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OUMH1203 ENGLISH FOR WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Ringkasan Nota Modul daripada FKC Kumpulan 3 (2009) 1

Topic: 1

Introduction to Written Communication: Some Basic Principles

1.1 Introduction to Communication

Communication is :

Defined= as giving, receiving or exchanging information, opinions or ideasPurpose= so that the message is completely understood by everybody involved. Importance of the Message in Communication

1.2 Problems in Communication

a) Status/Roleb) Cultural Differencesc) Choice of Communication Channels

d) Length of Communicatione) Use of Languagef) Disabilitiesg) Known or Unknown Receiverh) Individual Perceptions/Attitudes/Personalitiesi) Atmosphere/Noise/Distraction

j) Clarity of Messagek) Lack of Feedback

1.3 The Communicator Behaviour

1) Be yourself, read everythings2) Do not worry about grammar and spelling when you start out, fix it later.

3) Get your thoughts down first, talk through your topic and type the way you speak.4) Edit and refocus the piece later.5) Practise writing everyday

1.4 Written Communication

Communication by means of written symbols that is communicated by or to or between people or groups.written communication is

the presentation of ideas or essays that make a clear point supply details supporting that point and demonstrate unity coherence of thought

Elements of written communication

The mastery of good or standard written english Ability to comprehend Write about information acquired through reading,note-taking and listening

Ways to Improve Written Communication

a. Improve written communication skills

Continually practise writing in the language write with a clear purpose that meets the needs of the reader Decide what you want to say and put this in a logical and suitable sequence.

b. Three important stages of written work

planning stage

Understand what your message What audience you are sending How massege will be perceived

Message is successfully received and comprehendedonly when both the sender and the receiver perceive itin the same way.

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writing stage editing stage

c. written document should have: efficiency, equity, and effectiveness.

d. Avoid four common errors

Reports Reports intended for readers who are external to the

organisation are often written as letter reports Usually on the organisations letterhead. May present a problem, proposal, solution or reply

to a request. Standard of letter report the seven basic parts of a

business letter: The writers address. The date. Reader address Salutation.

Body. Complimentary close. Signature block.

Memorandum Used for routine information. Includes information about a special issue, problem

or information needed for decision - making andproblem - solving within an organisation.

The memorandum report format is the least formalreport format.

Standard of a short memorandum report includesfive components: Reader name. Writer name. Date. Subject line or title. Body.

Formal and Informal ReportsTo write a good report, the following threestages must be discussed

Planning. Writing. Editing.

Documentation

1. Some work kept for research purposes2. Some historical work kept for posterity3. Some for others to know and see.4. Used to keep abreast with ongoing projects, for remembrance,

acknowledgement and as a teaching-learning tool to improve

Confusing words that can misleadthe reader

Cause communication breakdown or

barriers between the writer and thereader.a. Ambiguousb. Bombasticc. Vagued. Sexiste. Trendyf. Exaggeratedg. inflated and archaic.

Solution1. Use the familiar word to the far-

fetched2. Concrete word to the abstract3. Single word to the circumlocution4. The short word to the long

use of too many words overuse of words interferes with

understanding interrupt the reader understanding

Too much information Reader becomes overwhelmed and confused Cause frustration and cast doubts on the writer credibility.

SolutionIn order to produce a clear, concise and relevant written work

writing fragments insteaof completesentencesand writing sentencesthat lack unity.

sentence(s) short andcompact to ensure thatthey are correct, logicaland easy to read

Solution

Words ave to be structuredto the extent that whatprecedes should be inaccordance with those thatfollow.

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oneswriting skill.5. As avenues to project our ideas or opinions to be shared with

others as well as establish and defend our points of view.

Helping Other People Communicate with You

Think carefully about all the possibilities. Consider all aspects of the communication process

(interpretation, understanding, feedback). Consider the possible barriers.

Consider the complexity of the subject matter and how itmight be best conveyed.

Ask Who? Why? What? and How? Consider whether it is going to be in the form of a letter,

e-mail, memo or report

Problems Other People May Have Writing to You

People may not want to write to you for a variety ofreasons.

Some of these reasons have been stated earlier in thetext, while others may appear in the following forms:

Ones weaknesses as a writer (for example, languagedeficiencies).

Too much information in the text. Too many grammatical errors and mistakes.

Barriers between the sender and receiver (for example,cultural, status, role).

Message not clear or precise. Wrong choice of channel/format deliverance.

Past experiences (for example, treatment received). Documents not structured, messy or not well laid out.

Using Questions to Overcome Problems

Where did it go wrong? Why was the message not understood or interpreted by

the receiver? Was the timing wrong? Did I use the correct channel to deliver the message?

Are there many errors or mistakes in the document? Many other questions of this nature can shed some light

on the problems faced by the communicators.

Flow of Questions

document is report writing, we may want to ask questionssuch as:

What is the report about? What are you trying to say? To whom is the report addressed?

Who are you writing for? Who will read the report? How is the content of the report? How long can the report be?

What type of information is to be included in the report? How shall I gather and present it? What sort of language should I use?

Communication with People at All Organisational

Levels

To achieve a powerful effect and to ensure that your

document is easy to read,make sure to provide the following: A clear indication of your purpose.

Accurate and objective information. Suitable headings. A suitable order of information.

Giving and Receiving Good Instructions

Instructions must be clear and precise In commenting on papers, a teacher can show

students precisely where their meaning is unclear pose questions designed to illuminate problems

underlying the unclear communication provide models for expressing analysis more

clearly.

Communicating at Your Own Organisational Levels

Forms and documents should be accurate, complete andclear in meaning.

When Written Communication is Most Important

such as Memorandum of understanding (MOU) Memorandum of agreement (MOA) Letters of agreement and appointment

Job applications

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Has the report been proofread? What is the minimum length of the report? When should the report be sent?

Topic 2: Letter Writing2.1 The Basics of Letter Writing

We write letters to each other when we want to:

1) Inform others (the readers)2) Persuade others to take action/to promote an

idea.3) Propose your ideas.4) To contact the reader whom we cannot meet in

person.5) They allow us to structure our thought in

accurately.6) Can file or keep to and refer back when

needed.

Begin writing a formal letter

1) Analyse your audience.2) Determine your purpose.3) Gather information you want to include in your letter.4) Create an outline.5) Write a draft.6) Revise it.

2.1.1 Write Your Letter Persuasively

Things to consider:

(a) Try to anticipate the readers reaction to your letter.

(b) Think of the readers benefit first, yours second.

(c) Adjust language and use reader familiar terms / concepts.(d) Write with a positive attitude and show confidence.(e) Do not condescend and talk down to the reader.(f) Show humility but not too much.(g) Do not preach your ideas.(h) Be service - oriented.

2.1.2 How to Write the Introduction

1) The Letterhead or Return Address- name, address,phone number2) The Inside Address

3) Attention Line

4) SalutationsDear Sir or Madam5) The Subject Line- Use a concise and precise phrase

2.1.3 How to Write the Body of the Letter

1) The Introductory Paragraph- one idea per piece2) Body/Middle of the Letter- supports thatintroduction idea by giving it more detail and

justification

3) End The Letterconclusion, express yourgratitude, add a salutary close, Yours sincerely or

Sincerely

2.3 Letter Writing Activities

How to Add Substance to Your Plan Sheet

- transfer the sentences or ideas into a language that is more fitting for formal letter by translating the plans into moreappropriate language.Making some things clear in your letter. These things include:

The actual reason you are writing: Convincing someone is by making your requests clear. State the aim of your request

2.4 Formal Replies and Follow-Ups

To reply to business letters, follow some basic steps.

1) Make sure you understand what your client requires.2) Think of ways you can fulfill their request, if at all.

Follow up letter .Why?

1) Your letter may have been unnoticed2) To make sure that your contacts have information

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3) Express your plan or ideas in clear, precise and easilyunderstood language.

about your business3) Give other person a chance.4) Cheaper that getting legal council

Topic 3: Models of Writer Communication: The Elements of Good Communication Models

3.1 Claude Shannons Model

Information is transmitted from an information sourcethrough a channel to a receiver

3.3 A Model Based on Ulric Neissers Work

Explore our world or specific phenomenon guided byour desires, needs, ideas, images of the world andsuch, and this exploration gives us a perception ornew information of the world.

The new information, in turn, affects our needs,desires, images, and such, thus changing ourperception of the world and so we begin ourexploration again.

This cycle goes on and on as long as we are stilllearning and exploring.

3.2 Roman Jakobsons Model

Information is transmitted from an information sourcethrough a channel to a receiver

3.4 A Model Based on Michael Polanyis Work

A person discovers meaning in an experience

The person expresses the meaning he gained fromhis experience in writing (a poem, a novel, an essay,

a letter, a journal entry, etc). Someone reads the text and discovers meaning in it. The reader may be the writer himself or herself

Or a complete stranger

Text does not convey the original experience to thereader. Instead, it conveys meaning to the reader.

3.5 Some Ideas About Communication

Signs Symbols Metaphor

Anything that is used to point

to/stand for something else (torepresentideas, experiences,images, objects, feelings,concepts and everything else.).

To refer to complex things

Symbols have complex meanings

in addition to the literal ones The more significant or important

the symbol, the more meanings itembodies.

It is a statement, phrase or word

that stands for something else.

3.5.3 Understanding, Explanation, Meaning and Interpretation

1) Make sure reader understandsyour literal meaningand plainly understand your message.

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2) If he does not, you need to explainyourself.3) You have to define your words, supply background information or supply the reader with additional information

he needs to understand your text. (Interpretation)

Topic 4: Report Writing4.1 The Process of Preparing a Report

1. Stages of Report Preparation researched, gathered, presented in a coherent and easily understood way tothe relevant parties.execute a plan and carry out a project

2. Gathering the Data Tips Data Gathering

Note your opinions and information relating to your opinions

Make note of how you want your data presented in the report

Keep progress notes

Document your plan in detail3. Analysing and Sorting the

Results

Choosing relevant data and then review your earlier opinions in relation tothe report you want to write.Following steps:

1) Write down results and observations in no particular order2) Note down all the opinions3) Note down new opinions4) Choose the ones that you need.5) Arrange all your data in the order of their importance.6) Sort out the data you want to put into your conclusion7) Turn your points into illustrations8) Outline your final report and draft it.

4. Outlining the Report A clear report is logically organised, concise, and easy to read.

Natural progression from analysis and sorting.

Outline should contain descriptive headings of each significant part of thereport and your expanded outline

a. complete scope of the report;b. relation of the various parts of the work discussed;c. amount of space to be given each part;d. order of treatment;e. places for inclusion of illustrations;f. conclusions.

three levels of headings and subheadings for simplicity and clarity, stickto just

Main Heading Subheading Run-in heading:This heading is indented on the same line as

the first line of the paragraph. Below run-in heading:This heading is indented on the same

line as the first line of the paragraph.5. Writing the Rough Draft First draft

Start writing soon after finishing your outline Keep writing; follow your flow of ideasSecond draft

Check for style Remember your audience (they be able to understand your draft easily or not)

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Behonest. Be tactful. Be concise and logical.6. Revising the Rough Draft The Three Stages of Revision

Stage One - Check for material

Stage Two - Check for organisation, mechanics and conventions

Stage Three - Check your language

4.2 The Report StyleStyle determine the success

of report

Good reports are:

clear;

concise;

flow smoothly;

written from an objective point of view.

4.3 Report Introduction

Your introduction is important because:

it guides the readers to what they will encounter

in the rest of the paper.

It prepares the reader to easily receive what the

writer intends to present.

It launches you immediately into the task of

relating your readers to the subject matter of the

report.

It makes clear the precise subject to be

considered, indicates the reasons for

considering the subject, and lays out the

organisation and scope of the report.

It tells your readers what you plan to tell and

why and how you will tell it.

It focuses your readers attention on the subject

to be treated. It should enable them to approach

the body of the report naturally and intelligently.

Primary functions of the introduction

Statement of Subject

Statement of Purpose

Statement of Organisation and Scope

Style and Length

Format

1. Arrangement of Your Report - Title, Abstract,

Introduction, Method (and logistics), Results,Discussion and Conclusion.

2. Citing References

3. Content and Style

4.4 The Writing Style

Use words and phrases that come naturally to

you

Concentrate on conveying your exact meaning

Get to your point quickly.

Always emphasise your main ideas.

Keep your facts and opinions separate.

Only add figures and tables that are

valuable to your reports; never repeat something

Choose to present

your data in a way that is easiest for your reader

to understand.

If your report is multimedia, Technical films,

videotapes, video clips and animations can be

very informative

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Topic 5: The Language of Business Writing

5.1 The Language of Business Writing job-related writing

it usually represents a direct communication between one person and another.

5.1.1 Process of Writing Business Letters

First, establish your purpose, your reader Es needs, and your scope. Second, prepare an outline Third, write a rough draft from the outline.Fourth, set the draft aside for a coolingperiod. The cooling period is especially important in the case of a letter

written in response to a problem.Fifth, revising the rough draft, go over your work carefully, checking for sense as well as grammar, spelling, and

punctuation.

5.1.2 Choice of Words and Tone

In general, the active voice creates a friendlier, more courteous tone than thepassive, which tends to sound impersonal and unfriendly. Polite wording,such as the use of please, also helps to create goodwill.

5.1.3 Direct and Indirect Patterns

More effective to present good news directly and bad news indirectlyBad news present directly would cause an abruptly phrased rejection early in the letter may prevent us from re-establishing an amicable relationship.

5.1.4 Paragraph/Sentence StructureThe way of writing a bad news letter is to manipulateparagraph/sentence structure.

A better, general structure of writing a bad news letter is asfollows:1. Buffer - either neutral information or an explanation that

makes the bad news understandable.2. Bad news- puts the bad news in perspective or makes

the bad news seem reasonable maintains.3. Goodwill.between the writer and the reader.

The pattern for good news business lettersshould be as follows:1. Good news.

2. Explanation or facts.

3. Goodwill.

5.2 The Format of Business Letters

Punctuation Styles/Grammar

Those are mechanics of writing

In business, accuracy and attention

to detail are equated with

carefulness and reliability.

The kindest conclusion a reader

Parts of a Letter/Layout

Almost all business letters

have at least five major parts:

heading;

inside address;

salutation;

Block/Modified Block Layout

Full block style, every line begins

at the left margin and is suitable

only with letterhead stationery.

Modified block style, the return

address, date and complimentary

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can come to about a letter

containing mechanical errors is

that the writer was careless.

Do not give your reader cause to

form such a conclusion.

body;

complimentary close.

close are placed to the right of the

centre of the page. The remaining

elements are aligned at the left

margin.

5.3 Business Letters

A good letter is better understood if

Clear - clear idea

Concise - the language is simple

Correct - are no errors. conversationtioninalthe tone is friendly

courteous

convincing

Tips to write a good business letter

Use Plain English simple EnglishThe Reader is Your Priority 1. find the correct one, use appropriate

2. language and insert just enough facts or information to suit youraudience

Short, Plain and Straight to the Point 1. focused on the information that supports your main aim come up witha guideline or outline plan.

2. Styles may be adopted. Use contractions.(add the human touch; the close,personal and

human feel to your writing) Use personal references. (use words such as I, we,you, your, my

and our in your writing)

Use direct questions.( direct question to get areaction from your reader and to give your writing impact.)

Responding to Enquiries 1. Treat them equally and with grace2. providing the materials or information that the perspective client has

asked for

Letter of Enquiry

(a) The Beginning Dear Sir, Madam, Ms, Mr, Ybg.Prof/DatoE/Tan Sri (if theycarry such titles).

(b) Giving Reference With reference to your advertisement (ad) in the StraitsTimes dated14th June, Tuesday 2005 Regarding your advertisement

in the Star dated9th May, 2005 could you

(c) Requesting a Catalogue, Brochure, etc. After the reference, add a comma and continuewould(could) you pleasesend me

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(d) Requesting Further Information I would like to know Could you tell me whether(e) Signature Yours Faithfully (very formal as you do not know the

personwhom you are writing to)

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Topic 6 Short Forms of Written Communication6.1 E-mails

Electronic mail and is a method of composing, sending andreceiving messages over electronic communication systems.

Electronic mail has evolved from only able to send shortmessages to can be used to send messages and data thatcan

range from pictures to animation to programmes Kinds of e-mails:

1) Personal e-mail;2) Legitimate business e-mail;3) Subscription (approved by recipient);4) Unknowingly approved by recipient;5) Spamming not approved by recipient; and6) Virus mail (sent by infected systems).

Update and protect your systems with the latest virusprogrammes to assured that e-mails are clean and free from anyviruses----------------------------------------------------------------------------

6.1.1 Selecting and Narrowing Topics

Select one topic per e-mail. Do one thing at a time.

Not to compress everything into one e- mail. Write threeseparate ones with three different titles.

Easy forYour reader or his secretary can read each mail and categorisethem according to his/her own system and priority of tasks to becompleted.

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6.1.2 To Read, Reply, Forward and Delete E-mail

(a) To Read- click on the message subject.(b) To Reply

Reply1. Click on the message subject then click reply2. Replying message screen appear and you can write back to

the sender of the message.

reply al l1. To send a reply to the original recipients of the message.2. Useful tool for group communication.

(c) To Forward

1. Click on the message subject then click forward2. This will take you to a forward

Message screen and you can forward the messageto one or more people.

(d) To Delete Click delete button to delete one message a time

when they are open. Click check box in box view to delete a selection of

messages and then click delete Deleted e-mail(s) will be transferred from inbox to

your trash folder-------------------------------------------------------------------

6.1.3 Evaluating and Making Notes from Sources

of Information

To ensure that your material is relevant and yoursources are acknowledged.

Forwarding e-mails is great for keeping in contact withfriends and relatives

Not good in the business context because they mayclutter your recipients inbox, and this gives him/hermore work to do to clear his/her inbox. (wasting yourreaders time )

Advantages1. Get message to the readerquickly2. They are cheap3. They can carry massive amounts of information4. You can send a single piece of information to

several different people at once

5. They are easy to store6. Enable you to contact your clients or business

contacts easily

6.2 Memorandum and Executive Summaries

The memorandum= communication in appropriate language that you sendto people who work with you(your colleagues, bosses,

workers and everyone else in your organisation

Appropriate language= language that suits the purpose and context

you are working in.Basic Appropriate language

Use Gender-neutral

Language

Gender specific actor, actress, chairman Chairwoman, and some terms of references that are thesame mr and mrs.

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Try to use language that does not differentiate or discriminate between the sexesUse Slang-free

Language

Slang is a local variation of a language Working in a company consisting of a multinational workforce - avoid using too much Manglish

Try to use the standard adopted by our school system when write memos

Professional/

Formal Tone

1. Firstly,courteous to fellow workers for able to be sincerely courteous to people outside yourorganisation.

2. Secondly, memo is a record of the communication with fellow workers for us in future to refer to thispiece of writing, and bring it up in a meeting or report. (avoid embarrassment)

3. Thirdly, get support and approval from people in organisation, impressing the people in yourorganisation with proofread your memos for style, mechanics and content before send them. (Neversend embarrassing memos to create a positive image with your colleague)

Feedback Share drafts with your colleagues and get their comments to improve your writing

Sure that they will understand what you wish to convey

Helps your colleagues as writing is not an easy thing to do for many people and often an also helpingeach other to start

Make yourself important to your colleagues, because provided them with reference or a source ofvaluable information

Format not need an address,but to know where the memo is from indicate your department position and project code when sending memos to people outside your

department

Executive Summaries

1) To provide a condensed version of the content of a longer report.

2) Are written for someone who most likely DOES NOT have time toread the original.

3) Be called an abstract when it accompanies a scholarlydocument.

4) An abstract is a shortened form of a work that retains the general

sense and unity of the original.5) An abstract is basically a miniature version of the original and it

looks like the original.

6) An executive summary let the reader in on

What the real significance of the report is

What is the reader expected to respond to?

The reader is a decision - maker who will have theresponsibility of deciding on some issue(s) related to thereport.

7) The executive summary

Must not longer than 10% of the original document. Can be 1-10 pages depending on the length of the report.

They are self- contained, stand-alone documents.

Accuracy is essential because decisions made by peoplebased summary and who have not read the original

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(a) Functions of an Executive Summary

Gives readers essential contents of document in 1-10 pages.

(b) Processes of Writing an Executive Summary

Write after research is finished. Try to:

1) Scanresearch to determine content, structure and lengthof report

2) Highlight key points; determine purpose/central themeof the report.

3) Review research and determine what the key ideas orconcepts

4) Groupideas in a logical fashion and prepare a point-form outline of the summary.

5) Edit the outline to eliminate secondary or minor points(keep the summary concise)

6) Determinesubtitles, bullets, selective bolding oforganisational structure to the clarity to summary.

7) Write the summary in your own words, usingprofessional style.

8) Read aloud or record yourself reading your summary.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------

(c) Elements of an Executive Summary

You should choose the elements depend on the

1) Purpose and nature of your document purpose andscope of document

2) Methods

3) Results

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Previews the main points to enable readers to build a mentalframework for organising and understanding the detailedinformation

Helps readers determine the key results and recommendationsreported.

4) Conclusion

5) Recommendations

6) Other supportive information

Topic 7 Persuasive Writing

7.2 Type of Persuasive Writing

AssertionConcession/

RebuttalProof

when the writerasserts a certainopinion to thereaderstate the problem orcontroversy andmay appear clearlyand succinctly.expressed in thethesis statement

writer does notexaggerate ordistort theopponents viewdo not defend the

opposing side butfairly andreasonably statewhat these viewsare

presents the evidencefor the assertion

using a series of facts,examples, instancesand observations tosupport the argument

compellingrestatement of theassertion.

Element for good Arguments

(a) Element Evidence

In order to convince the reader to agree with you. You mustensure that your evidence is convincing & satisfy the followingquestions: Enough evidence? The evidence trustworthy? Reliable?

Informed, valid sources?

Evidence verifiable?

Reasons for and Purposes of Persuasive Writing

1) To influence or change an audiences thoughts or actions.

2) Want people to believe us, remember what we have writtenand will take the necessary action based on our writtenwork.

Types of Reasoning Processes

Deduction

Mode

begins with a general principle or premiseand draws a specific conclusion from it.

Induction

Mode

supports a general conclusion by examiningspecific facts or cases.

The process itselfAppeal to Reason

argument is an appeal to persons sense ofreason

its a measured, logical way of trying topersuade others to agree with you

choose one side of an issue clearly in aneffort to persuade others

Appeal to Emotion

evoking emotion in our reader is to usevivid images.

Appeal to Good Personality/Character

The appeal to our good behaviour or our ethics

Evidence must

valid,reliable,

suf f ic ient , trustwo rthy

and can b e ver i f ied

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(B) Element Appeal To Author i ty

To clear the uneasiness authoritative, we must consider thefollowing elements. They are:

Do people question your authority on a particular subject?

Is your expert opinion current or up to date? Do your peers accept and respect your opinion? Is your expert advice free of bias?

(C) Element Impro per Evaluation Of Statist ics

Use them ethically, accurately & as objective as possible. Have samples which are pool representative and unbiased. Have statistics accurately tabulated and see that the

statistics are not taken out of context

can occur at one or more of the following levelsin any argument: Are you a reasonable person? (Are you

willing to listen, compromise and concedepoints?)

Can someone reason with you? (Are youready to listen?)

Are you authoritative? (Do you have the

mandate or power to stand by yourdecisions?) Are you an ethical/moral person? Are you concerned for the well-being of

your audience? (Do you have them atheart?)

7.2 Persuasive Strategies

Possible persuasive strategies include:

1. Emphasising Readers

Benefits

explains to readers how they will benefit from performing the action/taking the position/purchasingthe product recommended

readers are members of organisation, stress organisational objectives and growth needs

2. Addressing Readers

Concerns

predict what thereaders responses.

to counteract any negative thoughts or arguments that arise in readers minds.

3. Showing Sound

Reasoning

writer needs to persuade readers that the decisions or actions recommended will actually bringabout benefits and explain why

4. Presenting Reliable

Evidence

o readers are willing to accept Reliable evidence depending on the field.

oA writer needs to use common sense to determine what type of evidence is needed.

7.3 The Reasoning Process ( 2 basic types or reasoning processes: deduction and induction refer to 7.2 ) In order to have confidence in the writer, readers must understand the:

(a) Writers Claim The claim is the position the writer wants readers to accept.(b) Evidence The evidence consists of observations, facts and other information provided in support of the claim.

(c) Line of Reasoning The line of reasoning is the connecting link between the claim and the evidence the reasons givenfor believing that the evidence proves the claim.

7.4 Direct and Indirect Patterns of Organisation

(a) Organising to Create a Positive Response

carefully choose the organisational pattern which bestsuits your purpose.

Ensure that all the parts of your persuasive piece fittogether tightly.

(b) Direct Pattern Organisation

o In a direct pattern of organisation, the writers mainpoint is started first.

o Evidence and other related information are givenafterwards.

o The direct organisational pattern works well when the readers initial response isall important

(c) Indirect Pattern of Organisation

Indirect pattern of organisation postpones the bottom-line statement until all the evidence and relatedinformation have been presented.

You first discuss the situation, then make yourrecommendations after presenting your arguments.

The writer can prepare readers for therecommendations about to be made

Indirect pattern is particularly useful when you conveyinformation which your readers might view asthreatening.

The indirect pattern avoids of inciting the readersinitial negative reactions.

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you recommend a course of action or presentingan analysis which you expect your readers to viewfavourably.

It can frustrate the reader who wants to know theabottom line first.

7.5 Voice and Credibility

Be a credible and can be trusted writer

1) Consider the Reasoning Process and Types of Reasoning -to think and consider how he reasons out his writing

2) Choosing an Appropriate Voice3) Establishing Credibility

Belief your readers have regarding whether you are a good source of information and ideas When people believe you are credible, they are more likely to acceptthe things you say. If people do not find you credible, they may refuseto consider your ideas seriously

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Topic 8 Writing and Presenting Proposals

8.1 Definitions of Terms: Proposals and Feasibility Studies

Proposals are informative and persuasive writing because they attempt to educate the reader and to convince thatreader to do something.

a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the research process and include sufficientinformation for the readers to evaluate the proposed study.

All research proposals must address the followingquestions:

1. What do you want to do?

2. What do you plan to accomplish?

3. Why do you want to do it?

4. How are you going to do it?

5. What is the subject of the proposal?

6. For whom the proposal intended?

The Good proposal should

1) have sufficient information to convince your readers to

research idea, good grasp of the relevant literature and

major issues and methodology is sound.

2) The quality of your research proposal depends on the

quality of proposed project and proposal writing.

8.2 Writing a Proposal

b) Recognition of Critical Factors in ProposalAssessment

A clearly outlined evaluation process can help toclarify goals, define objectives and refineprocedures during the initial development of theproposal

Evaluation serves a number of useful purposes

Assessment assists everyone in understandingwhat made the project successful and why and

what hindered its success.

Ask a few questions yourself

c) Problems in Proposal Writing and Getting aProposal Together

1. Problem to get the right title

Weak title: Improving English Education in Primary Schools

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----------------------------------------------------------------

8.3 Proposal Writing to Fit the Needs of

Organisation or Clients

a) Main Concerns of Proposal Writing

people who will carry out the work of the proposal who

could be your tutor or supervisor the supervisor or whoever you are dealing with is

reputable and will be able to fulfill that contract the

people in the institution submitting the proposal

Better title: Innovative Instructional Materials to ImproveEnglish Education in Primary Schools

2. Problems keep on cropping up

3. Tough time in organising documents

4. What should or should not be included.

5. Cannot organise their material in a logical way.

Major points that a researcher has to address.

1) The filtrationprocess for writing a thesis proposal.

2) Keep on filtering, redefine your titleand contentso that it becomes a doable project.

3) Talk to yourself keep on selling your ideas toyour friends or supervisor. Talking assists inclarifying your ideas.

4) Write a brief noteabout your idea in one or twopages, especially on your area of interest. Try toread through and put it aside for a moment (as if toforget about it), come back to it and think whetheryou have done a good job.

5) Keep on reading spend time in the library, readthrough various texts and

6) Attend to your areas of interest. Take notes(never forget to reference the texts).

7) Mull through the write-upbecause you might findsome things to change.

8) Discipline, which is sorting out the various topicsso that they are in order.

9) Referencingso that you acknowledge otherpeoples work.

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8.4 Informal and Formal Proposals A formal proposal is usually submitted by or through an

organisation such as a school, college, university, non-profitorganisation or museum to an organisation such as afoundation, funding agency or corporation.

A proposal often begins with a person acting upon awholehearted desire to fulfill a need, to do something for ones

own benefit and for the benefit of others. Motivated by deep personal convictions, people experiencing

this strong desire often recognise that solving a pressingproblem, performing critically important research or achieving aparticular goal, can make the world a better place.

The researcher will go all out and is willing to devote his or herpersonal time and energy to satisfy this burning desire.

8.4.1 Nature of Formal/Informal Proposal (Differentiate)

Formal Proposal Informal Proposal

1. to be written in a formalbusiness-like manner

2. means you have your toright and clear

3. present it to the boardor to whoever it is for

4. from the beginning, tothe methods and theinstruments.

1. written neatly and structured like theformal one, it may be done on a smallerscale and normally carries less weightcompared with a formal proposal

2. it consumes almost the same amount oftime

3. the informal proposal is prepared not toseek funding or for an academic degree

4. done to undertake a small researchproject on something

5. can be completed sooner than a formalone.

8.4.2 Business Proposal

Proposal writing is a lengthy process and costs time and moneyevery time you are not awarded the contract/tender

It takes researchers a long time to set upPresent business proposal in well laid-out, looks highly

professional and is compellingLay out specific terms within the law to prevent being taken for a

ride

With the right proposal, you will be assured of winning thecontract

Business proposals are developed for two possible reasons (JuneCampbell, 2002)

1. A business company hascalled for tenders or hasinvited you to submit an RFP(Request for Proposal).

Your proposal must standout among possibly dozensof submissions.

Goal is to be shortlisted

2.You have an idea, conceptor projectthat you want topropose to someone with thegoal of gaining support,funding or an alliance.

No competitive biddingprocess

Make a favourableimpression and explain allaspects of your proposedconcept clearly and quickly.

Business proposal guidelines Clarity Strive to communicate not to impress Error free Print and bind Layout

Visual elements Title page Be politically correct Jargon free Technology

8.5 Funding of Proposals

Internal funding from his/her own employer

If done outside ones institution, he/she hasto look for extern

sponsors.

Sponsorship/funding may come from

Ones own employer

Business establishment

Multinational companie

External sources (such as ford foundation, rockefeller

foundation or other renowned sponsors)

8.6 Feasibility Studies And Reports

feasibility means Feasibilitys 3 parts meaning

capable of being done,

executed or effected

1. The degree to given alternative

mode, management strategy,

design or location is economically

justified.capable of being

managed, utilised or

dealt with successfully

2. The degree to an alternative is

considered preferable from an

environmental or social perspective.

reasonable, likely 3. The degree to construction and

operation of such an alternative can

be financed and managed

(a) There are two general types of feasibility study reports

1. Interim reportsdocument findings and if appropriate,

general interest reports made during the course of feasibili

studies.

2. Final reports should contain an executive summary or

should briefly define the study approach, briefly summarise

the types of analysis methods used, summarise the results

and state a conclusion

(b) Problems in feasibility report

1. Write a good introductionsituation, audience, overview

2. State requirements - factors that influence the decision

3. Indicate how option being compared

4. Organise the comparison - using the point-by-point approa

5. state the best choice of each comparative section

6. include a key data summary in table form and provide

technical background

7. Discuss the background of the problem or opportunity

8. Include sections of definitions, descriptions

9. Include a conclusion section

10. Include a recommendation section

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8.6.1 What is a Feasibility Study

1. Designed to provide an overviewof the primary issues related to a business idea

2. To identifyany make or break issues that would prevent your business from being successful in the marketplace

3. Be considered a brief formal analysis of a prospective business idea

4. To give the entrepreneur a clear evaluationof the potential for sales and profit of a particular idea

5. Provides a lot of informationnecessary for a business plan

6. A feasibility study looks at three major areas

Market Issues Organisational/Technical Issues Financial Issues

Market analysis begins by

asking:

1. What precisely is the

market?

2. The more specific you

can be, the better it is.

3. Is the market growing,

shrinking or staying the

same?

4. Is it worth your while?

5. Is the market enough to

make it worth the time?

Key questions to answer include:

1. What organisational structure is right for your project?

2. Who will manage the business?

3. What qualifications needed to manage business?

4. Who will sit on the board of directors? What are their

qualifications

The cost and availability of technology may be of critical

importance to the feasibility of a project

Key issues to answer include:

1. What technology needed?

2. What other equipment needed?

3. Where to obtain this technology & equipment?

4. When can acquire it?

5. How much equipment & technology cost?

Third and final step of a feasibility analysis is to take a

look at key financial issues.

Start-up

costs

Costs incurred at start of new business

Operating

costs

Ongoing costs, such as rent, utilities,

wages

Revenue

projections

How will you price goods and services?

Source of

financing

Need to borrow money

Profitability

analysis

Will the business bring enough revenue?

Will it break even, lose money or make a

profit?

8.6.2 Benefits of Feasibility Studies

Benefit cost analysis developed during a feasibility

study may well attract more attention and produce

more controversy than any other product of the study. Benefit cost analysis is generally considered the most

objective and credible product of such studies.

Implementing feasibility studies can:

1. Map out for lenders your proposals strengths

and potential.

2. Realistically analyse the impact of expansion.

3. Show you the pros and cons

4. Analyse the business data.

8.6.3 The Feasibility Study

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Topic 9 The Fundamentals of Writing A Research Paper

9.1 Researching for a Paper

Research Papers Documented Essays

Students search for and use outside

sources to support their main argument.Sources are cited within the paper

Publication information about each

source or reference is included at the

end of the paper in a a works cited

page.

Student uses quotes

from one or moresources that he or

she has read in a

class.

9.2 What is a Research Paper

1. An extended essaythat summarises information about a

particular subject in order to prove a point.

2. A sustained inquiryabout a particular subject

3. Research paper not an english assignment

4. A toolfor the student to use as he explores one of the

content areas of the curriculum something he is

interested in.

9.3 Choosing a TopicGenerally

Read the assignment very carefully and select a topic or athesis that fits within the assignment

Choose topic that you are interested & capable of adequately

pursuing in the space you have Avoid topics that too broad or too narrow. Better to do something more narrowly focused

Key feature of successful research.You need to choose a topic that1. Fulfills the course requirements; and2. Is doable.

3. Has available resources in the library or on the internetIs not too extensive and, in actuality, is several topics in one, sothat it is manageable in the time available

Ask Question(1) have a strong opinion? (2) read a newspaper article that tested your curiosity?(3) have a personal issue, problem? (4) have a research paper due in a class this current?(5) Is there an aspect of one of your courses that you are interested in learning about more?Write down any words or phrases that may be of interest to you.Be aware of certain overused topic ideas.

Read a general encyclopedia article on the top two or three topics you areconsidering.

Limit a topicgeographic region;culture,time frame, discipline and population group.Topic more difficult if itlocally confined, recent, broadly interdisciplinary & popularIf uncertaintiesdiscuss topic with your tutor/instructor & librarian.

Keep track of the words that are used to describe your topic. words that best describe your topic. synonyms, broader and narrower terms to expand your search capabilities. Keep a list of these words

modify research topic during the research process.

develop a more focused interest in an aspect of something relating to that word and thenbegin to have questions about the topic

Use the key words, need some research and reading before you select your final topic

Write your topic as a thesis statement.Development of a thesis assumes is sufficient evidence to support the thesis statement.

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The title should clearly convey the focus, purpose and meaning of your research.

Remember to discuss and follow any specific instructions from your instructor.9.4 Research and Analysis1. Reason = to provide evidence to prove your thesis.2. Ways to research or analyse = methodology3. Research

Include looking up other research on the same or similar

topic To find out what other people have said about it. Can help you prove your thesis, clarify your methodology

or even find contrary opinions you need to disprove

Research Suggestions. Start Out by Reading a General Study or Two on Your Subject Treat Research Like a Detective Story Look at the Most Recent Books and Journal Articles First Photocopy Important Material

9.5 Research Sources1) Reference Works

materials in the reference room are valuable resources forbeginning to

structure the basic outline or your topic. Languageencyclopedias and

dictionaries are one of the many resources

2) Books

OUM Virtual System (VLS) Headings for ways to cross-reference your search for books

3) Scholarly Journal Articles

sources of new information and analysis

4) Government Publications

a report of a government agency, hearing or reports of aparliamentary committee, the PAC (Public AccountsCommittee), the transcript of the proceedings ofParliament or a document from a government printer

5) News magazines and Newspapers

not good sources of analysis check with tutor to ensure that these are considered acceptable

sources

6) World Wide Web (WWW) ElectronicResources

Government bureaucracies. Network government resources.

Malaysian government links.Included data references: Author of the web page; Date of the web page;

Title of the web page; and complete url.

7) Miscellaneous Sources

References to sources that are not found in your library

8) External Sources

Conduct an interview with a decision-maker or some otherrelevant person

9) Thesis Statement

A thesis statementin an essay is a sentence that explicitlyidentifies the purpose of the paper or previews its main ideas.important to lets the reader know: There is one main point rather than several main points; Your position on a particular issue What exactly you are trying to prove or substantiate.

The supporting paragraphsshould all work to support thethesis statement. Its can Clarify your position on an issue;

Provide key definitions related to the topic; Discuss the how and why aspect of the thesis statement Discuss patterns or inconsistencies in development.

Thesis Statement:

1) Makes an argumentative assertion about a topic;2) States the conclusions that you have reached about your

topic;3) Makes a promise to the reader about the scope, purpose and

direction of your paper;4) Is focused and specific enough to be proved within the

boundaries of your paper;5) Is generally located at the end of the introduction;6) Is expressed in several sentences or in an entire paragraph;

and7) Identifies the relationships between the pieces of evidence

that you are using to support your argument

10) Outlining and Organisation

Introduction establish your topic and state your thesis; Move to the body of paper in a clear, logical manner Prove your thesis, step by step and convince your reader End with a conclusion

11) Argument

convince your. organise your thoughts, logically and provide evidence Look for gaps in your own argument and try to fill those in Avoid errors in reasoning (stereotypes, invalid assumptions,

hasty generalisations or appeals to the emotions)

12) Writing

Methodology include laboratory research, surveys, close textualanalysis and psychoanalytic search.

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1) Not to write in a colloquial style unless it is necessary;2) Avoid lots of choppy short sentences and paragraphs3) Each paragraph has a central idea and that paragraphs are4) Clearly connected5) Avoid using the same words repeatedly6) Double check your paper for grammatical, punctuation, spelling and other errors

13) Citation

a) To cite is to point to evidence, authority or proof.

b) need to collect and assemble details of where yourinformation came from and note this in your text.c) Citing to protect ourselves against charges of plagiarism.

It is also vital to:prove that our work has a substantial, factual basis;show the research we have done reaches our conclusionsallow our readers to identify and retrieve the references for

their own use.d) There are two main styles of citing

Harvard Is a type of author-date style; Requires only the name of the author(s)

and the year of publication (with nopunctuation between the two items)

Requires citations to be placed at the endof a sentence (before the concludingpunctuation).

Example:adnin (1990: 564) has argued that

Vancouver A footnote/endnote style References are numbered in the order in

which they are cited in the text.

e) For Notes, Footnotes and Endnotes

Make your argument coherent and sound

Since they provide the reader with the sources/evidence

to back your argument. Indicating thoughts and ideas of a secondary nature. Explain or to make a comment on something

Footnotes(little notes) found on the same page Endnotes (little longer notes ) found on back pages

f) For Bibliography

presents them in a way that permits a prospective reader tosee how you did your research

Author (One Only)/ Title /Place Published Company/Year.

14) Presentation

a) writing it clearly sentencesb) need also be clear and concisec) checked for syntax, punctuation and style.d) paragraphs and sentences should flow easily paper is

cleanly typed or printed without any missing pages or errorse) figures or illustrations are clearly labelled.

9.6 Looking for a Paper1. Means that you as a writer have to do some background

reading, think hard and speak with your tutor or instructor inorder to identify a good topic.

2. Begin by reading in the field3. Read a few books or articles on topics you find of interest.4. Follow up by reading on the course syllabus or the footnotes

or bibliographies of the texts you are reading for the course.5. Speak to your tutor or instructor about some of your general

ideas and the possible research directions you are thinkingabout pursuing.

Typical Structure

1) Start with a paragraph that summarises the key results in thecontext of the question (s) you asked in the introduction

2) Compare and contrast with others in the literature.

3) List the limitations might resolve them.4) Discuss implications in other fields such as culture and

religion.5) Hypothesise and speculate on the data. (provide a model)

9.7 Looking for MaterialsMaterials for research can be divided into three categories:(a) Background Information - brief and to the point that asummary either:

Explains why the topic that you chose is significant

Provides a brief history of your chosen topic.(b) Supporting Information

Drive your argument forward. Validates your opinion.(more believable and plausible)

(c) Opposing Information

Its useful to strengthen your position on an issue. Include opposing information

Useful tactic to persuade the reader to take your side.

9.8 The Craft of Note-Taking One note card should be used for each major point

Information incidentbe written in a corner of the note card(name of book or article, place and year published andpublished company.

process of note-taking.(a) Examine the Books and Articles

Skim sources, locating useful material, then make goodnotes of it,. (icluding quotes & nformation for footnotes. )

Make these notes on separate cards for each author.(b) Take Care in Note-taking

Be accurate and honest.(not distort the authorsmeaning.)

do not want to collect only those things that will supportyour thesis while ignoring other facts or opinions.

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(c) Get the Right Kind of Material

Get facts, not just opinions. Compare the facts with the authors: deas,

opinions.Deliberations.Quotations.Closure, conclusions.

9.8.1 How to Take Research Notes

1) Write down all the bibliographicalinformation (authors name, publisher,

date & place of publication) on a 3-by-5 index card source card

2) Number allyour source cards.

3) Skimeach source for information on your subject.

4) Write down the informationyou wish to note on an

5) information card. (using a direct quote, a paraphrase)

6) Jot down the pagenumberof the source from information card.

7) Number each information cardto refer back to the source.

8) Organise your information cardsaccording to subject matter.

9.9 Writing a Research Paper

Clarity in writing

Be written in the third person

Good writing can be divided into three parts:ef for t , sty le considerat ions and technical

mat ters

9.10 Looking at Different Sets of Research Papers

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Step 1 Choose a Topic Select a subject you can manage. Avoid subjects that are too technical, learned or specialised, very narrow

range of source materials.Step 2 Find Information a) evaluate web sites critically and to search effectively on the Internet

b) Use Search Engines to search in the Net for general or background information, check out useful URLs,general information online, almanacs or encyclopedias online

c) check out materials available in your own universityEs library or in other librariesd) jot down full bibliographical information

Step 3 State Your Thesis Do some critical thinking and write your thesis statement in one sentence.

Step 4 Make a TentativeOutline

INTRODUCTION, a BODY and a CONCLUSION

Step 5 Organise YourNotes

a) Organise according to your outline and critically analyse your research datab) Check for accuracy and verify that the information is factual, up to date and correctc) Effectively communicate your thoughts, ideas, insights and research findings to others through written

words or through spoken words as in an oral or multimedia presentation with audio-visual aids.d) Jot down detailed bibliographical information for each cited paragraph and have it ready to transfer to your

word cited page.

Step 6 Write Your FirstDraft

a) Use a technique that suits you to Summarise, paraphrase or quote directly for each idea you plan to use inyour paper.

b) Put all your note cards or paper in order of your outlinec) well-organised research paper completed exactly as outlined

Step 7 Revise YourOutline and Draft

a) Read your paper for any errors in content.b) Arrange and rearrange ideas to follow your outline.c) Reorganise your outline if necessary, but always keep the purpose of your paper and your readers in mind.d) Re-read your paper for grammatical errorse) Correct all spoted errors and improve the overall quality of the paper.

Steps to Ensure a Good Research Paper

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f) Get someone else to read it over

Step 8 Type Final Paper a) be type-written using a word processor or in a rare case, a typewriterb) Read the assignment sheet againc) Proof read your final paper carefully for spelling, punctuation, missing or duplicated wordsd) ensure that your final paper is clean, tidy, neat and attractive.

9.11 Writing Your Research Paper in Four StepsStep 1 Select a Paper Topic Topic which is of interest to you

Consult your course instructor or tutor you are writing the paper for before you see the advisor.Step 2 Locate Relevant Academic

Literature

Deepen the understanding of your chosen topic Reviewing the existing literature

Step 3 Make an Argument Organise your thoughts, present them logically and provide evidence to back them up. Be detailed and cite sources and specific things you have found to clearly ground your argument Anticipate counter- arguments or counter-evidence and to argue against those in your paper Avoid errors in generalisations or appeals to emotions.

Step 4 Support Your Argument withEvidence

Good argument is only as good as the evidence that supports it Library research advisor can assist you Examples of evidence to support an argument = transcripts of interviews and speeches by

officials, Legislative acts, court decisions, internal memos and other official documents

9.12 Referencing and EditingReferencing

Show evidence of what an author has said;

Avoid misrepresentation through restatement Save unnecessary writing when ideas have been well-

expressed by the original author

Editing

1) Editing is the process of refining a piece of writing so thatit suits a particular purpose. It gets your document readyto do its job (Bandy, 2004).

2) To reveal hidden mistakes and will ensure that your bestpossible work is being submitted.

3) Find and eliminate all common mistakes from thedocument as previously stated

4) Proper editing cures inconsistent statements, ambiguities,

poorly written sentences and weak word choices.

Three types of editing:

1. Substantive Editing- deal primarily with the content and

message of the copy.2. Stylistic Editing- focuses on matters specifically related to

the actual writing, such as clarity, flow, sentence length andword selection.

3. Copyediting- focus on grammar, internal inconsistencies,headline writing and spelling.

According to Bandy, once you have finished writing the

document, you can take the following steps:1) Run spell-check.2) Let it rest, then read for sense and tone.3) Reread backwards for the following common mistakes (invalid

sentences, non-parallel constructions, bad apostrophes and

wrong words).4) Run spell-check again

Topic 10 Writing Collaboratively10.1 Stages in Collaborative Writing (Three stages)

The

Invention

Stage

Learners are engaged in preliminary discussions ofideas and approaches usingNote sharing

Brainstorm about the topics first then trade notesand materials with the others

Preliminary debating

Prepare a debate/idea on a topic

Group members gather support for their positions,

which then becomes shared materials for papers.The

Drafting

Stage

Three models

Chunk mode- divides the writing of a project intosections.Good everyone involvedBad-result in an incoherent paperBlended model-learners be present in the same placeand discuss every aspect of the paperCompiler model-each group member does the wholeassignment, final best product be selected to create thefinal draft.

Andrew Booth (2002) divides collaboration into two types

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The

Revision

Stage

Group members have to revise the paper1) The group members can revise one anothers

drafts.2) The best writer of the group can become the chief

editor of the draft.3) Other group members can give comments or

suggestions.

10.2 Team Communication

Effective writing teams know what they intend to accomplish.

They know their responsibilities, resources, strengths andweaknesses and know how to communicate well.

But such problems can include:1) unsatisfactory negotiations;2) non-acknowledgement of ideas/opinions;3) over-zealous editing;4) missed deadlines/non-delivery; and5) non-understanding of subject matter

10.5 Management of Time/Writing/Documents# Time- deadlines affect group writing tasks constantly

# Writing - bulletin board to show the writing cpmpletingprogress, using a type of story-board format to post sectionsof the work Itself.

# Document - an outline of the steps that will occur in thewriting process

When all done, they must make decisions1) Group versus Individual Work

decide activities to be done by group and by individual groupmembers

2) Equivalency of a Task

Each group member have an equal amount of work complete the job as quickly as possible and will ensure

fairness

3) Best Use of Individual Skills

Match up individual skills with a job that utilises those skills. If group members are comfortable with each other, they will be

less hesitant to state their own strengths and weaknesses.

10.6 Managing Collaborative Writing Projects

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10.3 Team Building Practising democracy is another aspect of team building. Every member needs to be given the chance to speak and

respect must be shown for each persons ideas or opinions. More creative energy as well as better quality product will

emerge as a result of team- work. Students working as a team will maximise use of resources

and improve their profile.

10.4 Analysis of Task The group must analyse the task to be done so that each

member has the same interpretation. They must consider the major questions to be answered

concerning the writing project.

10.7 Practice in Writing Step-By-Step

Instructions

# Develop a style and format guide at the very beginning ofthe writing project.

# questions to consider1) What style guide? Which spelling conventions?2) What size for font type, margins and headings ?3) Will abbreviations be allowed and which ones?4) Which technical terms necessary to define?5) Will processes be explained in point form or paragraph

form?

10.8 Conflict Management Groups need to face these conflicts with patience,

understanding and respond to them directly

Take steps to resolve the conflict as soon as they become

aware that it exists

Process

Find the source of the problem

10.12 Writing as a Group Writing collaboratively tends to take a bit more time than

writing alone.

Each writer might have different ideas on what to write, how

to write and how much to write.

Group should lay out a detailed series of deadlines and

dates for meeting in order to eliminate as much of the last-

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What is the issue

Where did it come from

Who started it

10.9 Collaborative Writing Practice

Group members need to know what they are supposed to do

following is an example of a group project Get students to work as a team to brainstorm, research,

outline, draft and revise the material which will be submitted

to the tourism board

10.10 Preparing Manuals and Other Forms of

Team Writing

# Guidelines in the manual should be clear, straightforward

and easy to understand

# Guidelines to be considered when preparing a manual:1) Purpose

2) Amount of detail

3) Heading

4) Format

5) Inclusion of diagram

6) Level of language

7) User friendliness

8) Other appriopriate consideration

minute rush as possible.

Collaborative writing also has the potential to be far superior

to individual writing, because

The weaknesses and inadequacies of individuals are

checked upon by one another

The strengths of the individuals are pooled together.

Tips for

9)