1. .., .. ENERGETICS TODAY. .: , 2008. PART - 51 . - , , . , . 18 , , 10-11 . . , . , "Supplementary". , , . . .

2008

UNIT 8. Fuel. Its kinds Grammar: The Passive voice Language work 1.Learn to recognize the following international words. laser, radar, globe, induction, asbestos, volt, generator, resource, magnet. 2.Translate the following sentences. 1. He will be given two new books. 2. I was told to look through the morning mail. 3. The questions were answered at once. 4. The first toothbrush was invented in the 15th century in China. 5. Compact discs were developed in Japan and Netherland together, actually. 6. The first petrol car was built in Germany by Mr. Daimler and Mr. Benz. 7. The data obtained are widely used. 8. Storage batteries are made up of a number of rechargeable cells. 9. Gasifier gas turbine system could probably be developed in a few years. 10. One quarter or more of the current national electricity production could be cogenerated from biofuels in the long term. READING Text 1 Read and translate into Russian FUELS In speaking of "fuel" it is still the universal practice to mean the combustible material, which in conjunction with atmospheric oxygen, forms the source of heat. Actually the fuel in the ordinary sense is only one of two components needed for the generation of heat by combustion. Air being the source of the oxygen required to produce the combustible mixture is, therefore, equally a part of the fuel, as are the other materials already mentioned.. Thus, an air jet to be introduced into an atmosphere of, say, coal gas will burn in an identical manner as a gas jet in air. A feature common to all industrial fuels is that the basic combustible is carbon and, with the exception of blast furnace gas, this is combined in various proportions with hydrogen together with small portions of oxygen and sulphur. Non-combustible components are practically only met with in the case of solid fuels and go to form the ash residue after the combustible matter has been consumed. There will also be a widely varying percentage of moisture associated with solid fuels when delivered and fired.

Solid fuels are composed from the practical point of view, of "fixed" carbon, volatile matter, sulphur and moisture. The fixed carbon, the volatile matter and, to a minor extent, the sulphur compose the combustible matter, the classification of solid fuels being usually based upon the ratio of volatile matter to the fixed carbon. The volatile matter is that proportion of the fuel which is distilled and gasified on heating to a temperature of 900 C, without access of air, leaving a residue of solid coke consisting of carbon and the incombustible ash and a portion of the sulphur. The fixed carbon is that remaining in the coke after distillation of the volatile matter. It is determined by complete combustion of the coke in a stream of oxygen so that only the ash remains. Natural fuels like coal, gas and oil are being rapidly exhausted. The application of atomic power is becoming increasingly broader because at present it is the only known potential capable of meeting mankind's power requirements. The power obtained from atomic reactions has been applied to various fields of man's peaceful activity. Focused practice 1. Answer the questions. 1.What is fuel? 2.Is air a part of fuel? 3.What is a feature common to all industrial fuels? 4.Which substances form the ash? 5.What are solid fuels composed of? 6.How can you explain the term "volatile matter"? * 7.What is the only potential capable of meeting mankind's power requirements 2.Retell the text. 3.Speak on coal as a fuel. 4.Discuss the future problems offossil fuels. Language study 3 1. Translate the following sentences. 1. The new substance was supposed to have some valuable properties. 2. The experimental results were not generally accepted, and the idea was discarded. 3. The distribution of plants is great affected by local conditions. 4. His lectures were always followed by hot discussions. 5. This device is expected to be the best for turning biofuels into heat. 6. A magnetic flux is assumed to consist of magnetic lines of force taken as a whole. 7. Rapid development of chemical technology has been called for by the needs of the national economy. 8. This invention proved to be of great practical importance. 2.Translate the following sentences.

]. 8 . 2. 2 . 3. . 4. . 5. . 6. . 7. 2 . 8. . 3.For the word combinations given in (A) find the Russian equivalents in (B). A)1. a number of; 2. as a matter of fact; 3. for this reason; 4. at last; 5. on the whole; 6. on the base of. B)1. ; 2. ; 3. -; 4. ; 5. ; 6. . Text 2 Read and translate into Russian BIOMASS GASIFICATION Biomass has attractive characteristics as an energy resource. It can be recovered as a byproduct or produced specifically for energy. The production and use of biomass can be structured to cause only minor environmental impacts compared to the exploitation of fossil resource. Most biomass contains much less sulphur than coal or oil. Thermochemical gasification is one of the simplest and most energy- efficient means for upgrading biomass. While gasification is conceptually simple, practical systems must be prepared for the end-use of the gas. Biomass gasification has been used with varying degrees of success with industrial furnaces and boilers, internal combustion engine-generators, and methanol synthesis plants. Gas turbines appear wellsuited for biomass applications because their natural scale is small, as required for biomass facilities by cost constraints on fuel transport. Gasification consists of two basic sets of reactions. Pyrolysis refers to a complex set of reactions during which the volatile components of the feedstock vaporize at temperatures below about 600C and leave behind fixed carbon (char) and ash. Biomass consists of 75-85% volatile matter

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compared to half or less this level with coal, so pyrolysis plays a larger role in biomass gasification. In addition, biomass generally pyrolyzes at lower temperatures than coal. Products of pyrolysis include water vapor and heavy hydrocarbon compounds (tars and oils) that condense at relatively high temperatures. In some gasifiers, the tars and oils constitute an important energy component of the raw gas. In other cases, gas-phase reactions occur in higher temperature regions of the gasifier, converting most of the primary pyrolysis products into gases. Focused practice 1. Put five questions to this text. SPEAKING Dialogue Air purification Good morning, Mr. Sanders. My name is Klimov. I'm engaged in researching in the field of ecology, particularly in air purification. Our laboratory has developed a new electric filters to purify industrial gases. That is nice. Where can they be used? They may be used in different plants, for example, in factories, at thermal power stations. It's of universal character, as I see. What is the capacity of your filter? The capacity of our filter is 60,000 to 1,500,000 cubic meters of gas per hour. The purification process takes place at temperatures of up to 330C. Focused practice 1.Act the dialogue. 2.Retell the dialogue in reported speech. 3.Make up a dialogue based on the text "Biomass gasification ". Writing 5 of fuel". /. Write a narrative: " The most promising kind

Klimov:

Sanders: Klimov: Sanders: Klimov:

UNIT 9. Solar energy Grammar: Not-finite forms. Revision Language work 1.Learn international words. astronomer, contact, catalogue, gravitation, mathematician, observatory, planet, telescope. 2.Translate the following sentences paying attention to the forms of verb. 1. There is no one who would not wish to know the answer to this question. 2. Such problem can be solved by a scientist fully realizing the possible danger. 3. He stopped buying unnecessary things. 4. She got the first prize for her painting. 5. Mr. Brown was interested in buying our motors. 5. Accommodation had been reserved for Petrov before he left for London. 6. The goods must be shipped not later than May. 7. The tests are to be made next week. 8. When do you expect me to come? 9. We watched the train leaving the station. READING Text 1 Read and translate into Russian THE SUN'S ENERGY The world energy system in the year 2030 is likely to bear little resemblance to today's. No longer dominated by fossil fuels, it will be run by solar resources daily filled by incoming sunlight and by geothermal energy. And it will be far more energy-efficient. In many ways, the solar age today is where the coal age was when the steam engine was invented in the eighteenth century. The late twentieth century, then, was the dawn of the solar age. Many technologies were developed that allow us to harness the energy of the sun effectively, but these devices are so far only in limited use. Without question, these resources are available in immense quantities. The annual influx of accessible renewable resources in the United States is estimated at 250 times the country's annual use of energy. Due to the abundance of sunlight, direct conversion of solar energy would be the cornerstone of a sustainable world energy system. By 2050, solar panels will heat most residential water around the world. A typical 6 urban landscape will have thousands of collectors sprouting from rooftops, much as television antennas do today. , Solar thermal power installation will become a principal means of harnessing sunlight. It uses mirrored troughs to focus sunlight onto oil-filled tubes that convey heat to a turbine and generator that then produce electricity. An 80-megawatt solar thermal plant built in the desert east of Los Angeles in 1989 converts an extraordinary 22 percent of the incoming sunlight into electricity and the cost of such energy is at a

third less than the cost of power from new nuclear plants. Such plants may make the deserts of the United States, North Africa, and Central Asia major exporters of electricity and hydrogen fuel. Solar energy technologies are land-intensive, but no more so than those based on fossil fuels. In fact, if all the land devoted to mining coal is included, many solar technologies actually require less area than coal power does. Focused practice 1. Answer the questions. 1.What will the world energy system be like for example, in the year 2030? 2.When was the dawn of the solar age? 3.Are there technologies to harness the energy of the sun effectively? 4.What can we consider the cornerstone of a sustainable world energy system? 5.What can you say about a solar thermal plant near Los Angeles? 6.Whether do the scientists plan to heat residential water in the world? 2.Retell the text. 3.Speak on the sun's structure. 4.Discuss the energetic possibility of the sun. Language study 1. Translate the following sentences. 1. The students to take part in this expedition have returned. 2. The article to be discussed tomorrow is written by our professor. 3. New technologies will allow us to harness the energy of the sun. 4. Besides solving economic problems, heliotechnics is to improve working and living conditions of many people. 5. He will be the first to answer at the exam. 6. The professor was the first to prove this assumption. 7. Here is the $eviceiocbeused for producing solar energy. 8. We consider him to be a good engineer. 9.1 hear you will have to go to the North. 10. The teacher let him go home. 11. Ampere supposed the current to flow from the positive pole of the source to the negative one. 12. A fuse is expected to melt and break the circuit. 13. Different switches are used to open or to close a circuit. 14. We may expect a short circuit to result from wire fault. Text 2 Read and translate into Russian SOLAR ENERGY TO SERVE AGRICULTURE 7 The area where solar energy can be used is practically limitless, but the Turkmen helioengineers, are placing primary stress on its utilization in agriculture. Besides solving economic problems, heliotechnics is to improve shepherds' geologists and gas industry workers' work and living conditions. The world's first heliocomplex for catering shepherds' needs has been built in the township of the Ashkhabad Region. Its main unit is an energy or, more precisely, windpower installation for pumping and distilling well water.

The heliocomplex includes a residence for the shepherd and his family, provided with a solar heating system, hot water supply, and a helioreactor for growing chlorella that is (an additive in sheep feeds). The complex also includes a hothouse for growing vegetables, berries and greens and a heated sheep-pen for more than a thousand animals. Normally, the expenses are covered in some three or four years. This is much cheaper than the building of irrigation systems and transmission lines. The operation of this shepherd heliocomplex has shown that it is effective and simple to build. Turkmen scientists are now experimenting with solar driers for processing fruits and other agricultural products. Obviously, climatic conditions in Turkmenistan allow for open-air drying, but this type of drying is a lengthy and time-consuming process. The creation of simple and highly effective solar driers is closely linked with the improvement of their technical and economical indices, and this especially concerns their heliotechnical units. The existing modern designs of solar airheaters are materialconsuming and costly. It should be stressed that a wide use of industrially-made versions of such solar driers would result in a substantial economic and ecological effect. Focused practice 1. 2. Put five questions to this text. Translate these sentences into

English. 1. . 2. , . 3. , . 4. , , - . 5. , . 6. , 50-60 . 7. , . 8. - , . 9. 8 , , . SPEAKING Dialogue Solar cycle David: Hello, Jack. I have read recently an article about the solar maximum. But I am not a physicist. Could you tell me this matter?

Jack:

Oh, it's quite simple. The solar maximum is a period of several months. It is marked by high solar activity. During such periods billion ton blasts of x-rays and radioactive particles are thrown out toward the Earth.

David: Is it dangerous? Jack: The trouble is that such blasts can destroy satellites, and navigational systems and darken entire cities by frying electrical systems. For example a space storm in 1989 knocked out power in Quebek for more than nine hours. David: And what can people do in such situation? Jack: It is better prepared for the coming threat. There are special solar forecasts services in some countries. They issue warning based on their standing sentry around the clock.

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Focused practicc 1.Retell the dialogue in reported speech. 2.Act the dialogue. Writing I. Write a narrative:" The sun ". UNIT 10- Non-traditional sources of energy Grammar: Word-building Language work 1.Learn to recognize the following international words. area, result, emission, aspect, regional, control, system, radiation, technology, geyser, turbine, project, alternative. 2.Translate the following words paying attention to the suffixes and prefixes. weightless, countless, useless, education, development, scholarship, environmental, contributor, consideration, continuous, availability, convection, ensure, unlike, unlimited, impossible. READING Text 1 Read and translate into Russian POWER FROM POULTRY LITTER Intense poultry farming areas are renowned for large amounts of poultry litter produced each year. Until recently, that litter caused an environmental problem to community because of its dumping open-air storage. Traditionally it had been spread on the fields in the local area resulting in high volumes of methane being emitted, a known key contributor to global warming. The release of large amounts of nitrates was also leading to some river pollution. It was decided to solve that problem through the litter both to reduce the associated environmental problems and to produce electricity on a commercial basis. In order to realize that project a new electricity generating station fired by poultry litter, has been opened. Today the plant generates 14.2 MWe. After in-house consumption, a net output of 12.5 MWe is supplied, via switching gear, to a 33 kV power line for distribution through the Regional Electricity Company. Since the plant was the first of a kind, environmental aspects were a major consideration during the planning stages. Noise and visual and environmental impact all had to be considered. Poultry litter is good fuel because of its low cost and availability. Also its high calcium content produces a self-cleaning effect which provides the implementation of an additional process of using calcium to clean up emissions. And this process is

obligatory to coal fired stations. About 130 000 tons of poultry litter, equivalent to 60 000 tons of coal, is tipped into the plant's storage pits each year within the controlled environment. To prevent the escape of odours, the fuel hall is kept at a slight negative pressure by drawing air from it straight into the boiler. Fuel is fed into the boiler through a stepped grate system, the design of which ensures a residence time in the boiler of over two seconds at 850C, killing all bacteria and preventing the formation of stack emission odour. The boiler is a natural circulation water tube unit. The boiler also comprises a feed chute, furnace, radiation pass, convection pass with double superheater and a water/steam drum. The economizer is a separate unit. The system is fed by two unmanned, automatically controlled cranes which mix the litter from the supplier farms before loading onto four elevators. The step grate system then moves the fuel through the furnace. After combustion, an electrostatic precipitator is employed to ensure low dust emissions from the slack. The resultant ash forms a valuable nitrate free by-product, rich in phosphate and potash, which is sold as a fertilizer. As a result there is no waste from the process. Focused practice 1. Answer the questions. 1.Are farming areas renowned for poultry produced each year? 2.Can poultry litter be a reason of pollution? 3.How was it decided to solve this problem of pollution? 4.What project was used for this purpose? 5.What kind of a plant was built? 6.Why is poultry litter used so wide? 7.Where is litter fed into? 8.Can you explain how this plant is arranged? 2. Retell the text. 3.Speak on poultry litter. 4.Discuss the problem of poultry litter pollution. Language study 1.Form 10 sentences using the following -words. charge - to charge, turn - to turn, last 11 - to last, very - the very, only - the only, master - to master, air - to air, want - to want, arm - to arm, smoke - to smoke. 2.Translate into Russian. last but not least; least of all; not in the least; she has not the least idea about it; this is the least he can do; read one page at least.

3.Pay attention to the words in bold type while translating the sentences. 1. Students made up the majority of the audience. 2. The actress made up before going on the stage. 3. The cashier made out the bill while I waited. 4. This treaty would make for good relations between many countries. 5. Will you put down this old man at Trafalgar Square? 6. Gas was put in every house a week ago. 7. He managed to put away a big sum of money. 8. The picture on the wall gut me off. 9. She seemed rather to put out by his letter. 10. Put on the coat. It's raining outside. 4.Give nouns with the following suffixes. -or, -er, -ist, -ship, -tion, -ment, -ness, -hood. Text 2 Read and translate into Russian VIABLE ENERGY SOURCE A technology designed to mine heat from the Earth's interior has recently succeeded for the first time in producing energy on a potentially commercial scale. Unlike conventional geothermal energy, which draws steam or hot water from natural underground reservoirs, hot dry rock technology does not depend on the occasional availability of geysers or hot springs. The hot dry rock system works like a giant radiator. Water is forced down one well through a region of fractured naturally hot rock and then, superheated and under high pressure, back up a second well to the surface. There, turning into steam, it can drive turbines to generate electricity, or it can serve as a direct source of heat for industrial processes. To create an area of fractures in the hard granite 13.000 feet (3.900 meters) deep, the Los Alamos scientists in the USA adapted technology from the oil industry. Engineers drilled a deep hole into the solid rock and pumped in water at high pressure, forcing a lot of cracks to open out from the base of the well. By drilling a second well into the fractured area the engineers created a closed loop of a complicated process, since if the two wells are too close a "short circuit" can prevent efficient heating. The Los Alamos project went through many years, 160 million dollars and at least one major failure. The scientists are actually aware that the present landscape is full of the moribund forms of other alternative energy sources. The biggest failure was synthetic fuels, including processes for making liquid fuel from shale or coal. The hopes declined with the price of oil. Other technologies that have made slow progress are modern windmills and photovoltaic cells that convert sunlight directly to electricity. In terms of available heat the energy of the earth's interior is virtually an unlimited resource, renewed by the slow decay of radioactive elements. On average the temperature rises 83 degrees for every mile of depth, but high temperatures can be much less in geologically active areas.

Focused practice 1.Put five questions to this text. 2.Speak on the energy of geysers or hot springs in Russia. 3.Discuss the problem of using the Earth's heat in this country. Language work La) Fill in the blanks with the prepositions, if necessary; b) retell the text. The great Russian scientist, poet and enlightener, Lomonosov was born ... the village ... Denisovka, far off... the north, ... November 19, 1711. He was very young when he easily mastered reading and writing. He wanted to learn science. So ... the age ... 19 Lomonosov left his father's home and started ... foot... Moscow ... spite ... the long distance and the cold winter. ... Moscow he was sent ... Germany ... completing his education. Being a student ... Moscow and ... Germany Lomonosov experienced great want

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and countless hardships. Studying ... the academy, he got only 3 copeks ... a day, that scholarship being his only means ... living. He mastered natural science, history, philosophy and engineering. He knew German, French, Greek and Latin, the latter being the international language ... science .... that time ... the age ... 35 Lomonosov was already an experienced professor and an academician. His scientific activity lasted but 25 years, but ... these 25 years he carried ... an extraordinary amount ... educational work ... various fields ... scientific and cultural life. He founded Moscow University. He studied physical properties ... bodies ... the basis ... the molecular and atomic theory. He developed the kinetic theory ... gases and heat. Lomonosov first discovered the law ... conservation ... matter and momentum. ... the very first and ... the last days ... his life Lomonosov straggled alone ... Russian science and the enlightenment... the Russian people. SPEAKING Dialogue Equipment for wells Mr. Glebov, are you here in London on vacation or on business? It's a kind of business trip. What's your business? Well, I'm in charge of the advertising department of our firm. What does your firm produce? Oh, we produce different equipments for mining industry, including boring machines, boring mills and borers. We produce some devices for wells. In what countries are the productions of your works used? They are used in Egypt, India, China, in Africa. Focuscd practice 1.Learn the dialogue by heart. 2.Act the dialogue.

Writing

1. Write a narrative:" An outstanding Russian scientist".

Parker: Glebov: Parker: Glebov: Parker: Glebov :

UNIT 11. Thermal power stations Grammar: Conditional Sentences. Emphatic Construction 1. If we are to fly to other planets; we shall have to design a gigantic spacecraft. , . 2. If it were necessary to increase the speed of the engine, it could be achieved by using a special device. , . 3. If the car had not broken, they would have been here in time. , . Zero Conditional If you spend over 20 pounds at that supermarket, you get a 5% discount. 20 , 5- . Language work 1.Translate the following words paying attention to prefixes. retell, reread, rewrite, dissimilar, dislike, disappear, disorder, impossible, unequal, immaterial, interact, mislead, misunderstand. 2.Translate the following sentences. 1. If I come home early, I'll write an article. 2. If he were at the Institute now, he would help us to repair this device. 3. If he had come to the meeting yesterday, he would have met with a famous English writer. 4. If the resistance were lower, the current would be larger. 5. Unless they apply a new installation, they will not obtain good results. 6. The design would have been ready if they had supplied us with all the necessary equipment. 7. In case the material offers a high resistance we consider it to be a good insulator. 8. If I were at your place I wouldn't do it. 9. If people of the past had known that lightning was atmospheric electricity they would not have invented numerous stories about this. 10. If coal were not used as fuel man would get 15 more valuable products. 11. If liquid were heated it would greatly expand. 12. Should you break the circuit, no current would flow. 13. Were the electromotive force alternating, the current would be alternating either. 14. Had the student known the subject better, he wouldn't have failed in his exam. 15. You'll fail in English unless you work harder. 16. The satellite will keep to its orbit provided it travels at the uniform speed of 8 kilometers per second. READING Text 1 Read and translate into Russian THERMAL POWER-STATION

A modern thermal power-station consists of four principal components, namely, coal handling and storage, boiler house, turbine house, switchgear. Besides principal components mentioned there are many additional parts of the plant. The most important part of the station is the turbogenerator in which the current is actually generated. A steam turbine requires boilers to provide steam. Boilers need a coal- handling plant on the one hand and an ash-disposal plant on the other. Large fans are necessary to provide air for the furnaces. Water for the boilers requires feed pumps. Steam must be condensed after it has passed through the turbines, and this requires large quantities of cooling water. The flue gases carry dust which must be removed by cleaning the gases before they go into the open air. A modern thermal power-station is equipped with one or more turbine generator units which convert heat energy into electric energy. The steam to drive the turbine which, in its turn, turns the rotor or revolving part of the generator is generated in boilers heated by furnaces. In these furnaces one of three fuels may be used - coal, oil and natural gas. Coal continues to be the most important and the most economical of these fuels. At present great attention is paid to combined generation of heat and electricity at heat-and-power (or combined) plants and to centralized heat supply. One of the world's largest heat-and-power installations is operating at the Moskowskaya thermal powerstation-25. Thermal power-stations are considered to be the basis of power industry in our country. More than 80% of its total power output comes from the above stations. It is necessary to say that separate power-stations in Russia are integrated into power systems. Integration of power systems is a higher stage in scientific and technical development of power engineering. The Integrated Power System in the central part of Russia is one of the largest in the world. It covers the territory from the Volga river to the Western boundaries of our country. Focused practice I. Answer the questions. 1.What principal components does a modern thermal power plant have? 2.What is the most important of additional parts of the plant? 3.What is the aim of a boiler at the plant? 4.Are there any fans? 5.Why is large quantity of cooling water required? 6.What fuel is used to produce steam? 7.What is great attention paid to? 16 2.Speak on combined generation of heat and electricity. 3.Retell the text. Language study 1. Complete the following sentences.

A) 1. If you come to Moscow, we .... 2. If you had time tomorrow, we ... .3. If the boy had not entered the University last year, he .... 4. If I were you, I ... . 5. If you had finished the Institute, you ... .6. If his father goes to England, he ... . b) 1. You would have done it unless .... 2. They would have gone to the cinema yesterday, provided... 3.1 should write the article in time unless .... 4. The student will answer all the teacher's questions provided .... 2. Translate the following sentences. 1. It was Popov who invented the radio. 2. It is the difference of potentials that makes the current flow. 3. It was Volta who first produced a continuous current. 4. It was Lomonosov who built the first glass - making factory in Russia. 5. It is the ampere that is the unit of current. 6. It was in 1978 that Kapitsa was awarded a Nobel Prize. Text 2 Read and translate into Russian KINDS OF STEAM The temperature of the water will increase as heat is applied until the boiling point is reached. The temperature of this boiling point depends on the pressure; at the atmospheric pressure of 14.7 lb per sq. in. the temperature of the boiling point is 100 C. But the temperature does increase with the pressure. The amount of heat absorbed by the water in being heated from the freezing point to the boiling point is known as the heat content of the water. It must be approximately equal to the sensible heat of the water and, besides, it will depend on the pressure under which the water is heated. Provided the heating of water is continued after the boiling point is reached, there will be no further increase in temperature, as the pressure is maintained at the same constant amount. The heat absorbed is now being utilized in converting the water into steam. This heat is known as latent heat. As long as there is still some water left unevaporated in the container, the steam formed will not be pure steam but will have small particles of water in suspension. Such steam is called wet steam and one may classify it as vapour. As the reader should know all steam is wet while it is in contact with the water from which it is being raised. If the heating of this 1 lb of water continues, after a time the whole of the water will have been converted into wet steam. Were17 the heating of this wet steam further continued the particles of water suspended in the steam would begin to evaporate, and the wet steam would become drier. When, the last of these suspended particles of water has evaporated, the steam is known as dry or saturated steam. At this stage, the whole of the latent heat has been absorbed, the temperature of the dry steam being still the same as the boiling point temperature. The dry steam is no longer a vapour, and may be considered as a gas. If the heating continues at the same constant pressure the temperature will now have to increase. This heating of dry steam above the temperature of its formation is known as superheating. The laws of gases can not be applied to wet steam as it is a vapour. Superheated steam, whilst at its lower temperatures, only approximately follows the laws of gases, but, as the temperature increases, its behaviour approaches more that of a perfect gas.

Focused practice 1. Put five questions to this text. 2.Discuss the producing of dry steam. 3.Retell the text. Language study 1. Translate into English. I. , . 2. . 3. . 4. . 5. . 6. , . 7. , . 8. - . 9. . 10. . SPEAKING Dialogue Contract White: Well, Mr. Serov How many turbines would you like to buy? Serov: We can buy 10 turbines. White: When do you require the goods? Serov: As soon as possible, say in June. White: In June? Let me see. I'm afraid, it's impossible, we are heavy with orders. We can deliver only 5 turbines in June. Serov: And what about the other 5 turbines? White: We can deliver them in four months. Serov: All rights. That suits us. 18 Focused practice 1.Act the dialogue. 2.Retell the dialogue in reported speech.

Writing 1. Write a narrative:" Turbines". UNIT 12. Boilers Grammar: Conditional Sentences. Emphatic Construction. Language work. 1.Translate the following sentences. 1. What would you do if you needed to increase the pressure of steam in the boiler? 2. If I were you I would start learning English at once. 3. If you had gone to this exhibition, you would have got a better idea of modern boilers. 4. If you had informed us before we could have made tests of superheaters in time. 5. If she is ill the doctor will send her to a hospital. 6. If he asked the teacher to explain grammar to him, she would do it. 7. If the director were in he could receive you. 8. What would you have done if you had felt tired? 9. What would they do if they wanted to improve the model of the engine? 2.Translate the following words paying attention to the meaning of the prefixes. supernatural, reaction, invaluable, overloaded, impossible, discharge, uptake. READING Text 1 Read and translate into Russian BOILERS Boilers are divided into two general classes: 1) fire - tube boilers and 2) water - tube boilers. A fire - tube boiler is one in which the combustion products pass through tubes which are surrounded by the water contained in the boiler. Fire - tube boilers contain a much larger amount of water than water - tube boilers. They may be divided into a) through - tube boilers and b) return -tube boilers. The through - tube boiler is one in which the products of combustion pass from the 19 region of combustion, through the tubes, to the uptake at the opposite end of the boiler from the furnace. Return-tube boilers are those in which the products of combustion pass to the uptake from the combustion chamber through many tubes, over the furnace where the fuel is burned. Some boilers are fitted with air preheaters located between the front connections and the uptakes. They are usually rectangular sheet-metal boxes containing numerous vertical tubes through which the hot gases pass in their escape to the smokestack. A forced-draft fan supplying air for combustion delivers the air through enclosed ducts to the air preheater. From the air preheater the air is delivered through ducts downward around the front connections to the furnace fronts.

This method greatly increases the efficiency of boiler operation. Water - tube boilers take name from the fact that the water in boiler circulates through the inside of the tubes while the hot gases of combustion are circulated on the outside. As compared to the fire-tube type these boilers contain a smaller volume of water, which is enclosed in the drums and tubes. The water - tube boiler has been brought into extensive use by the increasing demand for boilers made to withstand higher pressures. Great progress has been made in many boiler installations in the high- pressure field. In the past twenty-five or thirty years boiler pressures have been raised from the usual 15-20 to 100-120 atmospheres. Focused practice 1. Answer the questions. 1.How many classes are boilers divided into? 2.What is a fire - tube boiler? 3.What is a water - tube boiler? 4.What is a through - tube boiler? 5.What is a return - tube boiler? 6.What is a boiler - draft fan used for? 7.What can you say about pressure in boilers? 2.Speak on the constructions of boilers. 3.Retell the text. 4.Discuss the efficiency of boilers. Language study 1. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the words in bold type. 1. The faster the moleculas of a substance move, the higher is the temperature of the substance. 2. The larger the water pipe, the more water passes through it. 3. The more you read, the more you know. 4. The shorter the wire, the less is its resistance to current flow. 5. The greater the amount of free electrons in a substance, the better the substance conducts electricity. 2.Translate into English. 1. 20 , . 2. - , . 3. . 4.

. 5. , . 6. , , . 7. , , - , . 8. . 9. , . 10. . 11. . 3. Form adjectives using the suffixes -able, -ful, -less, -ous. Translate them into Russian. control, continue, danger, value, replace, need, power, peace, use, life, charge, desire. Text 2 Read and translate into Russian THE STEAM TURBINE Perhaps the most widely used source of power in large power plants is the steam turbine. A steam turbine is known to operate by virtue of the heat which it derives from steam and which it converts into mechanical work. Any apparatus converting heat into mechanical work is considered to be a heat engine. Thus, the steam turbine may also be considered as a heat engine. It is different from a heat engine, however, in its manner of converting heat into mechanical work. It is interesting to note here that the steam turbine was the first form of heat engine developed. Thus, we find it to be the oldest as well as the newest form of heat engine. The earliest record of any heat engine is in a book written by Hero of Alexandria, probably about 150 . C. (before Christ) in which a steam reaction wheel is mentioned. The next development on record was an impulse 21 turbine and that was in 1629. A. steam turbine does mechanical work by virtue of the velocity with which steam strikes or leaves its moving parts. The steam kinetic energy may be converted into mechanical work by suitably deflecting its current. One modern type of steam turbine is made up of a number of discs with blades each disc being fixed to a central shaft. The steam is directed first against the blades of the first disc and gives up part of its energy to that disc. The steam is deflected by the blades in this case, and then by means of stationary blades it is turned so that it will strike the blades of the next disc. Thus, a series of movable and fixed discs provided with blades, which change the direction of the steam each time it strikes a blade, causes the steam to impart energy to the rotating arrangement several times before its leaving the turbine.

Such steam turbines are considerably more efficient than ordinary steam engines. Furthermore, they can be made of very large sizes, capable of producing several hundred thousand kilowatts. Focused practice 1.Put five questions to the text. 2.Retell the text. 3.Speak on steam. Language study 1. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the construction the former ... the latter. 1. There are two kinds of current: a.c. and d.c. The former changesits direction, the latter doesn't. 2. She has two friends Nick and John. The former studies management, the latter works as a dealer. 3. He bought a book on computing and a book on electronics. The former is in Russian, the latter is in French. 4.1 spoke with professors G. and S. The former delivers lectures on physics, the latter on nuclear power plants. SPEAKING Dialogue In the workshop Lowrence: Can I see the modified boilers? Shutov: Yes, surely. We have a few units for our French customers. We are now putting the final touch to these boilers. Tomorrow we'll start packing them. Lowrence: I'm lucky to have come here today. Shutov: That's right. Here is a pair of safety glasses and a helmet for you. Shall we go straight to the workshop? Lowrence: Fine. Which way is it? Shutov: This way, please. Watch the step. Focused practice 1.Learn the dialogue by heart. 2.Act the dialogue. 1. Write a narrative: "Heat engine ". Writing 22

UNIT 13. Nuclear power plants Grammar: Revision (Units 10-12) Language work I. Translate the following sentences. 1. Our industry produces two main types of reactor, namely, vessel-type reactor and channel-type one. The former is installed at the

Novovoronezhskaya nuclear power station, the latter operating at the Leningradskaya and Kurskaya power plants. 2. Half of all the world's electricity was supposed to come from nuclear power plants by the end of the 20lh century. 3. It is by no means certain that intelligence of human quality is the normal culmination of evolution. 4. Once an engine starts running, it will go on running until it runs out of fuel. 5. It was in 1776 that the German astronomer Johann Elert Bode made two excellent predictions about planets. 6. Millions of television viewers in the Far East, Siberia and Far North couldn't have watched Moscow TV programmes if it had not been for the Molnija communication satellites. 7.1 want you to consider the future of power stations first. 8. It was since 1946 that we had had an outstanding professor, working in the field of general relativity. 9. In the early days of World War II many engineers faced the task of mastering the techniques of using radar. 2. Learn to recognizc the following international words. solenoid, shunt, dynamo, rotor, kilowatt, apparatus, primitive, globe, laser, electronic, delegate, secretary. READING Text 1 Read and translate into Russian NUCLEAR POWER PLANT The main part of a nuclear power plant is the reactor which contains the nuclear fuel. The fuel usually consists of hundreds of uranium pellets placed in long thin cartridges of stainless steel. The whole fuel cell consists of hundreds of these cartridges. The fuel is placed in a reactor vessel filled with a fluid. The fuel heats the fluid and the super-hot fluid goes to a heat exchanger, i. e. steam generator, where the hot fluid converts water to steam. The fluid is highly radioactive, but it should never come into contact with the water that is converted into steam. Then this steam operates steam turbines in exactly the same way as in the coal or oil fired power-plant. A nuclear reactor has several advantages over power-plants that use coal or natural gas. The latter produce considerable air pollution, releasing combusted gases into 23 atmosphere, whereas a nuclear power plant gives off almost no air pollutants. As to nuclear fuel, it is far cleaner than any other fuel for operating a heat engine. Furthermore, our reserves of coal, oil and gas are decreasing so nuclear fuel is to replace them. It means that coal and oil can be used for some other purposes. The amount of nuclear fuel which the nuclear power-plant consumes is negligible while the world's uranium and thorium resources will last for hundreds. The nuclear power-stations are mostly designed for generation of electricity. If a station generates only electric energy, it is equipped with condensing turbines and the station is known as a condensing one. At present the nuclear power-stations mainly operate as condensing plants. The nuclear power-stations designed to produce not only electrical energy but also heat are called nuclear heat-and-power plants.

A fast-neutron reactor which supplies both electricity and heat for desalting sea water was put into operation in Shevchenko on the Caspain Sea. Its capacity is partly used for generating electricity, the rest going as heat to obtain desalted water. It should be also mentioned that that area has no natural fresh water and was a lifeless desert before the nuclear power plant began operating there. Focused practice I. Answer the questions. 1.What is the main part of the nuclear power station? 2.What does the fuel consist of? 3.Does the radioactive fluid deal with the water in the nuclear power plant? 4.Does a nuclear reactor have any advantage over power stations that use coal or natural gas? 5.What is a condensing nuclear power station? 6.When was a fast-neutron power station put into operation? 7.Where is fast-neutron reactor used? 1. 2. 3. Retell the text. Discuss the cooling of a reactor. Speak on the future of nuclear energy. Language study 1. Pay attention to the impersonal construction while translating the following sentences. 1. It isn't difficult to understand Ampere's rule. 2. One can say that there are unlimited sources of energy. 3. They employ different methods to obtain better results. 4. It would be mentioned here that Jablochkov, Russian scientist ana inventor, was the first to apply alternating current in practice. 5. It would be wrong to think that the intellectual capacities of an individual are inexhaustible. 6. One can lead a horse to water, but nobody can make it drink. 7. It is said that theory is a device for saving time. 8. They say that about a hundred years ago power was never carried far away from its source. 9. It is well 24 known that atoms are made of electrons, protons and neutrons. 10. It is well known that high voltage means low current. 2.Mach up A and B. A)anyway, after all, in some respects, in many ways, in detail, as a whole, in particular, moreover, apart from, so far.

B) , , , , , , , , , . 3.Translate into English using the Impersonal construction where possible. 1. , , . 2. , . 3. , , , . 4. , . 5. , . 6. , . 7. , . 8. . 9. . Text 2 Read and translate into Russian RADIATION HAZARDS The problem of guaranteeing protection from the unseen danger of radiation from chain reaction or from its products is faced, at one time or another by almost every person in the nuclear field. Why does it happen? Hydrogen, which constitutes a large part of the atoms in the body, was found to be the best element for slowing neutrons in a reactor. From the point of view of safety, hydrogen is the worst or "most dangerous" element. But the atoms gain the maximum recoil energy on being struck by a neutron. The recoiling proton is a highly ionizing particle. Relatively little neutron absorption takes place at high energy. In the absorption of thermal neutrons in the body, it is the associated gamma rays that are harmful. Deuterium is not radioactive, fortunately. As a measure of the absorption of X-rays energy was devised the roentgen. So, a roentgen is the radiation dose that will release 85 ergs of energy in a gram of air. Any person who does research with radioactive materials or works near a reactor 25 employs a detector, calibrated in roentgens, to survey the area. One may also compute the relation between the radiation flux present and the dosage. Such analyses are important in shielding design and in providing specifications on safe work. Let the week consist of five work days and for the sake of being conservative assume constant 24-hr irradiation. The maximum energy is equal to 40.4 mev/g-sec. In order to visualize this radiation, one may use these rough figures: a diagnostic X-ray may involve about lr; a dose if 25r is commonly applied to local growths on the body; a lethal dose is around 450 r. In order to guarantee protection of operators from external exposure, advantage is taken of shielding, distance between operator and source of danger, and time limits on exposure. For protection against internal exposure due to the accumulation of

radioactive substances in the body, rigid control of air and surface is maintained. Ingenuous mechanisms such as robots have been developed, for remote handling of radioactive equipment. Focused practice 1.Put five questions to this text. 2.Retell the text. 3.Speak on utilizing nuclear waste. Language study 1. Give the suitable prepositions to the following verbs. Make up the sentences with the following verbs. to equip, to develop, to consist, to be interested, to be fond, to speak, to contribute, to be famous, to be grateful. SPEAKING Dialogue To the nuclear plant Paul: Excuse me, please. Passer-by: Yes? Paul: How can we get to the nuclear plant?

26

Oh, well, let me see. Drive down the road. Take the first turning to the left and drive straight until you get to the river. River? Yes, you can't see it from here. When you get to the river, there is a bridge. Just cross it. About 15 minutes, if you drive quickly. Thank you. Not at all. Passer-by: Focused practice 1. 2. Passer-by: Writing 1. Paul: Passer-by: UNIT 14. Hydroelectrical power stations Grammar: The attribute. Attributive Clauses Language work I. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the attribute and attributive clauses. 1. The methods of solving the problem were discussed by the scientists. 2. The student whose exercise-book I've shown you are doing very well. 3.1 don't know the engineer you are speaking about. 4. Where is the professor you told me about? 5.1 am familiar with the equipment that is displayed at the exhibition. 6. He will not forget the city where he lived in his childhood. 7. Lomonosov knew several foreign languages including Latin which was the international one at that time. 8. The theory which Kapitsa put forward in 1955 is a reasonable explanation of ball lightning. 9. The languages the programmer uses while working at a computer are special universal languages. 10. The data obtained 27are of great importance. Write a narrative:" The ways of radiation protection ". Paul: Learn the dialogue by heart. Act the dialogue

2. a) Apply suitable attributes to the following nouns. power, steam, supply, fuel, quantity, turbine, head, surface. b) Form the sentences using the above nouns qualified as attributes. READING Text 1 Read and translate into Russian HYDROELECTRIC POWER-STATION As known, water power was used to drive machinery long before Polzunov and James Watt harnessed steam to meet man's needs for power. Modern hydroelectric power-stations use water power to turn the machines which generate electricity. The water power may be obtained from small dams in rivers or from enormous sources of water power like those to be found in Russia. However, most of our electricity, that is about 86 per cent, still comes from steam power-stations. The locality of a hydroelectric power plant depends on natural conditions. The hydroelectric power plant may be located either at the dam or at a considerable distance below. That depends on the desirability of using the head supply at the dam itself or the desirability of getting a greater head. In the latter case, water is conducted through pipes or open channels to a point farther downstream where the natural conditions make a greater head possible. The design of machines for using water power greatly depends on the nature of the available water supply. In some cases great quantities of water can be taken from a large river with only a few feet head. In other cases, instead of a few feet, we may have a head of several thousands of feet. In general, power may be developed from water by action of its pressure, of its velocity, or by their combination. J A hydraulic turbine and a generator are the main equipment in a hydroelectric power-station. Hydraulic turbines are the key machines converting the energy of flowing water into mechanical energy. Such turbines have the following principal parts: a runner composed of radial blades mounted on a rotating shaft and a steel casing which houses the runner. There are two types of water turbines, namely, the reaction turbine and the impulse turbine. The reaction turbine is the one for low heads and a 28

small flow. Modified forms of the above turbine are used for medium heads up to 500-600 ft, the shaft being horizontal for the larger heads. High heads, above 500 ft employ the impulse turbine. It is the reaction turbine that is most used in Russia. Focused practice 1. Answer the questions. 1.When was water power used first? 2.What purpose are hydroelectric station used for? 3.Where usually is the hydroelectrical power station established? 4.What does the design of machines depend on? 5.What are the main equipment in a hydroelectrical power station? 6.What are the main parts of hydraulic turbines? 7.What types of water turbines do you know? 2.Speak on a hydraulic turbine. 3.Discuss the problem of water in the world. 4.Retell the text. 5.Explain why: 1. We mostly use copper conductors. 2. Lightning strikes the nearest object. 3. Most of our electricity still comes from steam power plants. 4. Norway, Sweden and Switzerland prefer to use water for producing energy. 5. We need conductors and insulators. Language study I. Complete sentences according to the model given below. Model: The method used. ..-> The method used is described in the present article. 1. The turbine installed... . 2. The generator 29 used... . 3. The water cleaned... . 4. The device mentioned... .5. The data prepared... . 6. The engine tested... . 7. The dam built... . 2. Translate into English. 1. . 2. 40 , . 3. , . 4. , 1

'. 5. . 6. , . 7. . 8. , . 9. , . 10. . Text 2 Read and translate into Russian EVAPORATION A liquid is known to increase in temperature when heat is applied. This statement is true up to a certain point called the boiling point of the liquid. When the boiling point is reached, however, adding heat to the liquid no longer raises its temperature. The added heat will then cause a change of state since the liquid will be transformed into a gas or a vapour. Evaporation also called vaporization is the name given to the process which occurs when some of the molecules of a liquid tear themselves away from the liquid surface and escape into the air. These molecules form the vapour above the liquid. To tear itself away from the liquid, the molecule which leaves it should have a large amount of kinetic energy as the molecular attraction which tends to oppose this escape must be overcome by the molecule. Those molecules which escape must have greater energy than the average kinetic energy of the liquid as a whole. The kinetic energy of the molecules is in a sense a measure of the temperature of the liquid; and if the molecules with the larger amount of energy escape, the average amount of the kinetic energy of the remaining molecules becomes lower. We, therefore, expect the process of evaporation to lower the temperature of the liquid, and observation shows that such is really the case. Different liquids evaporate at different rates because of differences in their molecular attractions and in their molecular speeds. Mercury, for instance, evaporates very slowly, others vaporizing rapidly. The rate of evaporation also depends on30 the area of the evaporating surface. That is why water will dry up from a large flat vessel much sooner than it will from a tall and narrow vase. Evaporation takes place at any temperature. In certain cases a solid may change directly into a vapour without undergoing liquefaction. The vapour pressure of a solid at any temperature being greater than one atmosphere, the substance will pass directly from the solid to the vaporous condition. By increasing the pressure, however, the substance can be obtained in a liquid state,

provided the change from a liquid to a solid is accompanied by an expansion. Focused practice 1.Put five questions to this text. 2.Speak on kinetic energy.1

3.Retell the text. Language study 1. Fill in the gaps with preposition if necessary. When I was a boy my mother always told ... me not to run too fast and far, not to jump too high and not to swim where it was too deep. And when I entered ... a military school and wrote ... her that I was going................... boxing she was so worried ... that... every letter she asked ... me to give ... boxing and to take ... chess. But I was fond ... boxing, and my coach made a good boxer ... me. Later ... I won ... an Olympic gold medal. Of course, my mother changed ... her mind... my boxing. SPEAKING Dialogue Designing power station. Mr. Smith: What are you Oleg? Ivanov: I'm an engineer at a design institute.

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What does your institute do? We design hydroelectric power stations. Have you got any orders from abroad? Yes; we have rather close business relations with many countries, especially in Asia and Africa. I have to travel a lot. That is why I'm learning English. By the way it's my second visit to Delhi. Are you satisfied with your job? Yes, I enjoy it greatly. Mr. Smith: Focused practice Ivanov: Mr. Smith: dialogue in reported speech. Ivanov: dialogue. Writing 1. Write a Mr. Smith: narrative (10-12 sentences):" A hydraulic turbine' Ivanov:

1.Retell the 2.Act the

32

Vocabulary Unit 8 1. 2. 3. . 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. . 12. 13. 14. Access Air-jet Byproduct Combustible Distil Feedstock Fossil In conjunction with Recover Residue Tailor Tar Upgrade Volatile , ... , () Unit 9 1. 2. 3. 7.4. 5. 8. 9.6. 7. 10. 8. 11. 9. 12. 10. 13. 11. 14. 12. 15. 13. 16. 16. 18. 1. 19. 20. 2. 21. 3. 22. 4. 23. 5. 24. 6. 25. 26. 27. Additive Be run by Blast Disable Fertilizer Drier Fortuitous Fry Fracture Hothouse Grate system Indices Gross output Knock out In-house Sheeppen In reverse Township Litter Trough Notorious Warning Poultry Precipitator Net output Array Renowned Shale Available Shallow Back up Stepped Breed Stack Cleanse Tinder Dump Tip Tricky Viable Unit 10 33 , , , , , ,

Unit 11 1.2.

3. 4. 5.6.

7.8.

9.10. 11.

12.

13. 14. 15.16.

17.18 .

Absorb Approximately Ashdisposal Boiling point Cleaning Coal hand Combined generation Content Convert Cover Dust Evaporate Fan Furnace Latent Pump Suspend Switchgear Thermal power station Vapour

, () Unit 12 , , , 34 '- -

19. 20. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Air preheater Arrangement By (in) virtue of Deflect Drum Duct Fire-tube boiler Fit up Forced-draft fan Impart Impulse turbine Preheater Return-tube boiler Rectangular Smokestack Through - tube boiler Uptake Waste-heat boiler Water-tube boiler

Unit 13 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Cell Consume Desalt Far cleaner Give off Hazard Mostly Negligible Pellet Pollutant Pollution Recoil Release Remote handling Reserves Rough Stainless Vessel Unit 14 Average Blade Casing Dam Desirability Enormous Ether Evaporation Head Key Locality Occur Rate Runner Statement Surface Tear away from Velocity , () , , 35 , , , , ,

EXERCISES

N1 Translate into Russian: 1.Charging by induction will be discussed in the next article. 2.The chain reaction releases great quantities of y-radiation and neutrons which must be prevented from escaping into the atmosphere. 3.He remembered once having read that at very low temperatures some metals become super-conducting, having practically zero specific resistance. 4.These electrons are attracted by the positive charge which the plate has as a result of having been connected to the plus terminal of a battery. 5.Discussing the term "work" in detail is the subject of our next article, for we know of its being of ten misused. 6.In spite of its having been compressed, the gas returns to its original volume as soon as the applied force is removed. 1.Acquiring knowledge is not in itself sufficient, you must also practice the art of applying this knowledge to problems you meet with. 2.A steam engine uses steam made by fuel having been burnt outside the engine. 3.In making Bessemer steel, molten iron direct from the blast furnace is poured into the converter. 4.We know of the electric furnace being an ideal melting and refining unit for the steel industry. 5.Protecting the personnel against radioactive radiation holds an important place in the scheme of things at the atomic power plant. 6.Experiment has shown that the opposition of a body to being set in translation is proportional to the mass of the body and does not depend on anything else. N2 Translate into Russian: 1.The main point of a transformer is changing voltage although the power of both 36 sides of the transformers is equal. 2.We know of the velocity of electromagnetic waves changing when the wave front crosses a boundary between two media. 3.After introducing new technology in that branch of industry some changes must be made as soon as possible. 4.The ratio is determined by dividing the value of the velocity or pressure at the point nearer the transmitting end by the value of the velocity at the point more remote. 5.The fact of a new device having provided the means of silencing the airplane noise was a new step in the development of aviation technique.

6.In passing from the nozzle through one set of blades the velocity of the steam is lowered. 7.We were informed of a new record of a non-stop flight having been established. 8.That failure was due to the designer's having been somewhat careless, although we must confess the conditions were unfavourable. 9.The engineer insisted on those reservoirs being used for holding aviation gasoline. 10.The main advantage of this instrument over the moving coil type is that it is capable of measuring both alternating current and direct current. 11.The simplest process of producing metal articles is that of casting the molten metal into a suitable mold. 12.At the present time radio can be used in orientating the aircraft or in fixing the aircraft's position. 13.The kinetic energies of the alpha particles are deduced from observations of the distance they travel in the air before being brought to rest by collisions. 14.We know of valve transmitters being divided into two types: self- oscillators and power amplifiers. 15.Because of gas density being independent of temperature, gas tubes have a distinct advantage over those filled with a metallic vapour such as mercury. N3 Translate into Russian: 1.The first step in the measurement of a physical quantity consists in choosing a unit of that quantity. 2.The sliding friction force exerted on a shaft rotating in bearings can be reduced by installing ball or roller bearings which replace eliding friction by rolling friction. 3.A common example of a couple is afforded by the forces acting in a compass needle in the earth's magnetic field. 4.When a boiling liquid is open to the atmosphere, the vapour escapes into the air as fast as it is formed. 5.Every electrical circuit carrying alternating current radiates a certain amount of electrical energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. 6.By employing a number of amplifying tubes in cascade, almost any desired amount of amplification can be obtained. 37 7.The method of finding the resultant of a number of intersecting forces has been explained in Chapter 1. 8.The transformer being of high efficiency, the power input to the primary will be but slightly more than the amount of power being supplied by the secondary. 9.An advantage of grouping the cooling pipes of a transformer into radiators is the possibility of blowing air over them by means of fans driven by electric motors.

10.The two windings generally have a widely different number of turns, the ratio of turns being directly proportional to the ratio of the no-load voltages. 11.As we know, mechanical energy is transformed into heat, the process being one example of the conservation of energy. 12.In developing the fundamental equations of viscous flow, it will be seen that the problem is very similar to that of the shearing stress and strain in a solid. 13.The forces exerted against the liquid by the walls are shown by arrows, the forces being everywhere perpendicular to the walls of the vessel. N4 1.Liquids and gases differ markedly in their compressibilities, a gas being easily compressed, while a liquid is practically incompressible. 2.In engineering work in Britain and everyday life as well, the term "density" is used for the weight per unit volume, the common unit being the pound per cubic foot. 3.All the other factors being equal, the video channel ,occupied by a three-colour television system must be three times as wide as that required for an equivalent black-and-white system. 4.A vacuum bottle is constructed with double glass walls, the space between the walls being evacuated so that heat flow by conduction and convection is practically eliminated. 5.We shall begin this part of the subject by discussing motion of rotation about a fixed axis, for example, the motion of a grinding wheel or the fly wheel of an engine. 6.Scientifically speaking, energy is the capacity of doing work. 7.Generally speaking, doing work on an object simply means transferring energy to that object. 8.The Indian method of lighting a fire by rubbing a stick rapidly against another one is another illustration of heat produced because of motion. 9.The radiation reaching the earth from the sun does a great many things besides lighting and warming the earth and its atmosphere. 10.The electric arc is used for welding two or more pieces of metal, a tremendous amount of heat being present when the current moves from one electrode to the other in a welding machine. 38 11.The temperature at which the melting of a substance occurs is the melting point of that substance. 12.The firing of the gas mixture in the combustion chamberis called ignition. 13.Various methods of cooling transformers are adopted in practice, depending upon the size and the local conditions.

Very small transformers are cooled by the atmosphere, no special cooling arrangements being necessary.List of abbreviations a.c. A.D. a.m. amp arr B.C. BST BTU c/s cps d.c. e.m.f. Fahr (F) ft hp in lb Lb per sq. in. Kw Kv Mc/s Mph MT Per annum Per capita (of population) p.m. R Rpm SI t TIT yd X-rays Alternating current Anno domini, in the year of Ante meridiem ampere Arrival time Before Christ British summer time British thermal unit Centigrade Cycle per second Cycle per second Direct current Departure time Electromotive force Fahrenheit Foot, feet Horse power inch pound Our Lord Dep.

kilowatt kilovolt Million cycle per second Mile per hour mountain

Revolution per minute International System of Units temperature Turbine inlet temperature yard

Post meridium

oz MW MV W V pes e.g. Etc. i.e. Visa versia

ounce megawatt megavolt watt volt pieces Example gratia Et cetera Id. est On the contrary, the other way round SUPPLEMENTARY READING APPLICATION OF WASTE HEAT BOILERS

The power engineer must constantly devise ways of utilizing the excess energy that must be discharged from industrial processes. The waste heat boiler is often the instrument best suited to recover some of this excess energy. Often it can serve a dual purpose; first as a means of process control; second, as a means of energy conservation. It may be used to control temperature of an exothermic reaction to maintain a favorable reaction equilibrium. It may serve as a condenser to remove vaporization; and it may be used for rapid cooling of a gas, liquid or a fluidized solid. As a rule, steam boiler includes the steam superheater and feedwater economizer, in which, liquids having thermodynamic properties differing from water may be used. Some installations for process temperature control have proved economical even though the steam could not be used. In some instances of process temperature control, it is advantageous to use a steaming economizer in connection with a boiler. The two basic boiler types are fire tube and water tube. Steam and water conditions will affect the choice of type principally with respect to pressure, means for separating the steam from the water, means for keeping hot surfaces wet and means for cleaning the water side. Special tube shapes and extended surface arrangements are applicable to both types of boilers. Extended surface is applied only to the hot fluid side, where the film rate of heat transfer is considerably lower than the boiling- water film rate. 40

Extended surface will increase the rate of surface contamination in some cases and will always make cleaning more difficult; therefore, the fouling tendencies of the hot fluid place definite limitation on the use of extended surface. For any given fluids and type of surface, the factors limiting the heat transfer coefficient, are pressure loss, erosion and circulation of water. Mass velocity is a parameter common to pressure loss and coefficient of heat transfer. The literature contains a great quantity of information on these subjects. ALLAL EL FASSI HYDROPOWER The 240 MW AM el Fassi hydropower plant in Morocco makes use of a potential 217 m head of water between the Alial el Fassi reservoir and the Idriss First reservoir in the foothills of the Atlas mountains. A 15.45 km long subterranean gallery connects the two systems. As well as greatly, reducing dependence on imported energy the scheme largely eliminates catastrophic flooding in the Sebou basin, increase the irrigation area, and provide vital water to the cities. The benefits to be obtained from harnessing the waters are enormous for the people of Morocco, and for the environment. The power plant complex consists of the powerhouse containing the machine hall, assembly area and control room, an adjoining administration building, the spillway building and the switchyard for three 225 kW transmission lines. The effective head between the reservoir and the turbine inlet valve is 187.45 m. The turbines are installed in three separate circular shafts. The distance between them is 24 in. The overall height of the plant from the bottom of the draft tube to the roof of the machine hall comes to 32 m. With 1207 million m3 storage capacity, its reservoir is the third largest artificial lake in Morocco. The tunnel between the Allal el Fassi and Idriss the First reservoirs is a 15 km long subterranean gallery leading into an oval storage reservoir. The water is contained behind a 2000 m long earth dam. The three phase synchronous generators are of direct coupled vertical design, air cooled in a closed system. The air circulates in a closed circuit and is recooled by water/air heat exchangers. The two ends of the each phase of the stator winding are brought out to terminals on the stator frame for connection to the generator bus and to build the neutral bus. The two ends of windings are brought out to two sliprings on the non-drive end shaft, and the winding receives its current from static excitation equipment via brush and slipring pickup. A braking and jacking equipment with jacking cylinders mounted on the lower bracket, and a brake ring attached to the bottom of the rotor rim are provided. The control system41 is based on a concept which is specially designed for the control and supervision of hydro power plants. It is divided into separate systems for power lines, generating sets, dam gate, storage basin gate and plant system. Communication between stations is performed by a serial data bus called Master bus 200. A radio communications system is used to link the plant system station and the dam gate of the station. The system is connected with the control task pyramid. The pyramid comprises a

number of control levels. Each level consists of well proven modules, which is adapted to specific user requirements. Special protective systems for electrical and mechanical faults complete the computerized control systems. Excitation control, synchronizing functions and turbine governing are done by separate hardware. THE SOLAR HOUSE IN FREIBURG Some years ago a completely self-sufficient solar house (SSSH) was built in Freiburg, Germany. The entire energy demand for heating, domestic hot water, electricity, and cooking is supplied by the sun The combination of highly efficient solar systems with conventional means to save energy is the key to the successful operation of the house. Seasonal energy storage is accomplished by electrolysis of water and pressurized storage of hydrogen and oxygen. The energy for electricity and hydrogen generation is supplied by solar cells. Hydrogen can be reconverted to electricity with a fuel cell or used for cooking. It also serves as a back-up for low temperature heat. There are provisions for short term storage of electricity and optimal routing of energy. The SSSH is occupied by a family. The project was designed by the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems. That showed for the first time in Germany, that a solar house can operate completely independently of other forms of energy. The main problem is the strong variation of insulation between summer and winter. Since seasonal storage of large amounts of energy today is both technically and financially prohibitive for decentralized units, it was decided to reduce the energy demand by all available energy saving technologies without reducing the comfort of the occupants. Only the small remaining energy deficit in winter overcomes with a modest storage capacity for high quality energy. In convential German residential buildings 80% of the energy demand is for the space heating. On the other hand, the average amount of insolation energy falling upon upon the envelope of such a structure is greater than the heat transmission losses. Therefore, optimized use of passive solar heating technologies should make it possible to avoid seasonal heat storage. The institute has developed and demonstrated insulation systems as a means of efficient utilization of solar radiation for space heating. Together with a highly efficient collector system based on transparent insulation for domestic hot water, and a photovoltaic generator in conjunction with a hydrogen/oxygen storage system, energetic self-sufficiency is achievable. Planning of the project started in 1988, the start of the construction was in June 1991 and completion was in October 1992. The goals of the project can be summarized as follows 42 use of solar energy to replace other, environmentally damaging energy carriers demonstration of new concepts of solar architecture integrated into an energetically optimized structure utilization of advanced technologies for energy conservation demonstration of new solar energy systems. The intention of the project is to show the technical potential of solar energy to replace all environmentally damaging energy carriers in a dwelling. The demonstration

of the technical potential is the basis for clarifying the economic potential. The designers hope that many of the technologies and components applied in the SSSH will find their way into commercial application under the aspect of sustainable development in the future.

CAMBODIA'S FIRST SOLAR VILLAGE In 1997, my wife was offered a job with the Asia Foundation to run the Women's Economic and Legal Rights Program in Phnom Penh. So I ,Peter Banwell was able to take a year off from my energy efficiency job in Washington, DC, and went to Cambodia with the goal of starting a small PV business in Phnom Penh. The first task was to determine which solar devices would be a success in Cambodia. We chose small lighting kits for use in the millions of countryside homes without electricity. We found that it was necessary to use Asian components. They were our only practical choice, given the cost of importing from the U.S. or Europe, and the price sensitivity of the Cambodian market. The kits consisted of a solar module, a charge controller, a 12 volt light, and a battery. During our first few months, we installed a solar electric computer system in a rural office and a lighting system for a rural health clinic. As we were growing, we registered our business with the government under the name Khmer Solar. The project plan was to bring solar lighting kits to Samaki, a small fishing and rice farming village near the Gulf of Thailand. The village was approximately 5 km (3 miles) from the nearest large town. Our choice was to either import deep cycle batteries at $200 each or use standard car batteries at $23. The economics strongly favored using car batteries. Car batteries are widely used in Cambodia for rural electrification in homes. Tens of thousands of people in the countryside bring their batteries in to a charging station once a week, and have learned that fully discharging the battery comes at the cost of battery life. With this infrastructure in place in the larger towns near the village, we decided that car batteries were a reasonable choice. Automotive batteries are not ideal, but they are cheap, and with proper maintenance they can last a long time. The village chief is responsible for battery maintenance, and each homeowner was given a small bottle of battery water to keep near their system. The charge controller is an essential element in maintaining the health of the car batteries. For the charge controller to be effective, we needed to teach the homeowners what an indicator lights meant. We did this in two ways. First we had a training session for all homeowners, and then we distributed 43 booklets written in Khmer explaining what the color changes meant. The goal here was to get the homeowners accustomed to "reading" their charge controller, and keeping their battery as full as possible. We designed the systems for a typical daily battery depth of discharge of ten percent.

STEAM CAR Not long ago Jim Crank, California, the 62-year-old retired engineer, restored 1925 Doble, a big, powerful car. It is one of only 20 ever made cars and is run by a power plant that Crank thinks could change at all America's hunt for a cheap, pollution-free way to get around. Under the hood there is a big boiler. The Doble is a steam-driven car, its boiler fueled by just about anything, including kitchen grease, with little harm to the environment. In an era of electric cars and so-called hybrids that captivate the motor show crowd, few think the steam engine a variant of the one that came and went early in this century could be America's best kept automotive secret. Crank has bought up turbines and other equipment that past inventors have used and even designed a steam car that, he claims, ran meters per hour. "It... has fast acceleration, good speed and good range, especially when compared to the electric car," the old engineer says about steam cars. The steam car didn't fail, but was superseded by the internal combustion engine, Crank says. Today, the gasoline car's advantages that is efficiency and economy, are increasingly weighed against its drawbacks namely pollution and the cost of fuel. The steam car demands only water and just about any liquid fuel, even kerosene. At first, the steam car was a prisoner of the 20 to 45 minutes needed to fire up the boiler, while gas-powered cars had to be cranked manually into life. In 1912, Cadillac came out with a reliable self-starter, allowing gas engines to take a huge lead. In 1916, Doble introduced a starting breakthrough for its steam car it started right up with no waiting. But by that time the gasoline car had the marked captured Crank is the president of DobleSteam Motors Corp., a San Francisco firm that had gone out of business inl933. A few years back, Crank came up with $200 and did the paperwork needed to gain the title from the state. He has coupled the name of that company with the physical remnants of another: the steam efforts of Bill Lear, developer of the Lear jet, who got into steam research in the 1970s. Crank used an experimental boiler from Lear to build a steam-powered race car that went on to beat the steam car land speed record of a little over 204 kilometers per hour, set in 1906. The car designed by Crank ran at speed of 234.3 kilometers per hour in 1985 and Crank thinks it's time to give steam another chance. He "not only knows where steam technology has gone, he knows where it should 44 be going," wrote Boston Globe automotive writer John White. Crank said he is well aware of the steam engine's drawbacks. Winter, for one thing. "They freeze, pure and simple," he said. However, future research might even solve that problem, he hoped

ON CRYOGENICS In the recent years problems related to the design and operation of the refrigeration machinery have pushed scientists, technicians and industries, interested in the cryogenic technology, on a frenetic program of researches and collaboration as we have never seen before. This situation arises from the unexpected discovery of the environmental impact by the refrigerant fluids and also from a more acute general attention to the energetic efficiency of systems in all sectors of our technological world. Refrigeration today requires a quantity of electrical energy from 5 to 10 percent of the total electrical energy production. The global cost of refrigeration plants in the world is about 1 00 milliard dollars per year. It is estimated that today the total amount of foodstuffs for the nourishment of the world population reaches 4,5 milliard tons per year and one third of this would require refrigeration for its preservation. The total'capacity of fixed or mobile cold stores is by far not sufficient and consequently the losses are enormous (up to 50% in the developing countries). Developing countries moreover, situated in tropical regions of the planet, demand more air conditioning as their life level rises. One can expect, therefore, in the future a huge increase of refrigeration demand in the two fields of food preservation and air conditioning. Immense opportunities for research, for improving technologies, for development work are open to refrigeration and air conditioning industries, to scientists and technicians under the double imperative "energy saving" and "environment protection''^ If we are looking to our past activity in the field of cryogenics, we can be proud for the results of a technology that has contributed to a more comfortable living level of our fellows. The ancients had ignored technology and used only natural refrigeration for food preservation and air conditioning. Nevertheless they have obtained unexpected results in these fields. I refer to the technique of air conditioning that can be used in hot dry climates, the technique of evaporative cooling: water is vaporized through a flow of air thus obtaining a cooling of the ambient. It seems that the ancients were acquainted with this technique of air conditioning. The most famous Italian poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) in his poem "The Divine Comedy", one of the greatest masterpieces of universal literature, describes the conditions of the damned, in the Hell. In the lowest part of Hell he puts the traitors whose punishment is as follows. The damned are plunged into a frozen river. The freezing of water is obtained by evaporative cooling done by Lucifer, the 45 king of demons, half man and half animal, who is continuously swinging his six huge wings, so ventilating the surface of the water. Dante Alighieri, seven hundred years ago, was acquainted with evaporative cooling and proposed it as a means for eternal punishment of the damned. We hope to use it and use refrigeration, in the full range of available methods put forward by modern cryogenic technology, not for punishment of men, but for a greater well-being of mankind.

UNIT 8. Fuel. Its kinds READING Text I FUELS Text 2 BIOMASS GASIFICATION SPEAKING Air purification UNIT 9. Solar energy READING Text 1 THE SUN'S ENERGY Text 2 SOLAR ENERGY TO SERVE AGRICULTURE SPEAKING Solar cycle UNIT 10. Non-traditional sources of energy READING Text 1 POWER FROM POULTRY LITTER Text 2 VIABLE ENERGY SOURCE SPEAKING Equipment for wells UNIT 11. Thermal power stations READING Text 1 THERMAL POWER-STATION Text 2 KINDS OF STEAM SPEAKING Contract UNIT 12. Boilers READING Text 1 BOILERS Text 2 THE STEAM TURBINE SPEAKING In the workshop UNIT 13. Nuclear power plants READING Text 1 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT Text 2 RADIATION HAZARDS SPEAKING To the nuclear plant UNIT 14. Hydroelectrical power stations READING Text 1 HYDROELECTRIC POWER-STATION Text 2 EVAPORATION SPEAKING Designing power station Vocabulary 46 Exercises List of Abbreviations SUPPLEMENT ARY READING 3 3 5 6 7 7 9 10 11 11 13 15 16 17 18 20 21 21 23 25 25 26 28 29 30 31 33 34 36 39 43 44