialized materials to attain learner-centered learning (Zettersten, 1986).

Now that vision is to some extent becoming a reality. An integrated technology to

interface a computer with audio and video cassette recorders, and particularly with

CD-ROM (Compact Disc-Read Only Memory) or laser videodisc exists and is available in

the language classroom. In addition, all the information from multimedia applications can be

sent all over the world and into the language classroom via satellite or telephone lines or

networks. However, multimedia courseware is still in its infancy. What is the state-of-art

of multimedia technology? What can multimedia contribute to FLT/L? How can it be used

effectively in FLT/L? Will it totally change the ways in which learners think, work and

learn? Will it help learners attain interactive learning in FLT/L? These questions should be

considered first in order to use it efficiently and effectively.

This paper covers the definition, the potential and limitations, and roles of multimedia,

CD-ROM multimedia (the combination of the computer and CD-ROM technology with a

sound card and other peripherals) and interactive video(disc) (IV), and finally contains

briefly a comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of multimedia (CD-ROM

multimedia and IV) with those of other media technologies such as audio, TV, video, and

computers, in terms of the technical and pedagogical aspects.

Ⅱ. What is multimedia?

1. Definition of multimedia and hypermedia

There is still some confusion about the meaning of 'multimedia', which is sometimes

used synonymously with 'hypermedia' or even 'interactive video'. The distinctions are not

always clear even to many practitioners, and the terms are sometimes used interchangeably

(Paine and McAra, 1993; Romiszowski, 1993). Before defining the term, multimedia, it is

useful to recognize differences among 'hypertext', 'multimedia' and 'hypermedia'.

On Multimedia in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

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1) Hypertext

The word 'hypertext' stems from an article "As We May Think" written by Vannever

Bush in 1945, who promoted the concept of storing textual information as a network of

documents linked together by meaningful 'pointers' (Barker & Tucker, 1990, Romiszowski,

1993), and the term was coined by Ted Nelson in 1965 to express the idea of packaging

knowledge and information in non-linear ways that can be explored by self-determined

linkages (Barker & Tucker, 1990; Megarry, 1989; Paine & McAra, 1993). Hypertext

generally refers to a dynamic and non-linear system for presenting 'active' text, which

includes text, graphics, audio and video (Megarry, 1989; Preece, 1993). Its key feature may

be summarized by two terms, 'nodes' and 'links', i.e., the text has many nodes and links

which allow learners to determine their own routes through materials (Preece, 1993;

Romiszowski, 1993). In other words, hypertext is high-level software through which

learners search for information and explore knowledge in non-linear and interactive ways in

real time (Megarry, 1989). It allows them to select a word or a segment of text just by

clicking on it with the mouse or touching it on the screen, to link to other data, or some

other related text or pictures or sound or moving video, without losing their original context.

They can also create new pathways for themselves and others to follow, forging new links,

recording comments and suggesting extensions (Megarry, 1989; Underwood, 1989).

A hypertext-based authoring system is one which allows users to link information

together, create paths through a corpus of related material, annotate existing texts and

create notes, using a couple of tools - 'buttons', 'fields' and 'graphical objects' (Hall,

Thorogood, Hutchings & Carr, 1989; Paine & McAra, 1993). There are a number of

well-known hypertext products which approach this ideal, e.g., 'Guide' (OWL International,

1992) and 'HyperCard' (Apple, 1987), which can cope with very long documents as well as

combinations of media (Megarry, 1989; Underwood, 1989).

2) Multimedia

The term, 'multimedia' was widely defined as 'an integrated collection of different

media' in the 1980s (Barker & Tucker, 1990; Preece, 1993; Romiszowski, 1988). Now, it is

necessary to re-define the term due to the arrival of new technologies. It broadly refers to

the application of technology in which various media are used together, e.g., computer plus

audio (or sound card), computer plus CD-ROM, computer plus video (either videotape or

videodisc), etc. (Fox, Matthews, Matthews & Rope, 1990). Looms (1993) described it as

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"any screen based system where information in the form of text, figures, pictures, sounds

or moving pictures is available to the user". Copeland (1991) stated that the new concept

of multimedia can perhaps be more accurately described as a 'multi-message system', i.e.,

a multimedia system incorporates many of the message systems that were previously

facilitated by using a range of different media and it does this via a video display with

audio. Barker and Tucker (1990) give a short and clear definition of multimedia as "a

collation of disparate media emanating from a single presentation device, typically a

computer".

Here, using these definitions, multimedia is defined as "a collation of different media

emanating from a single computer system or a network, which can deliver text, graphics,

images, audio and moving pictures on the screen, e.g., IV and CD-ROM multimedia".

3) Hypermedia

The term 'hypermedia' is often used to describe a hypertext system or a hypertext

application to integrate other media, such as still images, animation, sound and video (Hall

et al. 1989; Paine & McAra, 1993). It can be easily defined by identifying the differences

between multimedia and hypermedia. Romiszowski (1993: 58-59) argues that it is important

to distinguish between the concept of multimedia and that of hypermedia as follows:

The use of a variety of media to improve communication of a particular topic is one

issue. The storage of information (in whatever medium) in a network so that it can

be more easily cross-referenced to other relevant information is another.

The branching structure of hypertext is used with multimedia in order to produce a

system in which learners can choose and navigate their own paths through it, and in

hypermedia, multimedia presentations can be combined, edited and orchestrated quickly and

intuitively (Preece, 1993; Megarry, 1988, 1989).

Therefore, hypermedia can be defined as a combination of hypertext and a variety of

multimedia, in which the common components are video, still images (either pictures or

graphics), text, and audio (Preece, 1993; Sanne, 1993). Fig. 1 clearly shows the relationship

between hypertext, and multimedia and hypermedia. However, 'multimedia' (particularly

CD-ROM multimedia) is now often used synonymously with the concept of 'hypermedia',

since a hypertext system is used in all its materials .

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Fig. 1. The relationship between hypertext, multimedia and hypermedia

2. The potential of multimedia

There is a widespread belief that multimedia has considerable potential to contribute to

language teaching and learning, because of its ability to overcome the limitations of the

computer or video. Video is a good presentational medium, but it is claimed that there is

always a danger of 'passive' learning. Computers have tended to emphasize and refine the

didactic element, rather than allow interactive learning, i.e., learner-centered learning

through interaction between the machine and the learner, and inter-learners (Laurillard,

1987, 1995). However, multimedia can present all types of media with good quality, e.g.,

text, images, graphics, audio and video, and make language learning more interactive.

These can result in increased interest, enhanced individualization, higher retention of

material, and improved success rates in FLT/L (Perzylo, 1993). Therefore, the application

of multimedia in FLT/L can offer considerable enrichment of the learning environment over

that of conventional media or computers or video.

Here, this section deals with the main potential of multimedia, i.e., CD-ROM multimedia

and IV. [Some of their own potential and limitations will be described in the CD-ROM

multimedia and IV sections respectively.]

1) The integration of media

Multimedia can combine all the processing power and control capabilities of the

computer with the presentational capacities of audio-visual media (Latchem, 1993; Rülmann,

Multimedia(a collation of diffe- rent media emanating from a computer system)

Hypermedia

Hypertext

Video

Audio Text

Graphics

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1995). This provides learners with much opportunity for keeping up with the 'real-life'

examples of language use and culture in real time, while in the classroom. Davey, Jones,

and Fox (1995) claimed that the use of multimedia can transform the learning experience

through exposure to comprehensible language, and enhance the motivation of the learners in

the language classroom. For example, the main ideas may be linked by theme, e.g., the

Vikings, with pictures, video clips, ancient ballads or songs, etc. (Davey et al. 1995). Recent

CALL tends to use multimedia due to these favourable types of learning environments that

can be provided in FLT/L (Barker & Yeates, 1985).

2) Large storage capacity

Multimedia can store huge amounts of information in digital form. A CD-ROM can

store over 650 Megabytes, e.g., 250,000 pages of text or roughly 15,000 images or one hour

of sound or 30 minutes of moving pictures or any combination of text, graphics, animation

and sound (Bunzel & Morris, 1992; Latchem, Williamson & Henderson-Lancett, 1993;

Romiszowski, 1993). Each side of a videodisc can hold up to 50 minutes of moving pictures

or about 130,000 still frames. With a mixture of moving pictures and still frames, there is

still enough room for stereo sound or hundreds of megabytes of computer data, e.g., one

typical disk can hold the whole of the Encyclopaedia Britannica on one side (Chambers,

1987; Coleman, 1987; Picciotto, 1991). Thus, it offers a wider variety of forms of

information than any other traditional media. There may be some difficulties for teachers

in providing learners with a variety of resources and situations in the conventional language

classroom, since they are usually the only source of the target language. The use of

multimedia (with hypertext) can allow them to create realistic situations and manage the

classroom more easily, since it not only offers a variety of resources, but makes the

connections between the various resources (Atkinson, 1992).

3) Random access and rapid retrieval of information

Multimedia allows random access and rapid retrieval of information, and is easy to use.

The searching routines in multimedia usually enable users to find information easily and

quickly in a straightforward manner, i.e., clicking or typing words, titles, etc. (Baumbach,

1990). For example, Oliver and Perzylo (1992) in their research using the Mammals

Multimedia Encyclopaedia (1990) reported that students found the program very easy to

use. Therefore, learners can save time, so that they can concentrate on the subject they are

On Multimedia in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

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studying (Baumbach, 1990; Fox, Labbett, Matthews, Romano-Hvid & Schostak, 1992).

These features enable learners to develop their information searching and

problem-solving skills. The learners have to search for what they want and need from vast

amounts of multimedia information. Information searching skills and strategies are required

to use materials effectively (Baumbach, 1990; Perzylo, 1993). Multimedia can offer

opportunities to simulate a non-formal learning situation for the learners, where they

navigate their own route through the subject matter in a way that is largely self-directed

and is personally meaningful (Laurillard, 1987). The hypertext capability of programs allows

them to search for the relevant information through browsing and clicking or typing words

and titles at each phase. Some skills, e.g., following directions, identifying problems and

solutions, classifying information, editing, refining, and modifying can lead to successful

searches and improve problem-solving skills (Baumbach, 1990). However, these skills will

not be easy for the learners to acquire and teachers will need to teach them the skills.

4) Interactive learning

The term 'interactive' can generally be used with two different meanings in terms of

technology-based learning. On the one hand, it refers to the interactions between media or

devices as described in 'The integration of media' above, e.g., the machine which delivers

sound or images and the computer which controls that machine and delivers textual

materials on its screen, to accompany or alternate with the audio or video presentation

(Garrett, 1991). Thus, multimedia can provide a highly interactive capability together with

the capacity of presenting audio-visual materials, since the interactive capability of the

computer can be applied to all types of media (Bunzel & Morris, 1992). On the other hand,

it refers to the degree of interactiveness between learner(s) and the computer system,

learner(s) and learner(s), and learner(s) and the teacher (Barker & Tucker, 1990; Garrett,

1991; Romiszowski, 1993). Thus, interactive learning is a process rather than a technology,

implying the creation of an information-rich learning environment involving interactions

between learners and IV or CD-ROM multimedia, and between learners through those

(Barker & Tucker, 1990).

Multimedia can encourage much more interaction between the learner and the machine,

and between learners, than the computer alone, due to its distinctive features mentioned

above (Gardner & McNally, 1995). In an exploratory study on the use of a multimedia

encyclopaedia on CD-ROM, Marchionini (1989) reported that students' strategies were

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heuristic in that they were highly interactive rather than planned. In addition, digital video

and voice recognition systems can play an important role particularly for students' oral input

in language learning, and make human-machine interaction possible to a certain extent

(Rülmann, 1995). These levels of interactivity will be described again in section IV-1, 'The

potential of IV'.

5) Individualization

Multimedia also offers learners much more individualization than the computer alone

can do. A variety of materials created by multimedia can be engaged to cater for different

types of learners, i.e., learning can be self-paced and they can obtain mastery at each stage

with a rich learning environment. According to Perzylo (1993: 193):

There is a non-threatening entry into subject areas for those who lack background

or confidence. It makes no personal discrimination among learners. Increased

control and independence is exercised over the learning process. Individual

monitoring, assessment and feedback is readily available.

This level of individualization can be achieved in combination with rich linguistic infor-

mation and data, i.e., sound, text, graphics and moving pictures, etc. (Davey et al. 1995). More

details of individualization will be discussed again in section IV-1, 'The potential of IV'.

6) Increased retention

Multimedia enables learners actively to engage more of their senses in the learning

process (Perzylo, 1993). Rülmann (1995) stated that a combination of various materials

assures a maximal learning outcome. Adams (1987) and Corston (1993) claim that people

remember 10 % of what they read, (text); 20 % of what they see, (still and moving images);

30 % of what they see and hear, (text, audio, and still and moving images); 70 % of what

they see, hear and do (text, audio, still and moving images, and interaction) (in Rülmann,

1995). This is a widely held view. Although Amthor (1991, 1992) represented the ratio of

retention differently from Adams' and Corston's, he also stated that interactive learning

resources, i.e., multimedia, provide the best chance for superior retention (in Perzylo, 1993).

The point to be made is that multimedia can be a part of that experience.

On Multimedia in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

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7) Motivation

Learners can enjoy working with multimedia materials due to the capabilities mentioned

so far. For example, the Dept. of Education at the University of Central Florida distributed

its first survey on the response to the CD-ROM New Grolier Electronic Encyclopaedia.

The survey reported that students love working with the CD-ROM based references, and

that they responded to it using adjectives, such as 'exciting', 'fascinating' and 'stimulating'

(Baumbach, 1990). CARE2 reported that teachers and students seemed to regard IV as a

powerful learning resource as follows: The teachers mentioned that the benefit of IV is its

capacity to motivate students, i.e., the students were eager to use the machine - they

continued to come back asking for more; They enjoyed using IV, e.g., the students said, "IV

is better than how it looks in books.", "It made it easier.", and "It makes it more interesting."

(Norris, Davies & Beattie, 1990).

3. The limitations of multimedia

There are some limitations to the use of multimedia in the language classroom, although

it is more powerful than any other media technologies in terms of hardware and software.

[Some of the limitations will also be discussed in 'The use of CD-ROM (multimedia)' and

'The use of interactive video' sections respectively.]

First of all, the rich and attractive materials of IV or CD-ROM multimedia, such as

sound, animation, moving pictures, etc. can distract students' attention and disturb the

learning process, beyond the proper role of the technology, which is to support and enhance

the learning process. It is very easy for the students to be fascinated by the powerful

technology and to forget what they are doing and how to learn better and acquire foreign

language skills. In addition, multimedia programs generally provide learners with a vast

amount of help options and feedback. However, some of them simply make it easier to solve

a task, and may not necessarily be helpful for active and interactive learning, and

individualization, so it is important to think carefully about what kind of help and

information can be accessed through them. This requires consideration of the importance of

cognitive processes and strategies in language learning (Rüchoff, 1993).

Indeed, both teachers and students need to pay attention to the danger of systems that

2) Interactive Video in Schools (IVIS) was evaluated by a team from the Centre for Applied Research in

Education (CARE) (Norris et al. 1990).

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seem to have everything available at the learners' disposal at the click of a button or by

touching the screen (Garrett, 1992 in Rüchoff, 1993).

4. The role of multimedia, teachers, and students

The real potential of multimedia lies not so much in the technology, but in the

courseware that enables learners to access a variety of materials, to navigate the

information, and to build, test and apply knowledge in meaningful ways (Latchem et al.

1993). The use of computer-based technology requires teachers and students to change

their roles to some extent, in comparison with the normal classroom. In short, computers

can play an important role as a medium or environment and a partner. For instance, they

can carry out routine work which is necessary for effective teaching as well as creative

work, such as drills and pattern-practice. The teachers will have to concentrate on

imaginative and creative aspects of teaching and learning which computers cannot offer, and

change their roles as instructor, controller, or monitor within a classroom context. On the

other hand, the computer has increased students' responsibilities for their learning, since

they must be continuously active and involved, changing their roles as responder or initiator

according to CALL materials (e.g., instructional CALL programs that the students have to

answer all the questions and collaborative CALL programs that they have to initiate and

finish activities themselves). The use of multimedia may mean more changes to

methodology in teaching and to learning style in learning and to the roles of teachers and

students than that of other media technologies.

Multimedia can play an important role in any skill-based or process-oriented curriculum

application (Wright and Dillon, 1990). For example, Wright and Dillon (1990) focus on five

types of use of IV: 1) as a presentation system - The application here is for conventional

lecturing or a group teaching; 2) for independent student learning - IV can be used by

students, either individually or in a small group, without the teacher; 3) as a resource for

students in the classroom - It is the use of IV as a resource of enhancing teaching and

learning activities; 4) as an information source - It is the use of IV as a source of

information that is of interest, or for reference; 5) as a surrogate tutor - IV can supplement

and reinforce teachers' teaching in both main subject and professional studies, but not

replace them. Thus, multimedia can be incorporated in the courseware appropriately to

enhance the learning outcome (Rülmann, 1995). The application of multimedia can also be

designed flexibly for either classroom or self-access use (Perzylo, 1993).

On Multimedia in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

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However, its more substantial roles seem to be in the categories as reference and

information resources which take advantage of the book-like but superior visual attributes

of the medium (Goforth, 1992). Kornum (1993) stated that it is the teachers job to elaborate

a didactic design to the various materials produced. The role of the teacher is to change

from that of the authority to that of the consultant and facilitator in order that students can

be involved more actively in the learning process (For reference, see Fig. 2 in section IV-1,

'The potential of IV'.). On the other hand, the use of multimedia seems significantly shift

responsibility to students in the learning process. They will have more responsibility for

learning in the multimedia classroom than in the conventional classroom.

Ⅲ. The use of CD-ROM multimedia

CD-ROM technology may be one of the greatest inventions of an alternative publishing

medium since papyrus, since it can store vast quantities of data in digital form. It has

developed rapidly during the past couple of years in industry and in education in general.

Many writers such as Barker and Tucker (1990), Fox et al. (1992), Megarry (1988), etc. claimed

that CD-ROM technology will be a perfect tool or partner in language learning, offering

massive, robust and flexible storage, and the clear presentation of audiovisual materials.

1. The potential of CD-ROM multimedia

CD-ROM multimedia which is the combination of the computer and CD-ROM

technology with a sound card provides users with an all digital and interactive learning

medium. It is a complex mix of audiovisual technologies which presents a variety of

materials in much more flexible and dynamic ways (Barker & Tucker 1990). It offers

learners random access to vast amounts of information and data, which is easily and quickly

retrievable in a variety of ways, and allows higher levels of interactivity, individualization,

etc. as described in 'The potential of multimedia'.

In particular, first of all, it is worth noticing that CD-ROM technology is moving ahead

of IV, in terms of hardware and software developments. A great number of CD-ROM titles

are being produced, which contain whole dictionaries, encyclopaedias, novels, newspaper

issues, language learning packages, etc., and now teachers and learners can easily get them

at a reasonable price. The use of a large collection of data in a variety of the titles which

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can be a powerful tool in FLT/L and can enhance work in all the foreign language skills

probably generates more use of the language than any other application.

Secondly, a single or a couple of work stations may be inadequate to meet students'

increased demand for the use of CD-ROM multimedia in the language classroom. However,

it can be networked and thus function as a database of resources which several students

can access at the same time (Fox et al. 1992). The use of the materials in these

surroundings can enable the individual student or a small or large group of students or a

whole class at different stages to progress at his/her/their levels.

Thus, the application of CD-ROM multimedia to FLT/L can offer a variety of learning

resources which the computer or video cannot do, providing differentiation in both task and

outcome, and they, therefore, can profitably be used for improving the language skills

(Atkinson, 1992). Indeed, the use of CD-ROM multimedia can help teachers and learners to

simplify or diversify the content and presentation of work, and then to raise the quality of

work in the language classroom.

2. The limitations of CD-ROM multimedia

Even though CD-ROM multimedia is a new technology, it has some limitations.

Firstly, it is still very expensive for schools to set up CD-ROM multimedia systems.

CD-ROM titles may not be very high in price in terms of the capability and the quality they

contain (users have a portable 650Mb hard disc). For example, the price of a CD-ROM title

ranges from about 10,000 to 3,000,000 won according to its content (In fact, to produce a

blank CD-ROM costs as little as 1,500 won). However, users basically need a computer,

monitor, and CD-ROM player, and will need a more powerful computer (e.g., at least a

486DX computer with over 8Mb memory), colour monitor, and sound card in order to

achieve the results they expect. Even though prices are falling, the price of MPC

(Multimedia Personal Computer) with the ability to process real-time video (about 1,500,000

won) now costs twice as much as that of non-MPC. Moreover, a couple of work-stations

with a CD-ROM player are inadequate in the language learning classroom. And if

CD-ROMs are not connected to the network, only a student or a couple of students in pair

or group work can access and use a CD-ROM at a time. More workstations or with

CD-ROM players connected to the network will be required in order to allow students

adequate access and simultaneous availability. This may be one of the hardest problems to

work out in schools, since it is directly related to costs. In addition, it is reported that in

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practice, networked CD-ROM multimedia does not always work satisfactorily.

Secondly, the limitations of CD-ROM multimedia include slow data retrieval time when

compared with a hard disc, particularly calling images and motion video (Latchem et al.

1993). Now some hardware manufacturers are producing 24 and 32 speed CD-ROM players,

but they are still unsatisfactory.

Thirdly, most of the current CD-ROMs can deliver small-size motion video on the

monitor within several minutes, and are not able to deliver full-screen video due to its

innately slow access time and the enormous amounts of storage space that are required.

For reference, the new generation of optical disc storage technology, Digital Video Disc

(DVD) is now available. A DVD-ROM can store 8.5GB of audio, video, and computer data

per side with a maximum storage, and deliver full-screen video over 2 hours. It is

encroaching on the market for the videotapes and even CD-ROMs.

Fourthly, CD-ROM technology adopts an international standard, so called ISO 9660, but

there are still problems (Barker & Tucker, 1990). CD-ROMs for IBM compatible machines

are not readable on Apple compatible computers, and vice versa. CD-ROM manufacturers

have to decide whether to produce for IBM or Apple, or to supply two versions of the same

title separately for both machines. It is also incompatible with CD-I (Compact

Disc-Interactive).

Finally, as its name suggests, users can only read the data on CD-ROM. They cannot

change and remove any data stored on a CD-ROM. But the users can copy and paste them

from a disc into their own document on a hard or a floppy disc, and revise them (Fox et

al. 1992). There is WORM (Write once, read many times) technology that allows users to

record data on a blank disc, i.e., a WORM disk or a Compact Disk-Recordable (CD-R) disk,

but only one time. Due to a tecnological development in compact discs, other types of optical

disc technology, Compact disc-erasable (CD-E) and Compact disc-rewrite (CD-RW) are

now available, which allow writing, erasing and rewriting, as is possible with a floppy disk

(Nader, 1992; Microsoft Press, 1997). However, they are still expensive.

Ⅳ. The use of interactive video

Interactive video (IV) is the end-result of attempting to combine the presentational

powers of video with the control logic and the processing power of computers (Picciotto,

1991). Therefore, some writers claimed that IV may be potentially the most attractive

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technical development in education this century, since it is far superior in a number of ways

to any other technologies which exist as it integrates all the advantages of two media

technologies, computer and video (Hill, 1987). It generally refers to an audiovisual

communication system which is a combination of the computer and video, i.e., the system

which combines a video source with a program run from a computer, whether using

videotape or videodisc (Videotape is much slower and less durable than videodisc, though it

can use existing video materials.) (Hill, 1987; Picciotto, 1991).

IV is not a new technology and has been known for a long time, almost 15 years, but

its hardware and software developments have been slow. It even seems to be falling behind

the latest technologies, e.g., CD-ROM multimedia and CD-I. While the use of IV is still

largely experimental in FLT/L, some research studies provide some basic premises and

principles about the development and delivery of IV products in all the applications, and

have evaluated their educational potential (Latchem et al. 1993). What is the state-of-art

of IV technology? How can teachers and students use it in FLT/L effectively? This

section will briefly discuss the potential and limitations of IV, particularly interactive

videodisc, in the light of these questions.

1. The potential of IV

The basic idea of using IV is to expose learners to an authentic learning environment

allowing interaction of the machine with the learners. This is also possible in CALL, but

it is particularly significant that IV provides much more richness of audiovisual materials,

e.g., authentic samples of language and culture (Norris et al. 1990; Picciotto, 1990). The

computer, video and textual elements of IV have their own technological characteristics,

symbol systems and cognitive processing capabilities. Together, they provide a powerful

learning tool and enable learners to learn, i.e., to construct knowledge by connecting their

mental representations to the real world, but in the language classroom and integrating

mediated information with information already stored in the memory (Allan, 1991; Latchem

et al. 1993).

IV offers larger storage capacity, more varied forms of audiovisual materials, greater

and more varied speed with random access, greater durability, less maintenance, and greater

ease to use than any other media (Gardner & McNally, 1995; Latchem et al. 1993). IV can

present video materials very quickly, precisely and flexibly under computer control - taking

no more than a few seconds to select any video sequence and frame (Picciotto, 1991).

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Furthermore, any one of the moving video pictures (in fact, a series of still frames) can be

'frozen' on the screen for any amount of time (Hill, 1987). The picture is stable and there

is no danger of damaging the disk. The frames can also be played at different speeds, so

that action can be examined in varying degrees of slow motion, or a kind of 'skim viewing'

can be done at high speed and in either direction (Allan, 1991). Evaluation of these IV

features has shown them to be a powerful and motivating factor for learners in the language

classroom (Picciotto, 1991). With these basic characteristics, the limitations of computers,

e.g., the somewhat sterile feeling of programmed learning and not presenting verbal and

visual information well, and those of video, e.g., lack of interactivity and the danger of

passive viewing, are being overcome as IV allows learners to talk, listen and view, and be

more interactive (Hall et al. 1989; Wright & Dillon, 1990). In short, IV can provide learners

with more active, individualized, and interactive learning than other media technologies.

Firstly, the real potential of IV is that it allows learners to have a lot of control over

the materials. Milheim (1990) stated that learner control is generally described as the ability

to choose the pacing, sequence or content during an instructional lesson. IV is characterized

by fine and relatively instant control over stopping, scanning, and replaying with different

speeds (Gardner & McNally, 1995). The learners can scan from one end of the disk to the

other very quickly with precision within a few seconds (Coleman, 1987; Sanne, 1993).

According to Laurillard (1987: 135), for example, one of the IV systems produced at the

Massachusetts Institute Technology (MIT) allows the learner to change the form of video:

As a video sequence is playing, a student could choose, for example (a) to go to a

section with a more detailed description, (b) go to a close-up of part of the picture,

(c) slow the action, (d) scan through the video at a faster rate, etc.

With this degree of control, learners can easily access and interact with a variety of

information at their disposal within the materials in real time, such as text, images, audio

and moving pictures (Sanne, 1993). There may be no risk that the learners will revert to

a passive learning style, and it is a greater opportunity for them to direct their own learning

(Laurillard, 1987, 1995).

Thus, IV allows learners to choose the speed, order or topics that most suit their

specific needs or learning styles (Milheim, 1990). The power of control over and

manipulation of visual images afforded by IV, particularly in areas where the use of visual

material is essential to the understanding of the subject, is a great stimulus to the learners

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(Hall et al. 1989; Wright & Dillon 1990). Some writers claim that these seem to enhance

the understanding of difficult concepts in the learning process. Therefore, IV is more

effective in producing high levels of performance in a variety of learning contexts than the

computer or video alone, keeping students more actively participating in the learning process

(Dalton, 1986). One can conclude that IV provides active learning.

Secondly, part of IV's distinctive potential is the ability to encourage individualization,

since it gives students varied instructional pathways and lesson pacing at their level, and

individualized feedback to suit their needs (Dalton, 1986). Again, IV allows very quick and

precise presentations of varied and rich information with audiovisual materials. It can also

provide flexible learning opportunities and is suitable for a variety of learning styles

(Picciotto, 1991). Thus, IV allows learners to choose their own activities with lots of

sources, and to work through them in their own ways. These make it possible for students

to approach the kind of learning strategy they use in ordinary life outside the classroom,

where learning is self-directed and related to their own activities (Laurillard, 1987).

Furthermore, well designed programs can allow them a much higher degree of choice over

their own learning than is normally possible in this subject area (Picciotto, 1991). CARE

reported that IV enables learners to learn at their own pace, allowing repetition and revision

at will (Norris et al. 1990). In his research study, using IV materials for business-related

language learning, Expodisc Spanish, Bangs (1987: 107-108) stated that its potential for FLL

is as follows:

the ability to put the user in realistically authentic situations, and for him or her to

be able to choose a route (through a managed choice) through the software which

will reflect his/her particular interests and/or abilities.

However, individualized learning is not easy for students and requires a lot of work.

They cannot easily direct themselves within a variety of resources, i.e., its organization is

not displayed, and may even feel frustrated because of its lack of direction (Laurillard, 1987).

As mentioned in the section on CD-ROM multimedia, the students need a direction, i.e.,

information searching skills in order to navigate their way and to fulfil their goals in FLL.

Before using IV materials, teachers will have to teach them how to navigate the materials

and to search for the information needed.

Thirdly, IV can provide learners with a high level of interactivity through their control

over the system, which requires them to interact actively with the materials instead of

On Multimedia in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning

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Learner

Learner

Learner

LearnerIV

response

response

Control

behaving as passive observers (Picciotto, 1991). As Fig. 2 shows, IV can transfer much of

the control of the medium to the learner, resulting in a greater interactivity between the learner

and the machine (Kornum, 1993). In addition to interaction between the learner and the

system, many of IV's current implementations encourage interaction between the learners

using the system (Gardner & McNally, 1995).

Fig. 2. Interaction between the learners and between the learners and the machine,

using IV software (based on Gardner & McNally 1995)

The potential of presenting learners with authentic oral language and the visual/cultural

contexts for communication are so obvious that language teachers feel that it must have an

enormous beneficial impact on learners acquisition of communicative proficiency (Garrett,

1991). However, because of IV's ability to provide interaction between the system and the

learner(s) and the stimulus for the inter-learners target language interaction, the teachers

role as a monitor or a facilitator should not be overlooked. It is important to notice that the

potential of IV to stimulate interactions lies in its capacity to structure teaching and

learning, and not just in the system itself. It can be achieved through the software under

the teachers responsibility. The software makes the learners interact with the system,

rather than merely view it (Norris et al. 1990). In short, IV can provide students with an

effective and enjoyable means of promoting interactive and active learning, while minimizing

off-task behaviour and passive learning (Dalton, 1990).

Teacher

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There are several IV programs3 developed specially for interactive language learning,

e.g., Expodisc Spanish (Ealing and Buckinghamshire Colleges, 1989), Montevidisco (Brigham

Young University, 1982), The European Connection (BBC, 1989), TOPIC (West, 1989), etc.

For example, The BBC English production, The European Connection is an English program

developed for it. It is designed to answer the needs of business people everywhere who have

to use English in the business world (Picciotto, 1991). The material offers learners examples

of authentic everyday English i.e., a mix of scripted story-line, authentic interviews, and

simulated telephone calls (Allan, 1991; Picciotto, 1991). It is backed up by a range of optional

supports such as subtitles in English, or some other languages, and a pronouncing dictionary

(Allan, 1991). From the results of the research studies using the materials, some researchers

reported that these materials stimulated productive discussion. In his research study using

TOPIC, for example, West (1989) reported that with one exception, i.e., the fact that they

were uneasy using a keyboard, the learners felt that the program was highly effective as a

teaching tool for training in improving oral proficiency.

2. The limitations of IV

As described, IV can offer learners a lot of distinctive potential and new possibilities of

using media technology, but it also requires enhanced forms of software and hardware

(Allan, 1991). In short, the main limitations of using IV are its cost, i.e., relatively high cost

of equipment and mastering of discs, and as a result, lack of hardware and software, rather

than pedagogical issues. Producing its courseware including hardware and software to

integrate with existing courses is very expensive and time-consuming (Hall et al. 1989).