1.CIPiBT / . 2010.8ISBN 978-7-5012-3908-5. . . . H313CIP2010158883iBT 880x1230 1/32 9 10 000 201091 201091 ISBN 978-7-5012-3908-5 39.00 www.lixiaolai.com www.ptzzz.comwww.lixiaolai.com

2. 6 12UNIT001-UNIT1922WORD LIST2011253225532584261 3. 5 TOEFL212003TOEFL21An essay is written with words just as a house is built withbricks, but merely a collection of words cannot be called anessay any more than a pile of bricks can be called a house. 4. iBT6habitatdestructionhabitat destructiononeof the most significant predicaments that endangered speciesare confronting withhabitatdestructionhabitat destructionprotecting endangered speciesbiologicaldiversityprey1) 2) birdbirds of preybirds of preybirds of prey ++ 5. 7LlimbTtwiglimbtwiglimbrodentgnawingfaultearthquakeadaptionTOEFL/GRE/SAT1) 2) ETSETS1) 2) ETS squirrelrodentaccumulateacornssquander1/3litter up2/3rodentenameldentine 6. iBT8gnawingincisorskeensquirrelsquandergnawing1/3acornkeen2/3litter upacornlecture accumulate acorn dentine enamel gnaw incisor keen litter (up) rodent squander squirrelenamelenamelsquirrelgnawing 7. 9ETSETSpBTcBTiBTETS1/32/32/31/3++ETSTOEFL iBTETSETSpineconewren sparrow TOEFLwrensparroweaglebald eaglecondor() 192ETSMicrosoftEncarta 8. iBT10 cardinal : radical canopy preoccupation 9. 11 1. TOEFL2. 10. iBT12 MP3 145 3. 11. 1380%exorbitant10e-x-o-r-b-i-t-a-n-t exor-bi-tant ichthyosaurich-thyo-saur Hanna HodgesRudorf (1966)96% 1) cellistfacadeheirnichespecific 2) [ee] 12. iBT14 /i:/[ea] [i:]/e/ /ieu//e/lieutenant lieu /lu/[ae/e/ee/er/et/e/]/ei/ vertebrae, cafpe, soireefoyerbouquetdente sak 1) 2) enamele /e//i//e/ /i//n/ na/n/ mel/ml//inml/ ena beak /bi:k//bek/ea/i:/ /e//bi:k/ea /i:/ 4. TOEFL/IELTS/SAT/GRE/GMAT S1) What does S1 mean? M1 13. 151)2)S2M2M1M2R1&2M1M2 1M1M2M1M2M2M1WhatWhy?How?2M1M2M1M2M1M2R1~2. M1M2R1~2. M1M2R1~2. M1M2R1~2x+y=zETS MP1MP2RP1~2 14. iBT16 1 Google 2 3 4 5 6 50 5. 192mp3 mp3 principalprinciple [telu]cello specific[spesifik] 15. 17 16. UNIT001UNIT192 i B T 18 17. iBTUNIT001Basic building materials include: timber, mud, stone,marble, brick, tile, steel, and cement concrete. Masonry wallsare built with stones or bricks, cohered through the use ofmortar, first composed of lime and sand. The profusion ofaluminum and its anodized coatings provided cladding materialthat is lightweight and virtually maintenance free. Glass wasknown in prehistory and is celebrated for its contributions toGothic architecture. timber [timb] n.marble [m:bl] n.tile [tail] n. cement concrete [siment-knkrit] n.masonry wall [meisnri-wl] n.cohere [kuhi] v.mortar [m:t] n., lime [laim] n.profusion [prfju:n] n. profusion of: aluminum [lu:mnm] n.anodized coating [nudaizd-kuti]n. [nodize v.: ]cladding [kldi] n.celebrated [selibreitid] adj.Gothic [ik] adj.architecture [:kitekt] n. 19 18. UNIT002 Two basic approaches to spanning over masonry wallsare post-and-lintel construction and arch, vault, and domeconstruction. span [spn] v.post-and-lintel [pust-nd-lintl] n.arch [:t] n.vault [v:lt] n.dome [dum] n.20 19. iBT UNIT003 The Chicago architect Louis Sullivans career convergeswith the so-called Chicago School of Architects, whosechallenge was to invent the skyscraper or high-rise building,facilitated by the introduction of the electric elevator and theabundance of steel. The buildings skeleton could be erectedquickly and the remaining components hung on it to completeit, an immense advantage for high-rise buildings on busy citystreets.architect [:kitekt] n.converge [knv:d] v.school [sku:l] n.skyscraper [skaiskreip] n.facilitate [fsiliteit] v.electric elevator [ilektrik - eliveit] n.abundance [bndns] n.skeleton [skelitn] n.erect [irekt] v. component [kmpunnt] n. immense [imens] adj. 21 20. UNIT004Interior design of apartments and houses, that is, dwellings,usually involves both practical and aesthetic decisions. Choiceshave to be made for almost every element, ceilings and lamps,curtains and blinds, corridor and doorway, niches and ledges,grate and ventilations, terraces and staircases, even sewers ordrainers. Sometimes such designs are extended to the facadeof the building, and even to a fountain, or a gardening yard.interior design [intiri-dizain] n. niche [nit] n.dwelling [dwel] n. ledge [led] n.involve [invlv] v. grate [reit] n.aesthetic [i:setik] adj.ventilation [ventilein] n.ceiling [si:li] n.terrace [ters] n.lamp [lmp] n.staircase [stkeis] n.curtain [k:tn] n.sewer [sju] n.blind [blind] n.drainer [drein] n., facade [fs:d] n.corridor [krid:] n. fountain [fauntin] n.doorway [d:wei] n. yard [j:d] n. 22 21. iBT UNIT005The lease is a contract of rent under which one party, called landlord or lessor, grants possession and use of the property for a limited term to the other party, who is called tenant or lessee. lease [li:s] n.rent [rent] n.landlord [lndl:d] n.lessor [les:] n.grant [r:nt] v. possession [pzen] n.property [prpti] n.tenant [tennt] n.lessee [lesi:] n.23 22. UNIT006 A big city, or metropolis, is often accompanied by suburbs.Such cities are usually associated with metropolitan areas andurban sprawl, creating large amounts of business commuters.Once a city sprawls far enough to reach another city, this regioncan be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. metropolis [mitrplis] n.suburb [sb:b] n.be associated with [bi-suieitid-wi] v.metropolitan [metrplitn] adj.urban [:bn] adj.sprawl [spr:l] n.commuter [kmju:t] n.deem [di:m] v.conurbation [knbein] n.megalopolis [melplis] n.24 23. iBTUNIT007Sanitation is the hygienic means of preventing humancontact from the hazards of wastes, either physical,microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease,which include human and animal feces, solid wastes, domesticwastewater (sewage, sullage, greywater), etc. Hygienic meansof prevention can be practiced by using simple technologies (e. g.latrines, septic tanks), or by personal hygiene practices.sanitation [snitein] n.hygienic [haidi:nik] adj.hygiene [haidi:n] microbiological [[maikrubaildikl] adj.agent [eidnt] n.feces [fi:si:z] n.domestic [dmestik] adj.sewage [sjuid] n.sullage [slid] n.greywater [greiw:t] n.latrine [ltri:n] n.septic tank [septik-tk] n.personal hygiene practice [p:snl-haidi:n-prktis] v. 25 24. UNIT008 A public utility (usually just utility) is a company thatmaintains and provides the infrastructure for a public service.Although utilities can be privately owned or publicly owned, theyoften involve natural monopolies. public utility [pblik-jutiliti] n.infrastructure [infrstrkt] n.privately owned [praivitli-und] adj.publicly owned [pblikli:-und] adj.monopoly [mnpli] n.26 25. iBTUNIT009The field of transport has several aspects: infrastructure,vehicles, and operations. Infrastructure includes the transportnetworks (roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals,pipelines, etc.) that are used, as well as the nodes or terminals(such as airports, railway stations, bus stations and seaports).Vehicles travelling on the networks include automobiles,bicycles, buses, trains and aircraft. The operations deal withthe way the vehicles are operated on the network, and theprocedures set for this purpose including the legal environment(laws, codes, regulations, etc.). Policies, such as how to financethe system (for example, the use of tolls or gasoline taxes) maybe considered part of the operations.vehicle [vi:ikl] n.operation [prein] n.canal [knl] n.pipeline [paiplain] n. node [nud] n.terminal [t:minl] n.seaport [si:p:t] n.law [l:] n.code [kud] n.regulation [rejulein] n.toll [tul] n.gasoline [sli:n] n.27 26. UNIT010Rail transport is the conveyance of passengers and goodsby means of wheeled vehicles specially designed to run alongrailways or railroads. Typical railway tracks consist of twoparallel rails, normally made of steel, secured to crossbeams,termed ties. The ties maintain a constant distance between thetwo rails, a measurement known as the "gauge" of the track.To maintain the alignment of the track, it is either laid on a bedof ballast or else secured to a solid concrete foundation. Railtransport is an energy-efficient and capital-intensive componentof logistics, in contrast, a traditional wagon can carry no morethan several tons of freight.rail transport [reil-trnsp:t] n. ballast [blst] n.conveyance [knveins] n.concrete [knkri:t] n.by means of [bai-minz-v] prep. energy-efficient [endi-ifint] adj.consist of [knsist-v] v.capital-intensive [kpitl-intensiv] adj.secure to [sikju-tu] v.logistics [ldistiks] n.crossbeam [krsbi:m] n.wagon [wn] n.tie [tai] n.freight [freit] n.gauge [eid] n.alignment [lainmnt] n.28 27. iBTUNIT011 Developments in technology have eroded some ofthe natural monopoly aspects of traditional public utilities.For instance, electricity generation, electricity retailing,telecommunication and postal services have becomecompetitive in some countries, and the trend towardsliberalization, deregulation and privatization of public utilities isgrowing, but the network infrastructure used to distribute mostutility products and services has remained largely monopolistic.erode [irud] v.retailing [ri:teili] n.postal service [pustl-s:vis] n.competitive [kmpetitiv] adj.trend [trend] n.liberalization [librlaizein] n.deregulation [di:rejulein] n.privatization [praivtzein] n.infrastructure [infrstrkt] n.distribute [distribju:t] v.monopolistic [mnplistik] adj. 29 28. UNIT012 An aspiring master would have to pass through the careerchain from apprentice to journeyman before he/she could beelected to become a master craftsman. He/She would thenhave to produce a sum of money and a masterpiece before he/she could actually join the guild. aspiring [spairi] adj.master [m:st] n.pass through [ps-ru:] v.apprentice [prentis] n.journeyman [d:nimn] n.masterpiece [m:stpi:s] n.actually [ktuli] adv.guild [ild] n. 30 29. iBTUNIT013A craftsperson who perhaps has at first sold craft itemsonly to friends or at local bazaars may find that increaseddemand leads to a wider clientele and sales by mail order, atcrafts fairs, or through a shop.craft [kr:ft] n.bazaar [bz:] n.clientele [klaintel] n.fair [f] n.31 30. UNIT014 There is a fine line of distinction between crafts producedby amateur hobbyists for their personal satisfaction andthose made by gifted artisans with a view toward the use andenjoyment of others. fine [fain] adj. distinction [distikn] n.amateur hobbyist [mt-hbiist] n.artisan [:tizn] n.32 31. iBTUNIT015 Fabric weaving involves interlacing warp and weft. Theyarn threads of warp are arranged parallel to one another andheld in tension on a loom, while the single thread wefts passover or under the warp threads to create a solid or patternedpiece of clothes. To create larger pieces, a treadle loom isusually needed.fabric weaving [fbrik - wivi] n.involve [invlv] v.interlace [int(:)leis] v.() warp [w:p] n.weft [weft] n.yarn thread [jn-red] n.parallel [prlel] adj.tension [tenn] n.loom [lu:m] n.solid [slid] adj.treadle loom [tredl-lum] n. 33 32. UNIT016 Basketry is the craft of making baskets and bags, mats,rugs, and other items through weaving, plaiting, and coilingtechniques, using materials such as reed, cane, rush, sisal fiber,ash-wood splints, and ropes twisted from strands of hemp.basketry [b:stkitri] n. sisal [sisl] n.mat [mt] n. rug [r] n.fiber [faib] n.plait [plt] v. ash-wood [-wud] adj.coil [kil] v.splint [splint] n.reed [ri:d] n.twist [twist] v.cane [kein] n.strand [strnd] n.rush [r] n.hemp [hemp] n. 34 33. iBTUNIT017In ornamental knotting, cotton, linen, or jute cord is used tomake bags, wall hangings, and containers.ornamental [:nmentl] adj.knotting [nti] n.cotton [ktn] n.linen [linin] n.jute cord [dut-kd] n.wall hanging [wl-hi] n.35 34. UNIT018In quilting, three layers of fabric (a decorative top layer,filler, and a liner) are stitched or tied together. quilt [kwilt] n. quilting [kwilti] n. layer [lei] n. decorative [dekrtiv] adj. filler [fil] n. liner [lain] n. stitch [stit] v.36 35. iBTUNIT019 Many useful objects can be fashioned from leather, usingsuch special tools as leather shears, punches for carving thickleather, thonging chisels, and lacing needles. fashion [fn] v.leather [le] n.shears [iz] n.punch [pnt] n.carve [k:v] v.thong [] v.chisel [tizl] n.lace [leis] v.needle [ni:dl] n. 37 36. UNIT020Ceramic objects can be molded completely by hand orthrown on a potters wheel. When the clay hardens, it is fired ina high-temperature oven, or kiln, to strengthen it. To make theobject waterproof, glazes may then be applied and the piecefired again. ceramic [sirmik] adj.mold [muld] v.throw [ru] n.()()potters wheel [ptz-wil] n.clay [klei] n.oven [vn] n.kiln [kiln] n.waterproof [w:tpru:f] adj.glaze [leiz] n.38 37. iBT UNIT021Such basic woodworking techniques as sawing, joining, and finishing can be employed to make a wide variety of useful and ornamental objects, from jewelry boxes to picture frames.woodworking [wudw:ki] n. adj.sawing [s:i] n.joining [dini] n.finishing [finii] n.ornamental [:nmentl] adj.picture frame [pikt-freim] n.39 38. UNIT022Carpenter tools include saws, planes, flat-edged chisels,semicircular gouge, boring tools such as brace, drills, andmeasuring tools such as steel rules, C-clamp, squares andtrisquare, etc. carpenter [k:pint] n. saw [s:] n. plane [plein] n. chisel [tizl] n. gouge [aud] n. boring [b:ri] n. brace [breis] n. drill [dril] n. C-clamp [si-klmp] n.C square [skw] n. trisquare [traiskw] n.40 39. iBTUNIT023 The tenon, a rectangular or square projection from the endof one member, fits snugly into the mortise cut in the secondmember, thus joining the two perpendicularly. tenon [tenn] n.()projection [prdekn] n.snugly [snli] adv.mortise [m:tis] n.perpendicularly [ppndikjulli] adv.41 40. UNIT024Finishes serve to protect and preserve the wood and tobring out the beauty of the grain. Pieces are finished with rasps,files, and sandpaper. Common finishes include waxes, oils,bleaches, fillers, stains, shellac, varnish, lacquer, sealers, andpaints, including enamels.bring out [bri-aut] v.shellac [lk] n.grain [rein] n. varnish [v:ni] n.finish [fini] n.rasp [r:sp] n. lacquer [lk] n. file [fail] n. sealer [si:l] n.sandpaper [sndpeip] n. ; v. paint [peint] n.wax [wks] n.enamel [inml] n.bleach [bli:t] n.filler [fil] n. stain [stein] n. 42 41. iBTUNIT025 Paints are formed by mixing a pigment and a binder, a fluidvehicle, such as linseed oil, that solidifies when exposed to air.A varnish is a transparent solution that solidifies into a protectivecoating. Opaque and colored varnishes are called lacquers.pigment [pimnt] n.binder [baind] n.vehicle [vi:ikl] n.linseed oil [linsid-il] n.solidify [slidifai] v.()expose [ikspuz] v.transparent [trnsprnt] adj.solution [slu:n] n.coating [kuti] n.opaque [upeik] adj.43 42. UNIT026Cookery involves a diverse array of cuisines. Food maybe immersed in liquids such as water, stock, or wine (boiling,poaching, stewing); immersed in fat or oil (frying); exposed tovapor (steaming and, to some extent, braising); exposed to dryheat (roasting, baking, broiling); and subjected to contact withhot fats (sauting). cookery [kukri] n. steam [sti:m] v.diverse [daivs] adj.braise [breiz] v. cuisine [kwizi:n] n. immerse [im:s] v.dry heat [drai-hit] n.stock [stk] n.roast [rust] v.wine [wain] n.bake [beik] v.boil [bil] v.broil [bril] v.()poach [put] v. subject to [sbdikt-tu] v.stew [stju:] v. contact [kntkt] n.fat [ft] n. saut [stei] v.fry [frai] v.vapor [veip] n. 44 43. iBTUNIT027Essential modern kitchen equipment includes thefollowing: a stove, or range; sink; work surface; various knives,pots and pans; such utensils as spatulas, whisks, specializedspoons, and rolling pins; a more highly specialized array of gearfor producing pastries and other baked goods; and more recentsophisticated equipment such as blenders, food processors,and microwave ovens.kitchen [kitin] n. spatula [sptjul] n.stove [stuv] n. whisk [hwisk] n.range [reind] n.spoon [spu:n] n.sink [sik] n. rolling pin [ruli-pin] n.work surface [wk-sfs] n. gear [i] n.knife [naif] n. pastry [peistri] n.pot [pt] n.sophisticated [sfistikeitid] adj.pan [pn] n.blender [blend] n.utensil [ju:tensl] n. microwave oven [maikruweiv-vn] n. 45 44. UNIT028 In ancient times, mosaics were a form of floor decorationmade of small pebbles and later of cut or shaped pieces ofmarble, hard stone, glass, terra-cotta, mother-of-pearl, andenamels. The shaped pieces, in the form of small cubes, arecalled tesserae. The tessera are embedded in plaster, cement,or putty to hold them in place.mosaic [mzeiik] n.tesserae [tesr:] n.pebble [pebl] n. (plural: tesserae [tesri:] )marble [m:bl] n. embed [imbed] v.terra-cotta [ter-kt] n.plaster [pl:st] n.mother-of-pearl [mr-v-p:l] n. cement [siment] n.cube [kjub] n.putty [pti] n.()in place [in-pleis] adv.46 45. iBTUNIT029 Molten glass was tinted in a wide range of colors withmetal oxides and then poured on a flat surface such as a marbleslab to form a disk of colored glass. This was scored with asharp tool and broken into strips and cubes.molten [multn] adj.tint [tint] n. v.a wide range of [-waid-reind-v] adj.metal oxide [metl-ksaid] n.pour on [pr-n] v.flat [flt] adj.marble slab [mbl-slb] n.score [sk:] v.strip [strip] n.47 46. UNIT030 Portraits can be executed in any medium, includingsculpted stone and wood, oil, painted ivory, pastel, encausticon wood panel, tempera on parchment, carved cameo, andhammered or poured metal. portrait [p:trit] n. sculpt [sklpt] v. ivory [aivri] n. pastel [pstel] n. encaustic [ink:stik] n. tempera [tempr] n. parchment [p:tmnt] n. cameo [kmiu] n. hammer [hm] v. pour [p:] v.48 47. iBT UNIT031Sculpture (from Latin, "to carve"), three-dimensional art concerned with the organization of masses and volumes. The two principal types have traditionally been freestanding sculpture in the round and relief sculpture.sculpture [sklpt] n.mass [ms] n.volume [vlju:m] n.principal [prinspl] adj.freestanding [fri:stndi] adj.in the round [in--raund] adj. relief [rili:f] n.49 48. UNIT032Casting is accomplished in two stages: an impression ornegative mold is formed from the original a clay model, forinstance and a positive cast or reproduction is made of theoriginal work from the negative impression. casting [k:sti] n.impression [impren] n.negative mold [negtiv-muld] n.clay [klei] n., positive cast [pzitiv-kst] n.reproduction [ri:prdkn] n.50 49. iBTUNIT033 Pitch depends upon the rate of vibration, or frequency,of sound waves that produce a particular tone. Most Westernmusic is based on 12 equivalent intervals per octave; however,a great deal of Western folk music conforms to pentatonic scale,the best-known form of which contains no half steps. pitch [pit] n. folk [fuk] adj.vibration [vaibrein] n.conform [knf:m] v.to, with frequency [fri:kwnsi] n.pentatonic [penttnik] adj.tone [tun] n.scale [skeil] n.equivalent interval [ikwivlnt - intvl]step [step] n. n.octave [ktiv] n. 51 50. UNIT034 Rhythm is the way music uses time, which includescharacteristics such as duration of tones and silences, andpatterns of duration.rhythm [rim] n.characteristic [kriktristik] n.duration [djurein] n.52 51. iBTUNIT035 The most important and style-defining patterns are formedby pitches that overlap with one another in time, producing achord, or harmony. Two or more tones heard simultaneouslymay belong to separate melodies that fit well together, butwhich occupy different octave registers, have distinct rhythmicpatterns, or otherwise have different shapes or contours.style-defining [stail - difaini] adj. overlap [uvlp] v.chord [k:d] n.harmony [h:mni] n.simultaneously [simlteinisli] adv.melody [meldi] n.occupy [kjupai] v. register [redist] n.distinct [distikt] adj.rhythmic patterns [rimik - ptnz] n. contour [kntu] n. 53 52. UNIT036 Score, musical notation for a multipart composition, inwhich the music to be performed by each voice or instrument,is written with clefs on a separate staff, all the staves beingaligned one above another. score [sk:] n.notation [nutein] n. (musical notation: )composition [kmpzin] n.perform [pf:m] v.instrument [instrumnt] n.clef [klef] n.staff [st:f] n. (plural: staves [st:vz] )align [lain] v.54 53. iBTUNIT037Orchestra, in the narrowest sense, the characteristicensemble of Western musical instruments, has as its corea group of bowed-string instruments of the violin family,augmented by woodwind, brass, and percussion instruments. orchestra [:kistr] n.ensemble [sbl] n.musical instrument [mjuzikl-instrumnt] n.core [k:] n.bowed-string [baud-stri] adj.violin [vailin] n.augment [:ment] v. woodwind [wudwind] n.brass [br:s] n.percussion [p:kn] n. 55 54. UNIT038Percussion instruments are referred to as membranophonesif they produce sound through the vibrations of a stretched skinor other membrane. They are called idiophones if they producesound through their natural resonance when struck, rubbed,plucked, or shaken. Drums are membranophones; hollowedlogs, bells, gongs, xylophones, and pianos are examples ofidiophones. membranophone [membreinfun] n. pluck [plk] v.stretched [stret] adj. shake [eik] v.membrane [membrein] n.()drum [drm] n. , hollowed log [hlud-lg] n.idiophone [idiufun] n. bell [bel] n.resonance [reznns] n.gong [] n.strike [straik] v.xylophone [zailfun] n.rub [rb] v.piano [pinu] n.56 55. iBTUNIT039Wind instruments, or aerophones, produce sound byvibration, which may be produced by performers lips (brass), acolumn of air split across a sharp edge (flutes, pipes, whistles),or by one or two reeds, as with instruments such as the clarinet,saxophone, oboe and bassoon.wind instrument [wind-instrumnt] n. whistle [hwisl] n.aerophone [erfun] n.reed [ri:d] n.column [klm] n.a colum of air )clarinet [klrinet] n. split [split] v.vsaxophone [sksfun] n.edge [ed] n. oboe [ubu,ubi] n.flute [flu:t] n. brass [brs] n.pipe [paip] n.bassoon [bsun] n.57 56. UNIT040The string, or chordophone, family has several branches.In one branch, which includes the zither and dulcimer, stringsare stretched across a flat body. In a second branch, eachinstrument has a neck, for example the lute, guitar, or violin. Athird branch includes plucked instruments with multiple strings,such as the lyre or the harp, where each string produces onlyone pitch. string [stri] n. chordophone [kdufun] n.zither [zi] n.dulcimer [dlsim] n.neck [nek] n.lute [lu:t] n.guitar [it:] n.violin [vailin] n.lyre [lai] n. harp [h:p] n.58 57. iBTUNIT041 The modern pianoforte has six major parts: (1) The frameis usually made of iron. At the rear end is attached the stringplate, into which the strings are fastened. In the front is thewrest plank, into which the tuning pins are set. Around these iswound the other end of the strings, and by turning these pins,the tension of the strings is regulated. (2) The soundboard,a thin piece of fine-grained spruce placed under the strings,reinforces the tone by means of sympathetic vibration. (3) Thestrings, made of steel wire, increase in length and thicknessfrom the treble to the bass. The higher pitches are each giventwo or three strings tuned alike. The lower ones are singlestrings made heavier by being overspun that is, woundaround with a coil of thin copper wire. (4) The action is the entiremechanism required for propelling the hammers (wrapped withfelt) against the strings. The most visible part of the action is thekeyboard, a row of keys manipulated by the fingers. The keyscorresponding to the natural tones are made of ivory or plastic;those corresponding to the chromatically altered tones, of ebonyor plastic. (5) The pedals are levers pressed down by the feet.The damper, or loud pedal, raises all the dampers so that allthe strings struck continue to vibrate even after the keys arereleased. The use of these pedals can produce subtle changesin tone quality. (6) According to the shape of the case, pianosare classified as grand, square, and upright. Grand pianos arebuilt in various sizes, from the full concert grand, 2.69m long, tothe parlor or baby grand, less than 1.8m long.pianoforte [pinuf:ti] n.(piano)frame [freim] n.rear [ri] adj.attach [tt] v.fasten [f:sn] v. plank [plk] n. [wrest plank: ]tuning pin [tuni - pin] n.wind [wind] v. tension [tenn] n. regulate [rejuleit] v. fine-grained [fain - reind] adj.spruce [spru:s] n.reinforce [ri:inf:s] v. 59 58. UNIT041sympathetic vibration [simpetik-vaibrein] ivory [aivri] n. n.plastic [pl:stik] n.treble [trebl] n. chromatic [krumtik] adj. bass [beis] n. chromatically [krumtikli] adv.pitch [pit] n.ebony [ebni] n.overspin wire [uvspin-wai] n. pedal [pedl] n.coil [kil] n.() lever [li:v] n.action [kn] n. damper [dmp] n.mechanism [meknizm] n.release [rili:s] v.propel [prpel] v.sustaining [ssteini] adj.hammer [hm] n.subtle [stl] adj.felt [felt] n. grand [rnd] adj.manipulate [mnipjuleit] v.square [skw] adj. upright [prait] adj.corresponding to [krspndi-tu] various [vris] adj. adj.parlor [p:l] adj. 60 59. iBTUNIT042The main parts of the violin are the front, also calledthe belly, top, or soundboard, usually made of well-seasonedspruce; the back, usually made of well-seasoned maple; andthe ribs, neck, fingerboard, pegbox, scroll, bridge, tailpiece,and f-holes, or soundholes. The front, back, and ribs are joinedtogether to form a hollow sound box. The sound box containsthe sound post, a thin, dowel-like stick of wood wedged insideunderneath the right side of the bridge and connecting thefront and back of the violin; and the bass-bar, a long strip ofwood glued to the inside of the front under the left side of thebridge. The sound post and bass-bar are important for thetransmission of sound, and they also give additional supportto the construction. The strings are fastened to the tailpiece,rest on the bridge, and are suspended over the fingerboard,and run to the pegbox, where they are attached to tuning pegsthat can be turned to change the pitch of the string. The stringsare set in vibration and produce sound when the player drawsthe bow across them at a right angle near the bridge. Amongthe prized characteristics of the violin are its singing tone andits potential to play rapid, brilliant figurations as well as lyricalmelodies. Violinists can also create special effects by means ofthe following techniques: pizzicato, plucking, tremolo, etc. violin [vailin] n.belly [beli] n.well-seasoned [wel-siznd] adj.spruce [spru:s] n.maple [meipl] n.rib [rib] n.pegbox [pegbks] n.scroll [skrul] n.tailpiece [teilpi:s] n.hollow [hlu] adj.sound [saund] n.post [pust] n.dowel [daul] n.wedge [wed] v.underneath [ndni:] prep.bass bar [beis-b:] n.strip [strip] n.glue [lu:] v.transmission [trnzmin] n. 61 60. UNIT042suspend [sspend] v.figuration [fijurein] n.tuning peg [tju:ni - pe] n. lyrical [lirikl] adj.pitch [pit] n.melody [meldi] n.vibration [vaibrein] n. pizzicato [pitsiktu] n.draw [dr:] v.pluck [plk] v.bow [bu] n. tremolo [tremlu] n.prize [praiz] v. 62 61. iBTUNIT043 Photography is based on principles of light, optics, andchemistry. For the purpose of producing a photograph, thesesilver salts are distributed in gelatin to make a mixture called anemulsion, which is applied to film or another supporting materialin a thin layer. When the emulsion is exposed to light, the silverhalide crystals undergo chemical changes and, after furtherprocessing, an image becomes visible. The stronger the lightthat strikes the crystals, the denser or more opaque that part ofthe film becomes. Most types of film produce a negative image,from which a positive final copy can be printed on sensitizedpaper. The dense (or dark) areas of the negative translateinto light areas on the final photograph. Almost all modernphotography relies on this negative-to-positive process.photography [ftrfi] n. crystal [kristl] n. principle [prinspl] n.undergo [ndu] v. optics [ptiks] n.silver salt [silv-slt] n. processing [prusesi] n.distribute [distribju:t] v. over image [imid] n. gelatin [deltin,delti:n] n.strike [straik] v. emulsion [imln] n. opaque [upeik] adj. apply [plai] v. negative image [netiv-imid]film [film] n. n. layer [lei] n. sensitized paper [sensitaizd-peip] n. expose [ikspuz] v. translate into [trnsleit-intu] v. halide [hlaid] adj.() rely on [rilai-n] v. 63 62. UNIT044In most cases, the camera and its lens determine theappearance of the photographic image. Cameras work onthe basic principle of the camera obscura. In both the cameraobscura and the modern camera, light passes through a lensfitted into an otherwise lightproof box. Light passing throughthe lens casts an image of the cameras subject the object,person, or scene in front of the camera onto the inside of thebox, which in a modern camera contains film. The camera andlens control how much light strikes the film, in what is called anexposure. camera [kmr] n.lens [lenz] n.camera obscura [kmr-bskjur] n.otherwise [waiz] adj.lightproof [laitpru:f] adj.cast [k:st] v.subject [sbdikt] n.scene [si:n] n.exposure [ikspu] n. 64 63. iBTUNIT045Anthropologists and theater historians trace the originsof theater to myth and ritual found in dances and mimedperformances by masked dancers during fertility rites and otherceremonies that marked important passages in life. Imitation,costumes, masks, makeup, gesture, dance, music, andpantomime were some of the theatrical elements found in earlyrituals.anthropologist [nrpldist] n. ceremony [serimni] n.theater [it] n.passage [psid] n.trace [treis] v.imitation [imitein] n.myth [mi] n.costume [kstju:m] n.ritual [ritul] n. makeup [meikp] n.mimed performance [maimd-pfmns] gesture [dest] n. n. pantomime [pntmaim] n.fertility rite [ftiliti-rait] n. 65 64. UNIT046In addition to the actor and the audience in a space,other elements of theater include a written or improvised text,costumes, scenery, lights, sound, and properties (props). Mosttheatrical performances require the collaborative efforts of manycreative people, including dramaturge, craftspeople, designer,composer, or choreographer and managers working toward acommon goal: the production. The performance is very oftena play a tragedy, comedy, or musical but it need notbe. Theater performances include vaudeville, puppet shows,mime, and other forms of entertainment. Theatrical texts, oftenreferred to as drama, usually provide the vital framework ofa performance. In Aristotles famous definition, drama is animitation of an action that is whole, complete, and of a certainmagnitude or scope.audience [:djns] n. tragedy [trdidi] n.improvised text [imprvaizd-tekst] n. comedy [kmidi] n.scenery [si:nri] n.vaudeville [v:dvil] n.property [prpti] n. puppet show [ppit-u] n.props [prps] n.mime [maim] n.collaborative [klbreitiv] adj.theatrical text [itrikl-tekst] n.dramaturge [drmt:d] n.drama [dr:m] n.craftspeople [krftspipl] n.framework [freimw:k] n.composer [kmpuz] n. magnitude [mnitju:d] n.choreographer [krirf] n.scope [skup] n.production [prdkn] n. 66 65. iBTUNIT047Theater can serve many ends. It can be designed toentertain, instruct, motivate, persuade, and even shock. Butwhatever the intentions of the director, performers, and crew,the result depends on the interaction with an audience. Theaudience affects the performance by providing the performerswith immediate feedback, such as laughter, tears, applause,or silence. Each night there is continuous interaction betweenthe auditorium and the stage. Ultimately, audiences make theiropinions known through their attendance or nonattendance.They support what appeals to them and generally fail to supportwhat they find distasteful, offensive, or incomprehensible.serve [s:v] v. affect [fekt] v.end [end] n. immediate [imi:dit] adj.entertain [enttein] v.feedback [fi:dbk] n.instruct [instrkt] v.applause [pl:z] n.motivate [mutiveit] v. auditorium [:dit:rim] n.persuade [psweid] v. attendance [tendns] n.shock [k] v. appeal [pi:l] v.intention [intenn] n.distasteful [disteistful] adj.director [direkt] n. offensive [fensiv] adj.performer [pf:m] n. incomprehensible [inkmprihensbl]adj.crew [kru:] n.interaction [intrkn] n.67 66. UNIT048 Directors assume responsibility for the overall interpretationof a script, and they have the authority to approve, control,and coordinate all the elements of a production. Throughoutthe ages, performers have been jugglers, mimes, minstrels,puppeteers, acrobats, clowns, singers, dancers, and amateurand professional actors/actresses. The first performers weremost likely singers and dancers, as the first performances hadno spoken dialogue. assume [sju:m] v. interpretation [int:pritein] n. script [skript] n. coordinate [ku:dineit] v. juggler [dl] n. mime [maim] n. minstrel [minstrl] n. puppeteer [ppiti] n. acrobat [krbt] n. clown [klaun] n. amateur [mt] n. dialogue [dail] n. 68 67. iBT UNIT049In commercial and nonprofit theaters, the producer is the person who puts together the financing, management staff, and the artistic team to produce the show. Usually, the producer works in tandem with a general manager and others to accomplish the daily running of the production, from rehearsals to closing. In this role, he or she selects a season of several plays, hires the artistic teams and technical staff, works with a casting director to audition and cast actors in various parts, controls the theaters funding, and acts as the final authority in all artistic and administrative operations.commercial [km:l] adj.nonprofit [nnprfit] adj. producer [prdju:s] n. put together [put-tge] v. staff [st:f] n.in tandem with [in-tndm-wi] adv. accomplish [kmpli] v. rehearsal [rih:sl] n. season [si:zn] n. ,casting director [k:sti-direkt] n.audition [:din] v. cast [k:st] v. administrative [dministreitiv] adj. 69 68. UNIT050All living things are composed of cells. Some microscopicorganisms, such as bacteria and protozoa, are unicellular,meaning they consist of a single cell. Plants, animals, and fungiare multicellular; that is, they are composed of a great manycells working in concert. cell [sel] n. microscopic [maikrskpik] adj. organism [:nizm] n. protozoan [prutuzun] n. plural: protozoa [prutuzu]unicellular [ju:niseljul] adj.fungi [fndai,fai] n.multicellular [mltiseljul] adj.in concert [in-knst] adv. 70 69. iBTUNIT051The components of cells are molecules, nonlivingstructures formed by the union of atoms. Small moleculesserve as building blocks for larger molecules. Proteins, nucleicacids, carbohydrates, and lipids, which include fats and oils, arethe four major molecules that underlie cell structure and alsoparticipate in cell functions.molecule [mlikju:l] n.union [ju:njn] n.atom [tm] n.building block [bildi-blk] n.protein [pruti:n] n.nucleic acid [nju:kli:ik-sid] n.carbohydrate [k:buhaidreit] n.lipid [lipid,laipid] n.underlie [ndlai] v.participate [p:tisipeit] v.71 70. UNIT052 The eukaryotic cell cytoplasm is similar to that of theprokaryote cell except for one major difference: eukaryotic cellshouse a nucleus and numerous other membrane-enclosedorganelles. Like separate rooms of a house, these organellesenable specialized functions to be carried out efficiently. Thebuilding of proteins and lipids, for example, takes place inseparate organelles where specialized enzymes geared foreach job are located. eukaryotic cell [jukriutik - sel] n.cytoplasm [saitplzm] n.prokaryote cell [prukriut - sel] n.house [haus] v.nucleus [nju:klis] n.membrane [membrein] n.organelle [:nel] n.enzyme [enzaim] n.gear [i] v. 72 71. iBTUNIT053 The nucleus is the largest organelle in an animal cell. Itcontains numerous strands of DNA, the length of each strandbeing many times the diameter of the cell. Unlike the circularprokaryotic DNA, long sections of eukaryotic DNA pack into thenucleus by wrapping around proteins. As a cell begins to divide,each DNA strand folds over onto itself several times, forming arod-shaped chromosome. strand [strnd] n.diameter [daimit] n.pack into [pk-intu] v.wrap [rp] v.chromosome [krumsum] n.73 72. UNIT054Plant cells have all the components of animal cells andseveral other added features, including chloroplasts, a centralvacuole, and a cell wall. Chloroplasts convert light energy typically from the Sun into the sugar glucose, a form ofchemical energy, in a process known as photosynthesis.Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, possess a circular chromosomeand prokaryote like ribosomes, which manufacture the proteinsthat the chloroplasts typically need. The vacuole, a membranousbag, crowds the cytoplasm and organelles to the edges of thecell. The central vacuole stores water, salts, sugars, proteins,and other nutrients. In addition, it stores the blue, red, andpurple pigments that give certain flowers their colors. component [kmpunnt] n.chloroplast [kl:ruplst] n.vacuole [vkjuul] n.cell wall [sel-wl] n.glucose [lu:kus] n.photosynthesis [futusinsis] n.mitochondria [maitkndri] n.ribosome [raibsum] n.crowd ... to ... [kraud-tu:] v.pigment [pimnt] n. 74 73. iBTUNIT055Forests may be divided into the following eight generaltypes on the basis of leaf characteristics and climate.(1) Deciduous forests of the temperate regions are the typicalformation of the eastern United States. (2) Deciduous monsoonforests are characteristic of Bengal and Myanmar (formerlyknown as Burma) and common throughout Southeast Asiaand India. (3) Tropical savanna forests are found in regionssuch as the campos of Brazil, where forest and grasslandmeet. (4) Northern coniferous forests form a worldwide belt insubarctic and alpine regions of the northern hemisphere. (5)Tropical rain forests are characteristic of central Africa and theAmazon watershed. (6) Temperate evergreen forests are foundin the subtropical regions of North America and the Caribbeanislands that have a warm maritime climate. (7) Temperaterain forests, with broad-leaved evergreen trees, are commonon Mediterranean coasts. (8) Tropical scrub forests occur inregions of slight rainfall, bordering wetter forests.forest [frist] n.alpine region [lpain-ri:dn] n.deciduous forest [disidus-frist] n.hemisphere [hemisfi] n.Deciduous monsoon forest [disidus-mnsu:n-frist] tropical rain forest [trpikl-rein-frist] n. n. watershed [w:ted] n.Bengal [be:l] n.Temperate evergreen forest [temprit-evri:n-frist]Myanmar [mjnm:] n.n.Tropical savanna forest [trpikl-svn-frist] subtropical [sbtrpikl] adj.n. maritime [mritaim] adj.campo [kmpu] n. Temperate rain forest [temprit-rein-frist]grassland [r:slnd] n.n.Northern coniferous forest [n()n-kunifrs-frist] coast [kust] n.n. Tropical scrub forest [trpikl-skrb-frist]worldwide belt [w:ldwaid-belt] n. n.subarctic [sb:ktik] adj.75 74. UNIT056 Three major forest areas exist in the United States. Thewestern forests of the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific coastare coniferous and contain Douglas fir, ponderosa pine, westernwhite pine, Engelmann spruce, and white fir. More than halfof the softwood lumber yield of the United States comes fromthe productive Douglas fir forests of the Pacific Northwest. TheSouth Atlantic and Gulf states account for most of the remainingsoftwood lumber, chiefly from longleaf, shortleaf, loblolly, andslash pines. Hardwoods, yielding about one-fourth of the totalproduction, are found in the eastern half of the United States,with particularly dense stands in the area surrounding theMississippi and Ohio river valleys. Among the many hardwoodspecies are oaks, black walnut, yellow poplar, and sugar maple. fir [f:] n.hardwood [h:dwud] n.pine [pain] n. stand [stnd] n.spruce [spru:s] n. oak [uk] n.softwood [sftwud] n.black walnut [blk-w:lnt] n.lumber [lmb] n. yellow poplar [jelu-ppl]yield [ji:ld] n.n.poplr account for [kaunt-f] v. loblolly pine [lblli-pain] n.sugar maple [u-meipl] n.slash pine [sl-pain] n.76 75. iBT UNIT057To be classified as a rain forest, a forest must have a closed canopy, in which the treetops, or crowns, touch each other, creating a shaded forest interior. In addition, temperature and rainfall must be high and relatively even throughout the year. Forests that meet these criteria are found flanking the equator in South and Central America, Asia, Africa, and Australia.rain forest [rein - frst] n.canopy [knpi] n. crown [kraun] n.touch [tt] v.criteria [kraitiri] n.flank [flk] v.equator [ikweit] n.77 76. UNIT058Flower is the reproductive organ of most seed-bearing plants. Flowers carry out the multiple roles of sexualreproduction, seed development, and fruit production. Manyplants produce highly visible flowers that have a distinctivesize, color, or fragrance. Almost everyone is familiar withbeautiful flowers such as the blossoms of roses, orchids, andtulips. But many plants including oaks, beeches, maples,and grasses have small, green or gray flowers that typicallygo unnoticed. Whether eye-catching or inconspicuous, allflowers produce the male or female sex cells required forsexual reproduction. Botanists call them the cones, bearingplants gymnosperms, which means naked seeds. they referto flowering plants as angiosperms, which means enclosedseeds. Flowers typically are composed of four parts, arranged inconcentric rings attached to the tip of the stem. From innermostto outermost, these whorls are the pistil, stamens, petals, andsepals.reproductive organ [ri:prdktiv-:n]gymnosperm [dimnusp:m] n.n.refer to [rif-tu] v.fragrance [freirns] n. angiosperm [ndisp:m] n.blossom [blsm] n.be composed of [bi-kmpuzd-v]orchid [:kid] n.n.tulip [tju:lip] n.concentric [knsentrik] adj.beech [bi:t] n. stem [stem] n.eye-catching [ai-kti] adj.pistil [pistil] n.inconspicuous [inknspikjus] adj.stamen [steimen] n.botanist [btnist] n. petal [petl] n.cone [kun] n.sepal [sepl] n. 78 77. iBTUNIT059Bacteria lack a true nucleus, a feature that distinguishesthem from plant and animal cells. In plants and animalsthe saclike nucleus carries genetic material in the form ofdeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Bacteria also have DNA butit floats within the cell, usually in a loop or coil. A tough butresilient protective shell surrounds the bacterial cell. bacteria [bktiri] (pl. ) n. (single: bacterium [bktirim])lack [lk] v.feature [fi:t] n.distinguish [distiwi] v.saclike [sklaik] adj.genetic material [dinetik-mtiril] n.deoxyribonucleic acid [di:ksi:raibunju:kli:ik-sid] n.float [flut] v.loop [lu:p] n.coil [kil] n.()resilient [rizilint] adj.shell [el] n. 79 78. UNIT060 Virus, infectious agent found in virtually all life forms,including humans, animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria, consistof genetic material either deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) orribonucleic acid (RNA) surrounded by a protective coating ofprotein, called a capsid, with or without an outer lipid envelope.virus [vairs] n.infectious agent [infeks-eidnt] n.virtually [v:tuli] adv.fungi [fndai] n.singulr: fungus [fgs]consist of [knsist-v] v.ribonucleic acid [raibnju:kli:ik-sid] n.(RNA)coating [kuti] n.capsid [kpsid] n.lipid [lipid] n.envelope [envlup] n.80 79. iBTUNIT061The most important classes of biomolecules are nucleicacids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.Nucleic acids are responsible for storing and transferringgenetic information. They are enormous molecules made up oflong strands of subunits, called bases which are arranged in aprecise sequence. These are "read" by other components of thecell and used as a guide in making proteins.Proteins are large molecules built up of small subunitscalled amino acids. The proteins of greatest interest tobiochemists are the enzymes, which serve as catalysts ofchemical reactions.Carbohydrates are the basic fuel molecules of the cell.They contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in approximatelyequal amounts. Green plants and some bacteria use a processknown as photosynthesis to make simple carbohydrates (sugars)from carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight. Animals, however,obtain their carbohydrates from foods. Once a cell possessescarbohydrates, it may break them down to yield chemical energyor use them as raw material to produce other biomolecules.Lipids are fatty substances that play a variety of roles inthe cell. Some are held in storage for use as high-energy fuel;others serve as essential components of the cell membrane. class [kl:s] n.biomolecule [baiumlikju:l] n.nucleic acid [nju:kli:ik-sid] n.protein [pruti:n] n.carbohydrate [k:buhaidreit] n.lipid [lipid,laipid] n.be responsible for [bi-rispnsbl-f] n.enormous [in:ms] adj., strand [strnd] n.subunit [sbju:nit] n.[,]base [beis] n.precise [prisais] adj.sequence [si:kwns] n.amino acid [minu-sid] n.biochemist [baiukemist] n.enzyme [enzaim] n.catalyst [ktlist] n.chemical reaction [kemikl-rikn] n.fuel [fjul] n., 81 80. UNIT061carbon [k:bn] n.hydrogen [haidrdn] n.oxygen [ksidn] n.approximately [prksimitli] adv.carbon dioxide [k:bn-daiksaid] n.obtain [btein] v.cell membrane [sel-membrein] n.yield [ji:ld] v. fatty [fti] adj.a variety of [-vraiti-v] adj.break down [breik-daun] v. 82 81. iBTUNIT062The availability of new and more effective drugs substances that affect the function of living cells used inmedicine to diagnose, cure, prevent the occurrence of diseasesand disorders, and prolong the life of patients with incurableconditions, such as antibiotics, which fight bacterial infections,and vaccines which prevent diseases caused by bacteria andviruses, helped increase the average Americans life span fromabout 60 years in 1900 to about 78 years in 2005. During the20th century, drugs enabled the eradication of smallpox, once awidespread and often fatal disease. By the early 21st century,vaccines had led to the near eradication of poliomyelitis, oncefeared as a cause of paralysis.drug [dr] n.vaccine [vksi:n] n.affect [fekt] v.life span [laif-spn] n.medicine [medisin] n. eradication [irdikein] n.diagnose [dainuz] v.smallpox [sm:lpks] n.cure [kju] v.widespread [waidspred] adj.disorder [dis:d] n. fatal [feitl] adj.prolong [prl] v.poliomyelitis [puliumailaitis] n.,condition [kndin] n. antibiotics [ntibaitiks] n.,paralysis [prlisis] n., infection [infekn] n. 83 82. UNIT063For sheer variety and abundance, insects rank among themost successful animals on Earth. Dragonflies, unlike butterflies,do not create a chrysalis or undergo complete metamorphosis.Instead, they undergo a series of small transformations untilthey finally develop into the imago the adult, winged form. sheer [i] adj.abundance [bndns] n.butterfly [btflai] n.dragonfly [drnflai] n.chrysalis [krislis] n.metamorphosis [metm:fsis] n.transformation [trnsfmein] n.imago [imeiu] n. 84 83. iBTUNIT064The praying mantis is a carnivore that feeds on smallerinsects, such as flies, crickets, and grasshoppers. Its namereflects the prayer-like posture it assumes, while waiting for itsvictims to venture within the reach of its long, barbed forelegs.praying mantis [preii-mntis] n. posture [pst] n.carnivore [k:niv:] n.assume [sju:m] v.fly [flai] n. victim [viktim] n.cricket [krikit] n.venture [vent] v.grasshopper [r:shp] n.barbed foreleg [bbd-fleg] n.85 84. UNIT065Insects are often regarded as pests because some bite,sting, spread diseases, or compete with humans for cropplants. Nevertheless, without insects to pollinate flowers, thehuman race would soon run out of food because many of thecrop plants that we rely on would not be able to reproduce. Inaddition, insects are of aesthetic importance some insects,such as dragonflies, beetles, and butterflies, are widely thoughtto be among the most beautiful of all animals.pest [pest] n.bite [bait] v.sting [sti] v.spread [spred] v.disease [dizi:z] n.pollinate [plineit] v.rely on [rilai-n] v.reproduce [ri:prdju:s] v.aesthetic [i:setik] adj.beetle [bi:tl] n. 86 85. iBTUNIT066 Insects are invertebrates, animals without backbones.They belong to a category of invertebrates called arthropods,which all have jointed legs, segmented bodies, and a hard outercovering called an exoskeleton. Two other well-known groupsof arthropods are crustaceans, which include crayfish andcrabs, and arachnids, which include spiders, ticks, mites, andscorpions. Many types of arthropods are commonly called bugs,but not every "bug" is an insect. Spiders, for example, are notinsects, because they have eight legs and only two main bodysegments.invertebrate [inv:tibrt] n. crab [krb] n.arthropod [:rpd] n.arachnid [rknid] n.jointed [dintid] adj.spider [spaid] n.segmented [sementid] adj.tick [tik] n.()exoskeleton [eksuskelitn] n. mite [mait] n.crustacean [krstein] n.scorpion [sk:pin] n.crayfish [kreifi] n.bug [b] n.87 86. UNIT067 Caterpillar, larval stage of butterflies and moths, membersof the order Lepidoptera, is corresponding in this special orderto the grub, maggot, or larva phase in the life history of otherinsects. The caterpillar develops like any other larva from thesegmented egg and differentiating embryo, and undergoesseveral moltings or ecdyses. It later falls into a quiescent pupastage, and the pupa is usually sheathed in a silken cocoon. caterpillar [ktpil] n. embryo [embriu] n.moth [m] n. molting [multi] n.larval [l:vl] adj. ecdysis [ekdisis]n.Lepidoptera [lepdptr] n.plural: ecdyses[ekdisi:z] )grub [rb] n. quiescent [kwiesnt] adj.maggot [mt] n.pupa [pju:p] n. (plural: pupae [pju:pi:] )larva phase [lv-feiz] n. sheath [i:] v.segmented [sementid] adj. silken [silkn] adj.differentiating [difrenieiti] adj.cocoon [kku:n] n.88 87. iBTUNIT068 Bees are dependent on pollen as a protein source and onflower nectar or oils as an energy source. Adult females collectpollen primarily to feed their larvae. The pollen they inevitablylose in going from flower to flower is important to the plantbecause some of it lands on the pistils of other flowers of thesame species, achieving cross-pollination. Bees are, in fact, themost important pollinating insects, and their interdependencewith plants makes them an excellent example of the type ofsymbiosis known as mutualism, an association between unlikeorganisms that is beneficial to both parties. pollen [plin] n.nectar [nekt] n.larva [l:v] n.()plural: larvae[lvi] )pistil [pistil] n.cross-pollination [kr:s-plnein, krs-] n.interdependence [intdipendns] n.symbiosis [simbaiusis] n.mutualism [mju:tjulizm,mju:tulizm] n.beneficial [benifil] adj. 89 88. UNIT069The primitive bees, like their relatives the wasps, aresolitary. Each female makes her own burrow, in which sheconstructs earthen chambers to contain her young. Some beesare communal. They are like solitary bees except that severalfemales of the same generation use the same nest, eachmaking her own cells for housing her eggs, larvae, and pupae. primitive [primitiv] adj. communal [kmjunl] adj.wasp [wsp] n.nest [nest] n.solitary [slitri] adj.cell [sel] n.burrow [bru] n.larva [l:v] n.earthen [:n] adj.pupa [pju:p] n.chamber [teimb] n.90 89. iBTUNIT070The eusocial, or truly social, bees live in large coloniesconsisting of females of two overlapping generations: mothers(queens) and daughters (workers). Males, called drones,play no part in the colonys organization and only mate withthe queens. Larvae are fed progressively that is, cells areopened as necessary or are left open so that workers can tendthe larvae. Parasitic, or cuckoo, bees are those that do notforage, or make nests themselves, but use the nests and foodof other species of bees to provide for their parasitic young.eusocial [ju:sul] adj. tend [tend] v.truly social [truli-sul] n. parasitic [prsitik] adj.colony [klni] n. cuckoo [kuku:] n. ; adj. overlapping [uvlpi] n.cuckoo bee [kuku-bi] n.drone [drun] n.forage [frid] v.progressively [prgresivli] adv.91 90. UNIT071Ant colonies have elaborate social structures in whichthe various activities necessary for the feeding, shelter, andreproduction of the colony are divided among specially adaptedindividuals. Ants belong to an order of insects called theHymenoptera, a group that also includes bees, wasps, andsawflies. Some species of wasps and bees resemble ants inthat they live in colonies and are, therefore, said to be social,but ants are the only hymenopterans in which every speciesis social. Ants are distinguished from other hymenopterans inthat they have bent, or elbowed, antennae and an indentedabdomen that forms a narrow waist.elaborate [ilbreit] adj.distinguish [distiwi] v. shelter [elt] n.bent [bent] adj.adapted [dptid] adj.elbowed [elbud] adj. Hymenoptera [haiminptr] n.antenna [nten] n. sawfly [s:flai] n. (plural: antennae [nteni:] )resemble [rizembl] v. indented [indentid] adj.in that [in - t] n. abdomen [bdmn] n.hymenopteran [haiminptrn] n.waist [weist] n. 92 91. iBTUNIT072 Members of an ant colony typically fall into categoriesknown as castes, each with a different role. The majority ofcolony members are female worker ants that are unable tomate. Worker ants do not have wings and perform most of thework of the colony, including searching for food, nursing young,and defending the colony against ants from other colonies.Queens are larger than worker ants and are the only femalesof the colony capable of mating. Queens are born with wings,which they break off after mating. They mate with winged maleants, later using the sperm from the mating to produce fertilizedeggs, which are hatched to produce more worker ants and anew generation of queens. caste [k:st] n.mate [meit] v.perform [pf:m] v.nurse [n:s] v.capable of [keipbl-v] adj.sperm [sp:m] n.fertilized egg [f:tilaizd-eg] n.hatch [ht] v.93 92. UNIT073 Insects and diseases are a continuing menace to forests.Various insects, such as the gypsy moth, the tussock moth, andthe spruce budworm, devastate extensive areas by defoliation.Other insects serve as carriers for the causative agents ofdiseases that destroy trees. Parasitic tree diseases may becaused by bacteria, fungi, viruses, and nematodes, or by suchparasitic plants as the mistletoe or dodder. Noninfectiousdiseases of trees include sunscald; drought injury; rootdrowning, or suffocation; nutritional excesses or deficiencies;winter injury; and injury from smoke, gases, and fumes.menace [mens] n. nematode [nemtud] n.gypsy moth [dipsi-m] n. mistletoe [misltu] n.tussock moth [tsk-m] n. dodder [dd] n.spruce budworm [spru:s-bdw:m] n. sunscald [snsk:ld] n.devastate [devsteit] v.drought injury [drut-indri] n.defoliation [di:fuliein] n. root drowning [rut-drauni] n.causative agent [k:ztiv-eidnt] n. suffocation [sfkein] n.bacteria [bktiri] n. nutritional [nju:trinl] adj.fungi [fndai] n.deficiency [difinsi] n.virus [vairs] n.fume [fju:m] n. 94 93. iBTUNIT074 Birds are the only animals with feathers, collectively called plumage, although some other animals, such as insects and bats, also have wings. Nearly all birds can fly, and even flightless birds, such as ostriches and penguins, are evolved from flying ancestors. Many characteristics and behaviors of birds are distinct from all other animals, but there are some similarities. Like mammals, birds have four-chambered hearts and are warm-blooded having a relatively constant body temperature that enables them to live in a wide variety of environments. Like reptiles, birds develop from embryos in eggs outside of the mothers body.plumage [plu:mid] n.ostrich [strit] n.penguin [pewin] n.ancestor [nsist] n.distinct [distikt] adj.similarity [similriti] n.chamber [teimb] n.warm-blooded [w:m-bldid] adj.() constant [knstnt] adj. reptile [reptail] n.embryo [embriu] n. 95 94. UNIT075The main component of feathers is keratin, a flexibleprotein that also forms the hair and fingernails of mammals.Feathers provide the strong yet lightweight surface area neededfor powered, aerodynamic flight. They also serve as insulation,trapping pockets of air to help birds conserve their body heat.The varied patterns, colors, textures, and shapes of feathershelp birds to signal their age, sex, social status, and speciesidentity to one another. Some birds have plumage that blendsin with their surroundings to provide camouflage, helping thesebirds escape notice by their predators. Birds use their beaksto preen their feathers, often making use of oil from a gland atthe base of their tails. Preening removes dirt and parasites, andkeeps feathers waterproof and supple. Because feathers arenonliving structures that cannot repair themselves when wornor broken, they must be renewed periodically. Most adult birdsmolt lose and replace their feathers at least once a year.keratin [kertin] n.predator [predt] n.flexible [fleksbl] adj. beak [bi:k] n.mammal [mml] n. preen [pri:n] v.()()aerodynamic [rudainmik] adj. gland [lnd] n.insulation [insjulein] n. tail [teil] n.trap [trp] v. parasite [prsait] n.conserve [kns:v] v. waterproof [w:tpru:f] adj.texture [tekst] n.supple [spl] adj.social status [sul-steits] n.worn [w:n] adj.blend in [blend-in] v.periodically [piridikli] adv.camouflage [kmafl:] n. molt [mult] v. 96 95. iBTUNIT076Bird wings are highly modified forelimbs with a skeletalstructure resembling that of arms. The shape of a birds wingsinfluences its style of flight, which may consist of gliding,soaring, or flapping. Flight muscles are located in the chest andare attached to the wings by large tendons. The breastbone,a large bone shaped like the keel of a boat, supports the flightmuscles.forelimb [f:lim] n.resemble [rizembl] v. glide [laid] v. soar [s:] v.flap [flp] v.chest [test] n.tendon [tendn] n.breastbone [brestbun] n.keel [ki:l] n.() 97 96. UNIT077Nearly all birds have tails, the paired flight feathers ofwhich, called rectrices, extend from the margins of a birds tail.Tails may be square, rounded, pointed, or forked, depending onthe lengths of the rectrices and the way they terminate. tail [teil] n.rectrix [rektriks] n.() (plural: rectrices [rektrisis] )square [skw] adj.forked [f:kt] adj.terminate [t:mineit] v.98 97. iBTUNIT078Birds have two legs; the lower part of each leg is calledthe tarsus. Most birds have four toes on each foot, and inmany birds, including all songbirds, the first toe, called a hallux,points backwards. Bird toes are adapted in various speciesfor grasping perches, climbing, swimming, capturing prey, andcarrying and manipulating food.tarsus [t:ss] n.toe [tu] n.songbird [sb:d] n.hallux [hlks] n.(),()adapted [dptid] adj.perch [p:t] n.manipulate [mnipjuleit] v.99 98. UNIT079Instead of heavy jaws with teeth, modern birds havetoothless, lightweight jaws, called beaks or bills. The eyes ofbirds are protected by three eyelids: an upper lid resemblingthat of humans, a lower lid that closes when birds sleeps, and athird lid, called a nictitating membrane, that sweeps across theeye sideways, starting from the side near the beak. This lid is athin, translucent fold of skin that moistens and cleans the eyesand protects it from wind and bright light. jaw [d:] n. beak [bi:k] n.bill [bil] n. eyelid [ailid] n.nictitating membrane [niktiteiti-membrein] n. translucent [trnzlu:snt] adj.moisten [misn] v. 100 99. iBTUNIT080For breeding, most birds build nests, which help themto incubate or warm the developing eggs. Nests sometimesoffer camouflage from predators and physical protection fromthe elements. Nests may be elaborate constructions or merescrapes on the ground.breed [bri:d] v.; nest [nest] n.incubate [inkjbeit] v.camouflage [kmfl:] n.element [elimnt] n. elaborate [ilbreit] adj.scrape [skreip] n. 101 100. UNIT081The best-known birds are the birds of prey. Some,including hawks, eagles, and falcons, are active during thedaytime. Others, notably owls, are nocturnal, or active at night.Birds of prey have hooked beaks, strong talons or claws on theirfeet, and keen eyesight and hearing. Scavengers that feed ondead animals are also considered birds of prey. bird of prey [bd-v-prei] n.,hawk [h:k] n.falcon [f:lkn] n.owl [aul] n.nocturnal [nkt:nl] adj.beak [bi:k] n.talon [tln] n.scavenger [skvind] n. 102 101. iBTUNIT082 Migrating birds use a variety of cues to find their ways.These include the positions of the Sun during the day and thestars at night; the earths magnetic field; and visual, olfactory,and auditory landmarks. migrate [maireit] v.cue [kju:] n.magnetic field [mnetik-fild] n.olfactory [lfktri] adj.auditory [:ditri] adj.103 102. UNIT083 Except in combinations such as waterfowl and wildfowl, inmodern usage, the word fowl usually is restricted to the commondomestic fowl or chicken. In poultry markets, fowl commonlymeans a full-grown female bird. Young birds of both sexes, suchas broilers and fryers, are called chickens. On poultry farms,male chickens are called roosters or cocks; females, especiallythose more than a year old, are called hens; females less thana year old are called pullets; very young chickens of either sexare called chicks; and castrated males are called capons.combination [kmbinein] n. fryer [frai] n.waterfowl [w:tfaul] n. rooster [ru:st] n.wildfowl [waildfaul] n.pullet [pulit] n.fowl [faul] n. chick [tik] n.domestic [dmestik] adj. castrate [kstreit] v.poultry [pultri] n.capon [keipn] n.broiler [bril] n. 104 103. iBTUNIT084 All fishes are vertebrates (animals with backbones) withgills for breathing, most of them have fins for swimming, scalesfor protection, and streamlined bodies generally with pointedsnouts and posteriors and broad propulsive tails for movingeasily through the water. vertebrate [v:tibrit] n.backbone [bkbun] n.gill [gil] n.fin [fin] n.scale [skeil] n.streamlined [stri:mlaind] adj.snout [snaut] n.posterior [pstiri] n.propulsive [prplsiv] adj.105 104. UNIT085The term fishery is also used to describe the species offish being harvested (because most of them are edible), whichinclude familiar finned fish species, like cods and flounders;mollusks, including oysters and squids; and crustaceans,such as shrimps and crabs. Lesser-known fisheries includeechinoderms, like sea urchins; some amphibians, includingfrogs; and cnidarians, such as jellyfish. Even the harvest ofwhales is usually considered a fishery.fishery [firi] n. shrimp [rimp] n.harvest [h:vist] v. crab [krb] n.edible [edibl] adj. echinoderm [ikaind:m] n.cod [kd] n. sea urchin [si-:tin] n.flounder [flaund] n. amphibian [mfibin] n.mollusk [mlsk] n. frog [fr] n.oyster [ist] n. cnidarian [naiderin] n.squid [skwid] n. jellyfish [delifi] n.crustacean [krstein] n. whale [hweil] n. 106 105. iBTUNIT086Angling refers to fishing for sport, recreation, and relaxation.A fishing rod is a long, straight, flexible pole made of bamboo,fiberglass, or graphite that an angler uses to cast hook with baitor lures into the water.angling [li] n.,fiberglass [faibl:s] n.fishing [fii] n. graphite [rfait] n.recreation [rekriein] n. angler [l] n.fishing rod [fii-rd] n. cast [k:st] v. straight [streit] adj.hook [huk] n.flexible [fleksbl] adj. bait [beit] n.pole [pul] n. lure [lu] n.bamboo [bmbu:] n. 107 106. UNIT087 Coral reefs are built up by limestone skeletons of coral,and are found only in tropical saltwater where bright sunlightcan penetrate, because corals cannot exist without thesymbiotic algae that live in coral tissues and require sunlight forphotosynthesis. coral [krl] n. reef [ri:f] n. build up [bild-p] v. limestone [laimstun] n. skeleton [skelitn] n. tropical [trpikl] adj. saltwater [s:ltw:t] n. penetrate [penitreit] v. symbiotic [simbaitik] adj. algae [ldi:] n.singular: alga [l] tissue [tisju:] n. photosynthesis [futusinsis] n. 108 107. iBT UNIT088 Squids are carnivorous mollusks belonging to the same class as the cuttlefish and octopus. The body of squids, stiffened by an interior cartilaginous skeleton, is spherical or cigar-shaped, with two lateral fins. Around the mouth are eight sucker-bearing arms and two contractile tentacles with spatulate tips; on the latter are four rows of suction cups encircled by rings of chitinous (horny) hooks. The contractile tentacles, longer than the rest, are used to seize the prey and pass it to the shorter arms, which hold it to be torn by strong jaws shaped like a parrots beak. Squids can swim faster than any other invertebrate by rapidly expelling water from the mantle cavity through the "funnel". Many deep-sea squids are bioluminescent. They shoot out a cloud of dark ink when pursued; one genus secretes luminescent ink. carnivorous [k:nivrs] adj.()chitinous [kaitins] adj.mollusk [mlsk] n. horny [h:ni] adj. cuttlefish [ktlfi] n., seize [si:z] v. octopus [ktps] n.prey [prei] n. stiffen [stifn] v.() torn [t:n] v.(tear)interior [intiri] adj., jaw [d:] n., cartilaginous [k:tildins] adj. parrot [prt] n.spherical [sferikl] adj.invertebrate [inv:tibrt] n.cigar-shaped [si:-eipt] adj. expel [ikspel] v. lateral fin [ltrl-fin] n.mantle cavity [mntl-kviti] n.sucker-bearing [sk-bri] adj. funnel [fnl] n.contractile [kntrktail] adj. bioluminescent [baiulu:minesnt] adj. tentacle [tentkl] n. pursue [psju:] v., spatulate [sptjulit] adj.genus [di:ns] n. row [ru] n., secrete [sikri:t] v.suction cup [skn-kp] n. 109 108. UNIT089Amphibians have moist and hairless skin, through whichwater can pass in and out, and were the first animals withbackbones to adapt to life on land. They are the ancestorsof reptiles, which in turn gave rise to mammals and birds. Allamphibians belong to one of three main groups: the caudateor tailed amphibian, which includes the sirens, salamanders,and newts; the anuran, or tailless amphibian, which includesfrogs and toads; and the gymnophiona, which is made up of thewormlike caecilians.amphibian [mfibin] n.newt [nju:t] n.moist [mist] adj. Anuran [njurn] n.adapt [dpt] v. frog [fr] n.ancestor [nsest] n.toad [tud] n.reptile [reptail] n. Gymnophiona [dimpfin] n. mammal [mml] n.make up of [meik-p-v] n. Caudata [kdeit] n.caecilian [si:silin] n.(150siren [sairin] n. )salamander [slmnd] n.110 109. iBTUNIT090 Paleontologists recognize several mass extinctions in thepast 500 million years, which occurred in Ordovician, Devonian,Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Triassic, and Cretaceous Period,respectively. The most recent mass extinction was at the endof Cretaceous Period, and resulted in the loss of 76% of allspecies, most notably the dinosaurs.paleontologist [peilintldist] n.mass extinction [ms-ikstikn] n.Ordovician [:dvin] n.Devonian [devunin] n.Paleozoic [plizuik] n.Mesozoic [mesuzuik] n.Triassic [traisik] n.Cretaceous [kriteisis] n.respectively [rispektivli] adv.species [spi:si:z] n.dinosaur [dains:] n.111 110. UNIT091In mass extinctions, entire groups of species such asfamilies, orders, and classes die out, creating opportunitiesfor the survivors to exploit new habitats. In their new niches,the survivors evolve new characteristics and habits and,consequently, develop into entirely new species. family [fmili] n.order [:d] n.class [kl:s] n.survivor [svaiv] n.exploit [iksplit] v.habitat [hbitt] n.niche [nit] n.evolve [ivlv] v. 112 111. iBTUNIT092As the sum of all species living in the worlds ecosystems,known as biodiversity, dwindles, so too go many of theresources on which we depend. Humans use at least 40,000different plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and virus species forfood, clothing, shelter, and medicines. In addition, the fresh airwe breathe, the water we drink, cook and wash with, and themany chemical cycles including the nitrogen cycle and thecarbon cycle, so vital to sustain life depend on the continuedhealth of ecosystems and the species within them. ecosystem [i:kusistm] n. bacteria [bktiri] n.singular: bacterium [bktiri:m] biodiversity [baiudaiv:sti] n. virus [vairs] n.dwindle [dwindl] v. chemical cycle [kemikl-saikl] n.plant [pl:nt] n.nitrogen cycle [naitrdn-saikl] n.animal [niml] n.carbon cycle [k:bn-saikl] n.fungi [fndai] n. vital [vaitl] adj.singular: fungus [fs] sustain [sstein] v. 113 112. UNIT093 A central and historically controversial component ofevolutionary theory is that all living organisms, from microscopicbacteria to plants, insects, birds, and mammals, share acommon ancestor. controversial [kntrv:l] adj.component [kmpunnt] n.evolutionary [i:vlu:nri] adj.organism [:nizm] n.microscopic [maikrskpik] adj.ancestor [nsist] n.114 113. iBTUNIT094Hostility as to evolutionary theory gave way to acclaim asscientists vigorously debated, explored, and built on Darwinstheory of natural selection. As the 20 th century unfolded,scientific advances revealed the detailed mechanisms missingfrom Darwins theory. Study of the complex chemistry of allorganisms unveiled the structure of genes as well as howthey were duplicated, altered, and passed from generation togeneration. New molecular biology techniques compared thegenetic structures of different species, enabling scientists todetermine heretofore undetectable evolutionary relationshipsbetween species. Today, evolution is recognized as thecornerstone of modern biology. Uniting such diverse scientificfields as cell biology, genetics, paleontology, and even geologyand statistics, the study of evolution reveals an exquisitelycomplex interaction of the forces that act upon every life form onEarth. hostility [hstiliti] n.heretofore [hituf:] adv.give way to [iv-wei-tu] v.undetectable [nditektbl] adj.acclaim [kleim] n. cornerstone [k:nstun] n.vigorously [virsli] adv.cell biology [sel-baildi] n.unfold [nfuld] v. genetics [dinetiks] n.reveal [rivi:l] v.paleontology [plintldi] n.unveil [nveil] v.geology [dildi] n.gene [di:n] n.statistics [sttistiks] n.duplicate [dju:plikit] v. exquisitely [ekskwizitli] adv. alter [:lt] v.genetic structure [dinetik-strkt] n.115 114. UNIT095 Fossils are most commonly found in limestone, sandstone,and shale (a kind of sedimentary rock). Remains of organismscan also be found trapped in natural asphalt, amber, and ice.The hard indigestible skeletons and shells of animals and thewoody material of plants are usually preserved best. Fossilsof organisms made of soft tissue that decays readily are rarer.Paleontologists use fossils to learn how life has changed andevolved throughout earths history.fossil [fsl] n.indigestible [indidestbl] adj.limestone [laimstun] n.skeleton [skelitn] n.sandstone [sndstun] n. shell [el] n.shale [eil] n.woody material [wudi-mtiril] n.sedimentary rock [sedimentri-rk] n.preserve [priz:v] v.remains [rimeinz] n.tissue [tisju:] n.organism [:nizm] n.decay [dikei] v. trap [trp] v. paleontologist [peilintldist] n.asphalt [sflt] n. evolve [ivlv] v.amber [mb] n.116 115. iBTUNIT096Basic Human Anatomy: Musculoskeletal SystemThe human skeleton consists of more than 200 bones,bound together by tough and relatively inelastic connectivetissues called ligaments. The different parts of the body varygreatly in their degrees of movement, which are effected bycontractions of the skeletal muscles, to which the bones areattached by tendons. Thus, the arm at the shoulder is freelymovable, whereas the knee joint is definitely limited to a hinge-like action, and the bones composing the skull are immovable. anatomy [ntmi] n.contraction [kntrkn] n.musculoskeletal [mskjuluskelitl] adj.() muscle [msl] n.skeletal muscle [skelitl-msl] n.skeleton [skelitn] n. attach [tt] v.; ; bind [baind] v. tendon [tendn] n.tough [tf] adj.shoulder [uld] n.inelastic [inilstik] adj.knee joint [ni-dint] n.tissue [tisju:] n.hinge [hind] n. ligament [limnt] n.compose [kmpuz] v.vary [vri] v. skull [skl] n. 117 116. UNIT097 There are two main types of bone. Compact bone, whichmakes up most of the bone of arms and legs, is very dense andhard on the outside. The structural units of compact bone areosteons, elongated cylinders that act as weight-bearing pillars,and able to withstand any mechanical stress placed on thebone. The center of each osteon contains a hollow canal thatacts as a central passageway for blood vessels and nerves. compact bone [kmpkt-bun] n.make up [meik-p] v.dense [dens] adj.osteon [stin] n.()elongated [i:leitid] adj.cylinder [silind] n.pillar [pil] n.withstand [wistnd] v., canal [knl] n. passageway [psidwei] n.118 117. iBTUNIT098In some bones, internal to the compact bone is spongybone, also known as cancellous bone, composed of ahoneycomb network of bones that act as supporting beams.Spongy bone is designed to bear stress from several directions,such as that exerted on the pelvis in bending or stretching. Thespaces between the trabeculae are filled with red bone marrow,containing the blood vessels that nourish spongy bone. Spongybone is found in bones of the pelvis, ribs, breastbone, vertebrae,skull, and at the ends of the arm and leg bones.spongy bone [spndi-bun] n.cancellous [knsils] adj.cancellous bone [knsils-bun] n.honeycomb [hnikum] n.beam [bi:m] n.pelvis [pelvis] n.bend [bend] v.()stretch [stret] v.trabecula [trbekjul] n.marrow [mru] n.breastbone [brestbun] n.vertebra [v:tibr] n. 119 118. UNIT099The nervous system has two divisions: the central nervoussystem, including the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheralnervous system, including all neural tissue of motor andsensory systems. Impulses go to the central nervous systemthrough sensory nerves and are carried away from it by motornerves. The motor system is further divided into the somatic (orskeletal) nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.The somatic motor system allows voluntary control over skeletalmuscle with a few exceptions. The autonomic nervous systemis largely involuntary, and controls cardiac and smooth musclesand glands. nervous system [n:vs-sistm] n.division [divin] n.central nervous system [sentrl-n:vs-sistm] n.spinal cord [spainl-kd] n.peripheral nervous system [prifrl-n:vs-sistm] n.neural tissue [njurl-tisju:] n.motor [mut] n.sensory system [sensri-sistm] n.impulse [impls] n. somatic nervous system [smtik-n:vs-sistm] n.skeletal nervous system [skelitl-n:vs-sistm] n.autonomic nervous system [:tunmik-n:vs-sistm] n.voluntary [vlntri] adj.cardiac [k:dik] adj.()smooth muscle [smu:-msl] n.gland [lnd] n.120 119. iBTUNIT100 Voluntary movement of head, limbs, and body is causedby nerve impulses arising in the motor area of the cortex of thebrain, and carried by cranial nerves or by nerves that emergefrom the spinal cord to connect with skeletal muscles.limb [lim] n.arise [raiz] v., cortex [k:teks] n.cranial nerve [kreinjl-nv] n.emerge from [im:d-frm] v.spinal cord [spainl-kd] n. 121 120. UNIT101 Movement may occur also in direct response to an outsidestimulus; thus, a tap on the knee causes a jerk, and a lightshone into the eye makes the pupil contract. These involuntaryresponses are called reflexes. in response to [in-rispns-tu] prep. stimulus [stimjuls] n.tap [tp] n.jerk [d:k] n.pupil [pju:pl] n.contract [kntrkt] v.reflex [ri:fleks] n.122 121. iBTUNIT102 Muscular contractions do not always cause actualmovement. A small fraction of the total number of fibers inmost muscles are usually contracting. This serves to maintainthe posture of a limb and enables the limb to resist passiveelongation or stretch. This slight continuous contraction is calledmuscle tone.contraction [kntrkn] n.fraction [frkn] n.fiber [faib] n.posture [pst] n.resist [rizist] v.; passive elongation [psiv-i:lein] n. stretch [stret] n.continuous [kntinjus] adj.muscle tone [msl-tun] n. 123 122. UNIT103In passing through the system, blood pumped by theheart follows a winding course through the right chambers ofthe heart into the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and back intothe left chambers of the heart. From these it is pumped into themain artery, the aorta, which branches into increasingly smallerarteries until it passes through the smallest, known as arterioles.Beyond the arterioles, the blood passes through a vast amountof tiny thin-walled structures called capillaries. Here, theblood gives up its oxygen and its nutrients to the tissues, andabsorbs from them carbon dioxide and other waste products ofmetabolism. The blood completes its circuit by passing throughsmall veins that join to form increasingly larger vessels until itreaches the largest veins, the inferior and superior venae cavae,which return it to the right side of the heart. Blood is propelledmainly by contractions of the heart and arteries; contractions ofskeletal muscle also contribute to circulation. Valves in the heartand in the veins ensure its flow in one direction. circulatory system [s:kjuleitri - sistm] tissue [tisju:] n. n. absorb [bs:b] v.pump [pmp] v.carbon dioxide [kbn-daiksaid] n.winding [waindi] adj.metabolism [mtblizm] n.chamber [teimb] n. circuit [s:kit] n.pick up [pik-p] v.vein [vein] n.oxygen [ksidn] n. vessel [vesl] n.artery [:tri] n. inferior [infiri] adj.aorta [ei:t] n. superior [sjupiri] adj.arteriole [:tiriul] n.venae cavae [vi:ni:-kivi] n.vast [v:st] adj. singular: vena [vi:n] cava [kiv]capillary [kpilri] n.propel [prpel] v.give up [giv-p] v.circulation [s:kjulein] n.nutrient [nju:trint] n.valve [vlv] n.124 123. iBTUNIT104The body defends itself against foreign proteins andinfectious microorganisms by means of a complex dual systemthat depends on recognizing a portion of the surface patternof the invader. The two parts of the system are termed cellularimmunity, in which lymphocytes are the effective agent, andhumoral immunity, based on the action of antibody molecules.immune system [imju:n-sistm] n. lymphocyte [limfusait] n.defend [difend] v.agent [eidnt] n.foreign [frin] adj. cellular immunity [seljul-imju:nti] n.protein [pruti:n] n.humoral immunity [hju:mrl-imju:nti] n.infectious [infeks] adj. antibody molecule [ntibdi-mlikju:l] n. microorganism [maikru:nizm] n.dual system [dju:l-sistm] n.recognize [reknaiz] v.invader [inveid] n. 125 124. UNIT105Lymphocytes, which resemble blood plasma incomposition, are manufactured in the bone marrow and multiplyin the thymus and spleen. They circulate in the bloodstream,penetrating the walls of blood capillaries to reach the cellsof tissues. When particular lymphocytes recognize a foreignmolecular pattern (termed an antigen), they release antibodiesin great numbers. Antibodies attach themselves to the antigen,,and in that way mark them for destruction by other substancesin the bodys defense arsenal. These are primarily complement,a complex of enzymes that makes holes in foreign cells andphagocytes, cells that engulf and digest foreign matter.resemble [rizembl] v.antibody [ntibdi] n.plasma [plzm] n.attach to [tt-tu] v.bone marrow [bun-mru] n. arsenal [:snl] n.multiply [mltiplai] v. complement [kmplimnt] n.thymus [aims] n.enzyme [enzaim] n.spleen [spli:n] n.phagocyte [fusait] n.circulate [s:kjuleit] v. engulf [enlf] v.penetrate [penitreit] v.digest [daidest] v.antigen [ntidn] n. 126 125. iBTUNIT106 In the lungs, oxygen enters tiny capillaries, where itcombines with hemoglobin in the red blood cells, and is carriedto the tissues. Inhaling draws into the lungs air that is higherin oxygen and lower in carbon dioxide; exhaling forces fromthe lungs air that is higher in carbon dioxide and lower inoxygen. Changes in the size and gross capacity of the chestare controlled by the contractions of the diaphragm and of themuscles between the ribs.respiratory system [rispairtri-sistm] n.lung [l] n.hemoglobin [hi:mulubin] n.inhale [inheil] v.exhale [eksheil] v.gross capacity [rus-kpsiti] n.chest [test] n. diaphragm [daifrm] n.rib [rib] n. 127 126. UNIT107After food is broken into fragments by chewing andmixed with saliva, digestion begins. The food passes down thegullet into the stomach, where the process is continued by thegastric and intestinal juices. Thereafter, the mixture of food andsecretions, called chime, is pushed down the alimentary canalby peristalsis, rhythmic contractions of the smooth muscle ofthe gastrointestinal system. Absorption of nutrients from chymeoccurs mainly in the small intestine; unabsorbed food andsecretions and waste substances from the liver pass to the largeintestine and are expelled as feces. Water and water-solublesubstances travel via the bloodstream from the intestines tothe kidneys, which absorb all the constituents of the bloodplasma except its proteins. The kidneys return most of the waterand salts to the body, while excreting other salts and wasteproducts, along with excess water, as urine.128 127. iBTUNIT107 excretory [ekskrit:ri] adj.fragment [frmnt] n.chew [tu:] v.saliva [slaiv] n.digestion [didestn] n.gullet [lit] n.stomach [stmk] n.gastric [strik] adj.intestinal [intestinl] adj.juice [du:s] n.secretion [sikri:n] n.chyme [kaim] n. alimentary canal [limentri-knl] n.peristalsis [peristlsis] n.gastrointestinal [struintestnl] adj. absorption [bs:pn] n.nutrient [nju:trint] n. small intestine [sml-intestin] n.waste substance [weist-sbstns] n.liver [liv] n.large intestine [ld-intestin] n.expel [ikspel] v. feces [fi:si:z] n. water-soluble [w:t-sljbl] n.via [vai] prep. kidney [kidni] n.constituent [knstitjunt] n.excrete [ekskri:t] v.urine [jurin] n. 129 128. UNIT108In addition to the integrative action of the nervous system,the control of various body functions is exerted by the endocrineglands. An important part of this system, the pituitary, lies atthe base of the brain. This master gland secretes a varietyof hormones. The posterior lobe of the pituitary secretesvasopressin, which acts on the kidney to control the volume ofurine. Other glands in the endocrine system are the pancreas,which secrete insulin and the parathyroid, which secretes ahormone that regulates the quantity of calcium and phosphorusin the blood. endocrine [endukrain] adj.vasopressin [vsupresin] n.exert [iz:t] v.gland [lnd] n. pancreas [pkris] n., pituitary [pitju:itri] n.()insulin [insjulin] n.secrete [sikri:t] v. parathyroid [prairid] adj.hormone [h:mun] n.regulate [rejuleit] v.posterior [pstiri] adj.calcium [klsim] n.posterior lobe [pstiri-lub] n. phosphorus [fsfrs] n.130 129. iBTUNIT109Reproduction is accomplished by the union of male spermand the female ovum. In coitus, the male organ ejaculates morethan 250 million sperm into the vagina, from which some maketheir way to the uterus. Ovulation, the release of an egg into theuterus, occurs approximately every 28 days; during the sameperiod,the uterus is prepared for the implantation of a fertilizedovum by the action of estrogens. If a male cell fails to unitewith a female cell, other hormones cause the uterine wall toslough off during menstruation. From puberty to menopause,the processes of ovulation, preparation, and menstruation arerepeated monthly except for periods of pregnancy.reproduction [ri:prdkn] n., egg [e] n.accomplish [kmpli] v. implantation [impl:ntein] n.sperm [sp:m] n.fertilized [f:tilaizid] adj.ovum [uvm] n.estrogen [estrdn] n.coitus [kuits] n.slough off [slau-f] v.ejaculate [idkjuleit] v. menstruation [menstruein] n.vagina [vdain] n. puberty [pju:bti] n.uterus [ju:trs] n. menopause [menp:z] n.ovulation [vjulein] n. pregnancy [prennsi] n. 131 130. UNIT110The inner layer of the skin, called the dermis, containssweat glands, blood vessels, nerve endings, and the bases ofhair and nails. The outer layer, the epidermis, is only a few cellsthick It contains pigments, pores, and ducts, and its surfaceis made of dead cells that it sheds from the body. The sweatglands excrete waste and cool the body through evaporationof fluid droplets; the blood vessels of the dermis supplementtemperature regulation by contracting to preserve body heat andexpanding to dissipate it. Separate kinds of receptors conveypressure, temperature, and pain. Fat cells in the dermis insulatethe body, and oil glands lubricate the epidermis. dermis [d:mis] n.evaporation [ivprein] n.nail [neil] n. droplet [drplit] n.epidermis [epid:mis] n. supplement [spliment] v.pigment [pimnt] n.dissipate [disipeit] v.pore [p:] n.receptor [risept] n.duct [dkt] n.convey [knvei] v. insulate [insjuleit] v.shed [ed] v. lubricate [lu:brikeit] v.excrete [ekskri:t] v., 132 131. iBTUNIT111 Only vertebrates, or animals with backbones, have ears.Invertebrate animals, such as jellyfish and insects, lack ears,but have other structures or organs that serve similar functions.Human ears are capable of perceiving an extraordinarily widerange of changes in loudness, the tiniest audible sound beingabout 1 trillion times less intense than a sound loud enoughto cause the ear pain. Besides loudness, the human ear candetect a sounds pitch, which is related to a sounds vibrationfrequency, and of course, the tone. Another sonic phenomenon,known as masking, occurs because lower-pitched sounds tendto deafen the ear to higher-pitched sounds.jellyfish [delifi] n.lack [lk] v.; perceive [psi:v] v.extraordinarily [ikstr:dnrili] adv.loudness [laudnis] n.audible [:dbl] adj.detect [ditekt] v. pitch [pit] n.vibration consequence [vaibrein-knsikwns] n.sonic [snik] adj. masking [m:ski] n.deafen [defn] v. 133 132. UNIT112 The actual process of seeing is performed by the brainrather than by the eye. The function of eyes is to translatethe electromagnetic vibrations of light into patterns of nerveimpulses that are transmitted to the brain. process [pruses] n.perform [pf:m] v.electromagnetic [ilektrumnetik] adj.vibration [vaibrein] n.pattern [ptn] n.transmit [trnzmit] v.134 133. iBTUNIT113The human eyeball, is a spherical structure with apronounced bulge on its forward surface. The outer part of theeye is composed of three layers of tissue. The outside layeris the sclera, a protective coating. At the front of the eyeball,it is continuous with the bulging transparent cornea. Themiddle layer of the coating of the eye is the choroid, which iscontinuous with the ciliary body, and with the iris, which lies atthe front of the eye. The innermost layer is the light-sensitiveretina.eyeball [aib:l] n. cornea [k:ni] n.spherical [sferikl] adj.choroid [k:rid] n.pronounced [prnaunst] adj.ciliary body [siliri-bdi] n.bulge [bld] n. iris [airis] n.sclera [sklir] n. innermost [inmust] adj.coating [kuti] n.retina [retn] n.135 134. UNIT114The cornea is a tough five-layered membrane throughwhich light is admitted to the interior of the eye. Behind thecornea is a chamber filled with clear watery fluid, the aqueoushumor, which separates the cornea from the crystalline lens.The lens itself is a flattened sphere constructed of a largenumber of transparent fibers arranged in layers. It is connectedby ligaments to a ringlike muscle. This muscle, by flattening thelens or making it more nearly spherical, changes its focal length. membrane [membrein] n.admit [dmit] v.chamber [teimb] n.aqueous [eikwis] adj.humor [hju:m] n. crystalline [kristlain] adj.lens [lenz] n., flatten [fltn] v.sphere [sfi] n.()ligament [limnt] n.,focal [fukl] adj.136 135. iBTUNIT115 Several structures, not parts of the eyeball, contribute tothe protection of the eye. The most important of these are theeyelids, two folds of skin and tissue, upper and lower, that canbe closed by means of muscles to form a protective coveringover the eyeball against excessive light and mechanical injury.The eyelashes, a fringe of short hairs growing on the edge ofeither eyelid, act as a screen to keep dust particles and insectsout of the eyes when the eyelids are partly closed. Inside theeyelids is a thin protective membrane, the conjunctiva, whichdoubles over to cover the visible sclera. Each eye also has atear gland, situated at the outside corner of the eye. The saltysecretion of these glands lubricates the forward part of theeyeballs when the eyelids are closed, and flushes away anysmall dust particles or other foreign matter on the surface of theeyes.eyelid [ailid] n.fold [fuld] n. excessive [iksesiv] adj.injury [indri] n.eyelash [ail] n.fringe [frind] n. conjunctiva [kndktaiv] n.()tear gland [ti-lnd] n. lubricate [lu:brikeit] v.flush [fl] v. particle [p:tikl] n.137 136. UNIT116 The tongue serves as an organ of taste, with taste budsscattered over its surface and concentrated toward the back ofthe tongue. In chewing, the tongue holds the food against theteeth; in swallowing, it moves the food back into the pharynx,and then into the esophagus when the pressure of the tonguecloses the opening of the trachea or windpipe. It also acts,together with the lips, teeth, and hard palate, to form wordsounds. tongue [t] n.taste bud [teist-bd] n.scatter over [skt-uv] v.chew [tu:] v.swallow [swlu] v.pharynx [friks] n.esophagus [i(:)sfs] n.trachea [trki:] n.windpipe [windpaip] n.hard palate [hd-plit] n. 138 137. iBTUNIT117Understanding atoms is key to understanding the physicalworld. More than 100 different elements exist in nature, eachwith its own unique atomic makeup. The atoms of theseelements react with one another,and combine in different waysto form a virtually unlimited number of chemical compounds.When two or more atoms combine, they form a molecule.Millions of molecules join together to make up the cells inhumans or in any other plants, or animals.atom [tm] n.element [elimnt] n. unique [ju:ni:k] adj. makeup [meikp] n.react [rikt] v.combine [kmbain] v.virtually [v:tuli] adv.compound [kmpaund] n.molecule [mlikju:l] n.cell [sel] n.make up [meik-p] v. 139 138. UNIT118 Atoms are made of smaller particles. An atom consistsof a cloud of electrons, surrounding a small dense nucleus ofprotons and neutrons. Electrons and protons have a propertycalled electric charge, which affects the way they interactwith each other and with other electrically charged particles.Electrons carry a negative electric charge, while protons havea positive electric charge. The negative charge is the oppositeof the positive charge, and, like the opposite poles of a magnet,these opposite electric charges attract one another. Conversely,like charges (negative and negative, or positive and positive)repel one another. The attraction between an atoms electronsand its protons holds the atom together. The nucleus containsnearly all of the mass of the atom, but it occupies only a tinyfraction of the space inside the atom. If an atom was magnifieduntil it was as large as a football stadium, the nucleus would beabout the size of a grape. Atoms of the same element that differin mass number are called isotopes.140 139. iBTUNIT118particle [p:tikl] n.electron [ilektrn] n.dense [dens] adj.nucleus [nju:klis] n.proton [prutn] n.neutron [nju:trn] n.electric charge [ilektrik-td] n.interact [intrkt] v.negative [netiv] adj.positive [pzitiv] adj.opposite [pzit] n.pole [pul] n. magnet [mnit] n.conversely [knv:sli] adv.like charges [laik-t:diz] n. attract [trkt] v.repel [ripel] v.attraction [trkn] n.mass [ms] n.occupy [kjupai] v.fraction [frkn] n.magnify [mnifai] v.stadium [steidjm] n.property [prpti] n.grape [reip] n.mass number [ms-nmb] n.()isotope [aisutup] n.141 140. UNIT119 In general, waves can be propagated or transmitted,transversely or longitudinally. In both cases, only the energy ofwave mo