old testament
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TheOldTestamentisthefirstsectionoftheChristianBible,basedprimarilyupontheHebrewBible,acollectionofreligiouswritingsbyancientIsraelites.[1]ItisthecounterparttotheNewTestament,theChristianBible'ssecondsection.TheOldTestamentcanonvariesbetweenChristiandenominationsProtestantsacceptonlythebooksfoundinthecanonoftheHebrewBible,dividingtheminto39books,whileCatholic,EasternOrthodox,andOrientalOrthodoxchurchesacceptsomewhatlargercollectionsofwritings.[2]
TheOldTestamentconsistsofmanydistinctbookswritten,compiled,andeditedbyvariousauthors[3]overaperiodofcenturies.ItisnotentirelyclearatwhatpointtheparametersoftheHebrewBible,thebasisfortheChristianOldTestament,werefixed.SomescholarshaveopinedthatthecanonoftheHebrewBiblewasestablishedalreadybyaboutthe3rdcenturyBC.[4][5]ThedevelopmentofthevariousformsoftheChristianOldTestament,atanyrate,continuedforcenturies.
ThebooksoftheOldTestamentcanbebroadlydividedintoseveralsections:1)thefirstfivebooksorPentateuch(Torah)2)thehistorybookstellingthehistoryoftheIsraelites,fromtheirconquestofCanaantotheirdefeatandexileinBabylon3)thepoeticand"Wisdom"booksdealing,invariousforms,withquestionsofgoodandevilintheworld4)andthebooksofthebiblicalprophets,warningoftheconsequencesofturningawayfromGod.
Contents
1Content1.1Table
2Composition3Themes4Fromscripturetocanon:formationoftheOldTestament
4.1Greek,LatinandProtestantOldTestaments4.1.1GreekBible4.1.2LatinBible
4.2Otherversions5Literaryevaluations6ChristiantheologyandtheOldTestament7Seealso8Notes9References10Bibliography11Furtherreading12Externallinks
Content
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TheOldTestamentcontains39(Protestant)or46(Catholic)ormore(Orthodoxandother)books,divided,verybroadly,intothePentateuch(Torah),thehistoricalbooks,the"wisdom"booksandtheprophets.[6]
Table
ThetableusesthespellingsandnamespresentinmoderneditionsoftheBible,suchastheNewAmericanBibleRevisedEdition,RevisedStandardVersionandEnglishStandardVersion.Thespellingandnamesinboththe160910DouayOldTestament(andinthe1582RheimsNewTestament)andthe1749revisionbyBishopChalloner(theeditioncurrentlyinprintusedbymanyCatholics,andthesourceoftraditionalCatholicspellingsinEnglish)andintheSeptuagintdifferfromthosespellingsandnamesusedinmoderneditionswhicharederivedfromtheHebrewMasoretictext.[a]
FortheOrthodoxcanon,Septuaginttitlesareprovidedinparentheseswhenthesedifferfromthoseeditions.FortheCatholiccanon,theDouaictitlesareprovidedinparentheseswhenthesedifferfromthoseeditions.Likewise,theKingJamesVersionreferencessomeofthesebooksbythetraditionalspellingwhenreferringtothemintheNewTestament,suchas"Esaias"(forIsaiah).
InthespiritofecumenismmorerecentCatholictranslations(e.g.theNewAmericanBible,JerusalemBible,andecumenicaltranslationsusedbyCatholics,suchastheRevisedStandardVersionCatholicEdition)usethesame"standardized"(KingJamesVersion)spellingsandnamesasProtestantBibles(e.g.1ChroniclesasopposedtotheDouaic1Paralipomenon,12Samueland12Kingsinsteadof14Kings)inthosebookswhichareuniversallyconsideredcanonical,theprotocanonicals.
TheTalmud(theJewishcommentaryonthescriptures)inBavaBatra14bgivesadifferentorderforthebooksinNevi'imandKetuvim.ThisorderisalsocitedinMishnehTorahHilchotSeferTorah7:15.TheorderofthebooksoftheTorahareuniversalthroughalldenominationsofJudaismandChristianity.
Thedisputedbooks,includedinonecanonbutnotinothers,areoftencalledtheBiblicalapocrypha,atermthatissometimesusedspecificallytodescribethebooksintheCatholicandOrthodoxcanonsthatareabsentfromtheJewishMasoreticTextandmostmodernProtestantBibles.Catholics,followingtheCanonofTrent(1546),describethesebooksasdeuterocanonical,whileGreekOrthodoxChristians,followingtheSynodofJerusalem(1672),usethetraditionalnameofanagignoskomena,meaning"thatwhichistoberead."TheyarepresentinafewhistoricProtestantversionstheGermanLutherBibleincludedsuchbooks,asdidtheEnglish1611KingJamesVersion.[b]
Emptytablecellsindicatethatabookisabsentfromthatcanon.
Tanakh(HebrewBible)(24books)[c]
BooksinboldarepartoftheKetuvim
ProtestantOld
Testament(39books)
CatholicOldTestament(46books)
EasternOrthodoxOldTestament(51books)
Originallanguage
Torah PentateuchortheFiveBooksofMosesBereishit Genesis Genesis Genesis HebrewShemot Exodus Exodus Exodus HebrewVayikra Leviticus Leviticus Leviticus Hebrew
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Bamidbar Numbers Numbers Numbers HebrewDevarim Deuteronomy Deuteronomy Deuteronomy Hebrew
Nevi'im(Prophets) HistoricalbooksYehoshua Joshua Joshua(Josue) Joshua(Iesous) HebrewShofetim Judges Judges Judges Hebrew
Rut(Ruth)[d] Ruth Ruth Ruth Hebrew
Shemuel1Samuel 1Samuel(1Kings)[e]
1Samuel(1Kingdoms)[f]
Hebrew
2Samuel 2Samuel(2Kings)[e]2Samuel(2Kingdoms)[f]
Hebrew
Melakhim1Kings 1Kings(3Kings)[e]
1Kings(3Kingdoms)[f]
Hebrew
2Kings 2Kings(4Kings)[e]2Kings(4
Kingdoms)[f]Hebrew
DivreiHayamim(Chronicles)[d]
1Chronicles 1Chronicles(1Paralipomenon)1Chronicles(1Paralipomenon) Hebrew
2Chronicles 2Chronicles(2Paralipomenon)2Chronicles(2Paralipomenon) Hebrew
1Esdras Hebrew
EzraNehemiah[d]Ezra Ezra(1Esdras) Ezra(2Esdras)[f][g] HebrewandAramaic
Nehemiah Nehemiah(2Esdras) Nehemiah(2Esdras)[f][g]
Hebrew
Tobit(Tobias) Tobit(Tobias) Aramaic(andHebrew?)Judith Judith Hebrew
Esther[d] Esther Esther[h] Esther[h] Hebrew
1Maccabees(1Machabees)[i]
1Maccabees Hebrew
2Maccabees(2Machabees)[i]
2Maccabees Greek
3Maccabees Greek
4Maccabees[j] Greek
Ketuvim(Writings) Wisdombooks
Iyov(Job)[d] Job Job Job Hebrew
Tehillim(Psalms)[d] Psalms Psalms Psalms[k] Hebrew
PrayerofManasseh Greek
Mishlei(Proverbs)[d] Proverbs Proverbs Proverbs Hebrew
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Qoheleth(Ecclesiastes)[d]
Ecclesiastes Ecclesiastes Ecclesiastes Hebrew
ShirHashirim(SongofSongs)[d]
SongofSolomon
SongofSongs(CanticleofCanticles)
SongofSongs(AismaAismaton) Hebrew
Wisdom Wisdom GreekSirach(Ecclesiasticus) Sirach Hebrew
Nevi'im(LatterProphets) MajorprophetsYeshayahu Isaiah Isaiah(Isaias) Isaiah Hebrew
Yirmeyahu Jeremiah Jeremiah(Jeremias) Jeremiah HebrewandAramaicEikhah
(Lamentations)[d]Lamentations Lamentations Lamentations Hebrew
Baruch[l]Baruch[l] Hebrew[8]
LetterofJeremiah[m]Greek
(majorityview)[n]
Yekhezqel Ezekiel Ezekiel(Ezechiel) Ezekiel Hebrew
Daniel[d] Daniel Daniel[o] Daniel[o] Hebrewand
AramaicTwelveMinorProphets
TheTwelveor
TreiAsar
Hosea Hosea(Osee) Hosea HebrewJoel Joel Joel HebrewAmos Amos Amos Hebrew
Obadiah Obadiah(Abdias) Obadiah HebrewJonah Jonah(Jonas) Jonah HebrewMicah Micah(Micheas) Micah HebrewNahum Nahum Nahum Hebrew
Habakkuk Habakkuk(Habacuc) Habakkuk HebrewZephaniah Zephaniah(Sophonias) Zephaniah HebrewHaggai Haggai(Aggeus) Haggai Hebrew
Zechariah Zechariah(Zacharias) Zechariah HebrewMalachi Malachi(Malachias) Malachi Hebrew
SeveralofthebooksintheEasternOrthodoxcanonarealsofoundintheappendixtotheLatinVulgate,formerlytheofficialBibleoftheRomanCatholicChurch.
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BooksintheAppendixtotheVulgateBibleNameinVulgate NameinEasternOrthodoxuse
3Esdras 1Esdras4Esdras
PrayerofManasseh PrayerofManassehPsalmofDavidwhenheslewGoliath(Psalm151) Psalm151
Composition
ThefirstfivebooksGenesis,Exodus,Leviticus,bookofNumbersandDeuteronomycomprisetheTorah,thestoryofIsraelfromtheGenesiscreationnarrativetothedeathofMoses.FewscholarstodaydoubtthatitreacheditspresentforminthePersianperiod(538332BC),andthatitsauthorsweretheeliteofexilicreturneeswhocontrolledtheTempleatthattime.[9]
ThebooksofJoshua,Judges,SamuelandKingsfollow,formingahistoryofIsraelfromtheConquestofCanaantotheSiegeofJerusalemc.587BC.Thereisabroadconsensusamongscholarsthattheseoriginatedasasinglework(thesocalled"Deuteronomistichistory")duringtheBabylonianexileofthe6thcenturyBC.[10]ThetwoBooksofChroniclescovermuchthesamematerialasthePentateuchandDeuteronomistichistoryandprobablydatefromthe4thcenturyBC.[11]
ChronicleslinkswiththebooksofEzraandNehemiah,whichwereprobablyfinishedduringthe3rdcenturyBC.[12]CatholicandOrthodoxOldTestamentscontaintwo(CatholicOldTestament)tofour(Orthodox)BooksofMaccabees,writteninthe2ndand1stcenturiesBC.
ThehistorybooksmakeuparoundhalfthetotalcontentoftheOldTestament.Oftheremainder,thebooksofthevariousprophetsIsaiah,Jeremiah,Ezekiel,Danielandthetwelve"minorprophets"werewrittenbetweenthe8thand6thcenturiesBC,withtheexceptionsofJonahandDaniel,whichwerewrittenmuchlater.[13]The"wisdom"andotherbooksJob,Proverbsandsoondatefrombetweenthe5thcenturyBCandthe2ndor1stBC,withtheexceptionofsomeofthePsalms.[14]
Themes
Godisconsistentlydepictedastheonewhocreatedorputintoorder[15]theworldandguidesitshistory.Althoughheisnotconsistentlypresentedastheonlygodwhoexists,heisalwaysdepictedastheonlygodwhomIsraelistoworship,andbothJewsandChristianshavealwaysinterpretedthebibleasanaffirmationoftheonenessofGod.[16]
TheOldTestamentstressesthespecialrelationshipbetweenGodandhischosenpeople,Israel,butincludesinstructionsforproselytesaswell.Thisrelationshipisexpressedinthebiblicalcovenant(contract)betweenthetwo,receivedbyMoses.ThelawcodesinbookssuchasExodusandespeciallyDeuteronomyarethetermsofthecontract:IsraelswearsfaithfulnesstoYahweh,andGodswearstobeIsrael'sspecialprotectorandsupporter.[16]
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TheinterrelationshipbetweenvarioussignificantancientmanuscriptsoftheOldTestament,accordingtotheEncyclopaediaBiblica(1903).Somemanuscriptsareidentifiedbytheirsiglum.LXXheredenotestheoriginalSeptuagint.
FurtherthemesintheOldTestamentincludesalvation,redemption,divinejudgment,obedienceanddisobedience,faithandfaithfulness,amongothers.Throughoutthereisastrongemphasisonethicsandritualpurity,bothofwhichGoddemands,althoughsomeoftheprophetsandwisdomwritersseemtoquestionthis,arguingthatGoddemandssocialjusticeabovepurity,andperhapsdoesnotevencareaboutpurityatall.TheOldTestament'smoralcodeenjoinsfairness,interventiononbehalfofthevulnerable,andthedutyofthoseinpowertoadministerjusticerighteously.Itforbidsmurder,briberyandcorruption,deceitfultrading,andmanysexualmisdemeanors.AllmoralityistracedbacktoGod,whoisthesourceofallgoodness.[17]
TheproblemofevilplaysalargepartintheOldTestament.TheproblemtheOldTestamentauthorsfacedwasthatagoodGodmusthavehadjustreasonforbringingdisaster(meaningnotably,butnotonly,theBabylonianexile)uponhispeople.Thethemeisplayedout,withmanyvariations,inbooksasdifferentasthehistoriesofKingsandChronicles,theprophetslikeEzekielandJeremiah,andinthewisdombookslikeJobandEcclesiastes.[17]
Fromscripturetocanon:formationoftheOldTestament
Greek,LatinandProtestantOldTestaments
TheprocessbywhichscripturesbecamecanonsandBibleswasalongone,anditscomplexitiesaccountforthemanydifferentOldTestamentswhichexisttoday.TimothyH.Lim,aprofessorofHebrewBibleandSecondTempleJudaismattheUniversityofEdinburgh,identifiestheOldTestamentas"acollectionofauthoritativetextsofapparentlydivineoriginthatwentthroughahumanprocessofwritingandediting."[3]Hestatesthatitisnotamagicalbook,norwasitliterallywrittenbyGodandpassedtomankind.Byaboutthe5thcenturyBCJewssawthefivebooksoftheTorah(theOldTestamentPentateuch)ashavingauthoritativestatusbythe2ndcenturyBCtheProphetshadasimilarstatus,althoughwithoutquitethesamelevelofrespectastheTorahbeyondthat,theJewishscriptureswerefluid,withdifferentgroupsseeingauthorityindifferentbooks.[18]
GreekBible
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ThescriptureswerefirsttranslatedintoGreekinAlexandriabetweenabout280130BC.[19]TheseearlyGreektranslationssupposedlycommissionedbyPtolemyPhiladelphuswerecalledtheSeptuagint(Latin:"Seventy")fromthesupposednumberoftranslatorsinvolved(henceitsabbreviation"LXX").ThisSeptuagintremainsthebasisoftheOldTestamentintheEasternOrthodoxChurch.[20]
ItvariesinmanyplacesfromtheMasoreticTextandincludesnumerousbooksnolongerconsideredcanonicalinothertraditions:1stand2ndEsdras,Judith,Tobit,3rdand4thMaccabees,theBookofWisdom,Sirach,andBaruch.[21]EarlymodernBiblicalcriticismtypicallyexplainedthesevariationsasintentionalorignorantcorruptionsbytheAlexandrianscholars,butmostrecentscholarshipholdsitissimplybasedonearlysourcetextsdifferingfromthoselaterusedbytheMasoretesintheirwork.
TheSeptuagintwasoriginallyusedbyJewssothoroughlyHellenizedthattheirknowledgeofGreekwasbetterthantheirHebrew.TheeverincreasingnumberofgentileconvertstoChristianitycreatedagrowingneedfortranslationsoftheHebrewScripturesintoGreekandLatin.ThethreemostacclaimedearlyinterpreterswereAquilaofSinope,SymmachustheEbionite,andTheodotioninhisHexapla,OrigenplacedhiseditionoftheHebrewtextbesideitstranscriptioninGreeklettersandfourparalleltranslations:Aquila's,Symmachus's,theSeptuagint's,andTheodotion's.Thesocalled"fifth"and"sixtheditions"weretwootherGreektranslationssupposedlymiraculouslydiscoveredbystudentsoutsidethetownsofJerichoandNicopolis:thesewereaddedtoOrigen'sOctapla.[22]
In331,ConstantineIcommissionedEusebiustodeliverfiftyBiblesfortheChurchofConstantinople.Athanasius[23]recordedAlexandrianscribesaround340preparingBiblesforConstans.Littleelseisknown,thoughthereisplentyofspeculation.Forexample,itisspeculatedthatthismayhaveprovidedmotivationforcanonlists,andthatCodexVaticanusandCodexSinaiticusareexamplesoftheseBibles.TogetherwiththePeshittaandCodexAlexandrinus,thesearetheearliestextantChristianBibles.[24]ThereisnoevidenceamongthecanonsoftheFirstCouncilofNicaeaofanydeterminationonthecanon,however,Jerome(347420),inhisProloguetoJudith,makestheclaimthattheBookofJudithwas"foundbytheNiceneCounciltohavebeencountedamongthenumberoftheSacredScriptures".[25]
LatinBible
InWesternChristianityorChristianityintheWesternhalfoftheRomanEmpire,LatinhaddisplacedGreekasthecommonlanguageoftheearlyChristians,andabout400ADPopeDamasusIcommissionedJerome,theleadingscholaroftheday,toproduceanupdatedLatinbibletoreplacetheVetusLatina.SometimeinthecenturiesaftertheSeptuagint(exactlywhenisdisputed)theRabbis(Jewishreligiousscholarsandteachers)definedtheJewishcanon,whichisamuchshortercanonofonly24books,andJeromeusedit(commonlycalledtheHebrewBible)insteadoftheGreekOldTestamentasthebasisforhistranslation,citing"HebraicaVeritas"(Latin:TruthoftheHebrew).HisVulgate(i.e.commonlanguage)OldTestamentbecamethestandardbibleusedintheWesternChurch,specificallyastheSixtoClementineVulgate,whiletheChurchesintheEastcontinued,andstillcontinue,tousetheSeptuagint.[26]
JeromehadwantedtodropallthebooksthatdidnotappearintheHebrewBible,butStAugustine,abishopandanothergreatscholaroftheday,opposedhimandwontheargument,notablyattheCouncilofCarthageon28August397.Inthe16thcenturytheProtestantreformersreopenedthedebate,andsidedwithJerome,butonlyfortheirowncongregations:yetalthoughProtestantBiblesnowhaveonlythosebooksthatappearintheJewishBible,theyhavethemintheorderoftheGreekBible.[27]
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Rome,largelyinreactiontothisattackontradition,officiallyadoptedacanon,theCanonofTrent,whichcanbeseenasfollowingAugustine'sCarthaginianCouncilsortheCouncilofRome,[p]andincludesmost,butnotall,oftheSeptuagint(3Ezraand3and4Maccabeesareexcluded)[28]theAnglicansaftertheEnglishCivilWaradoptedacompromiseposition,restoringthe39ArticlesandkeepingtheextrabooksthatwereexcludedbytheWestminsterConfessionofFaith,butonlyforprivatestudyandforreadinginchurches,whileLutheranskeptthemforprivatestudy,gatheredinanappendixasBiblicalApocrypha.[27]
Otherversions
WhiletheHebrew,GreekandLatinversionsoftheHebrewBiblearethebestknownOldTestaments,therewereothers.AtmuchthesametimeastheSeptuagintwasbeingproduced,translationswerebeingmadeintoAramaic,thelanguageofJewslivinginPalestineandtheNearEastandlikelythelanguageofJesus:thesearecalledtheAramaicTargums,fromawordmeaning"translation",andwereusedtohelpJewishcongregationsunderstandtheirscriptures.[29]
ForAramaicChristianstherewasaSyriactranslationoftheHebrewBiblecalledthePeshitta,aswellasversionsinCoptic(theeverydaylanguageofEgyptinthefirstChristiancenturies,descendedfromancientEgyptian),Ethiopic(foruseintheEthiopianchurch,oneoftheoldestChristianchurches),Armenian(ArmeniawasthefirsttoadoptChristianityasitsofficialreligion),andArabic.[29]
Literaryevaluations
TheOldTestamentisconsideredoneofthemostimportantandinfluentialworksofliteratureinworldliterature,andhasprovidedinspirationforwriters(bothreligiousandsecular)throughoutsubsequenthistory.In1886,FriedrichNietzschewrote:"IntheJewishOldTestament,therearemen,thingsandspeechesinsograndastylethatGreekandIndianliteraturehavenothingtocomparetoit.Onestandswithaweandreverencebeforethesetremendousremnantsofwhatmanoncewas...ThetastefortheOldTestamentisatouchstoneof"greatness"and"smallness".TohavegluedthisNewTestament,akindofrococooftasteineveryrespect,totheOldTestamenttoformonebook...thatisperhapsthegreatestaudacityandsinagainstthespiritthatEuropehasonitsconscience.[30]
ChristiantheologyandtheOldTestament
ChristianityisbasedontheclaimthatthehistoricalJesusisalsotheChrist,asintheConfessionofPeter.ThisclaimisinturnbasedonJewishunderstandingsofthemeaningoftheHebrewtermmessiah,which,liketheGreek"Christ",means"anointed".IntheHebrewScripturesitdescribesakinganointedwithoilonhisaccessiontothethrone:hebecomes"TheLORD'sanointed"orYahweh'sAnointed.BythetimeofJesus,someJewsexpectedthatafleshandblooddescendantofDavid(the"SonofDavid")wouldcometoestablisharealJewishkingdominJerusalem,insteadoftheRomanprovince.[31]
OthersstressedtheSonofMan,adistinctlyotherworldlyfigurewhowouldappearasajudgeattheendoftimeandsomeharmonisedthetwobyexpectingathisworldlymessianickingdomwhichwouldlastforasetperiodandbefollowedbytheotherworldlyageorWorldtoCome.SomethoughttheMessiahwasalreadypresent,butunrecognisedduetoIsrael'ssinssomethoughtthattheMessiahwouldbeannouncedbyaforerunner,probablyElijah(aspromisedbytheprophetMalachi,whosebooknowendstheOld
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TestamentandprecedesMark'saccountofJohntheBaptist).NonepredictedaMessiahwhosuffersanddiesforthesinsofallthepeople.[31]ThestoryofJesus'deaththereforeinvolvedaprofoundshiftinmeaningfromthetraditionoftheOldTestament.[32]
Thename"OldTestament"reflectsChristianity'sunderstandingofitselfasthefulfillmentofJeremiah'sprophesyofaNewCovenant(whichissimilarto"testament"andoftenconflated)toreplacetheexistingcovenantbetweenGodandIsrael(Jeremiah31:31).[1]Theemphasis,however,hasshiftedfromJudaism'sunderstandingofthecovenantasaneternalcontractbetweenGodandIsraeltoonebetweenGodandthosewhoare"inChrist".[33]
Seealso
AbrogationofOldCovenantlawsBiblicalnarrativesandtheQuranBookofJobinByzantineilluminatedmanuscriptsBooksoftheBibleCovenant(biblical)ExpoundingoftheLawHebrewBible:TimelineLawandGospelListofancientlegalcodesListofHebrewBiblemanuscriptsNoncanonicalbooksreferencedintheBibleQuotationsfromtheHebrewBibleintheNewTestamentSupersessionism
Notesa. GenerallyduetoderivationfromtransliterationsofnamesusedintheLatinVulgateinthecaseofCatholicism,
andfromtransliterationsoftheGreekSeptuagintinthecaseoftheOrthodox(asopposedtoderivationoftranslations,insteadoftransliterations,ofHebrewtitles)suchEcclesiasticus(DRC)insteadofSirach(LXX)orBenSira(Hebrew),Paralipomenon(Greek,meaning"thingsomitted")insteadofChronicles,SophoniasinsteadofZephaniah,NoeinsteadofNoah,HenochinsteadofEnoch,MessiasinsteadofMessiah,SioninsteadofZion,etc.
b. ThefoundationalThirtyNineArticlesofAnglicanism,inArticleVI,assertsthesedisputedbooksarenotused"toestablishanydoctrine,"but"readforexampleoflife."AlthoughtheBiblicalapocryphaarestillusedinAnglicanLiturgy,[7]themoderntrendistonotevenprinttheOldTestamentapocryphaineditionsofAnglicanusedBibles.
c. The24booksoftheHebrewBiblearethesameasthe39booksoftheProtestantOldTestament,onlydividedandordereddifferently:thebooksoftheMinorProphetsareinChristianBiblestwelvedifferentbooks,andinHebrewBibles,onebookcalled"TheTwelve".Likewise,ChristianBiblesdividetheBooksofKingdomsintofourbooks,either12Samueland12Kingsor14Kings:JewishBiblesdividetheseintotwobooks.TheJewslikewisekeep12Chronicles/Paralipomenonasonebook.EzraandNehemiaharelikewisecombinedintheJewishBible,astheyareinmanyOrthodoxBibles,insteadofdividedintotwobooks,aspertheCatholicandProtestanttradition.
d. ThisbookispartoftheKetuvim,thethirdsectionoftheJewishcanon.TheyhaveadifferentorderinJewishcanonthaninChristiancanon.
e. ThebooksofSamuelandKingsareoftencalledFirstthroughFourthKingsintheCatholictradition,muchliketheOrthodox.
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f. NamesinparenthesesaretheSeptuagintnamesandareoftenusedbytheOrthodoxChristians.g. SomeEasternOrthodoxchurchesfollowtheSeptuagintandtheHebrewbiblesbyconsideringthebooksofEzra
andNehemiahasonebook.h. TheCatholicandOrthodoxBookofEstherincludes103versesnotintheProtestantBookofEsther.i. TheLatinVulgate,DouayRheims,andRevisedStandardVersionCatholicEditionplaceFirstandSecond
MaccabeesafterMalachiotherCatholictranslationsplacethemafterEsther.j. InGreekBibles,4Maccabeesisfoundintheappendix.k. EasternOrthodoxchurchesincludePsalm151andthePrayerofManasseh,notpresentinallcanons.l. InCatholicBibles,BaruchincludesasixthchaptercalledtheLetterofJeremiah.BaruchisnotintheProtestant
BibleortheTanakh.m. EasternOrthodoxBibleshavethebooksofBaruchandtheLetterofJeremiahseparate.n. Hebrew(minorityview)seeLetterofJeremiahfordetails.o. InCatholicandOrthodoxBibles,DanielincludesthreesectionsnotincludedinProtestantBibles.ThePrayerof
AzariahandSongoftheThreeHolyChildrenareincludedbetweenDaniel3:2324.SusannaisincludedasDaniel13.BelandtheDragonisincludedasDaniel14.ThesearenotintheProtestantOldTestament.
p. Augustine's"2ofEsdras"couldbe1EsdrasandEzraNehemiahasintheSeptuagintandOrthodoxcanonorEzraandNehemiahasintheVulgateandCatholiccanon.
References
1. Jones2001,p.215.2. Barton2001,p.3.3. Lim,TimothyH.(2005).TheDeadSeaScrolls:AVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
p.41.4. Riches,John(2000).TheBible:AVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.p.37.ISBN978
0192853431.5. PhilipR.DaviesinTheCanonDebate,page50:"Withmanyotherscholars,Iconcludethatthefixingofa
canonicallistwasalmostcertainlytheachievementoftheHasmoneandynasty."6. Boadt1984,pp.11,1516.7. TheApocrypha,BridgeoftheTestaments(http://orthodoxanglican.net/downloads/apocrypha.pdf)(PDF),Orthodox
Anglican,"TwoofthehymnsusedintheAmericanPrayerBookofficeofMorningPrayer,theBenedictusesandBenedicite,aretakenfromtheApocrypha.OneoftheoffertorysentencesinHolyCommunioncomesfromanapocryphalbook(Tob.4:89).LessonsfromtheApocryphaareregularlyappointedtobereadinthedaily,Sunday,andspecialservicesofMorningandEveningPrayer.Therearealtogether111suchlessonsinthelatestrevisedAmericanPrayerBookLectionary[Booksusedare:IIEsdras,Tobit,Wisdom,Ecclesiasticus,Baruch,ThreeHolyChildren,andIMaccabees.]"
8. Britannica,19119. Blenkinsopp1998,p.184.
10. Rogerson2003,pp.15354.11. Coggins2003,p.282.12. Grabbe2003,pp.21314.13. Miller1987,pp.1011.14. Crenshaw2010,p.5.15. Thereisamajordiscussioninthefieldoftheologyaboutthemeaningoftheword"bara",thesecondwordof
Genesis.Someinterpretitas"created"(outofnothing),butothersargueitwas"remodelled/ordered"(somethingexistingbefore)
16. Barton2001,p.9.17. Barton2001,p.10.18. Brettler2005,p.274.19. Gentry2008,p.302.20. Wrthwein1995.21. Jones2001,p.216.22. Cave,William.Acompletehistoryofthelives,acts,andmartyrdomsoftheholyapostles,andthetwo
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Bibliography
Bandstra,BarryL(2004),ReadingtheOldTestament:anintroductiontotheHebrewBible(http://books.google.com/?id=vRY9mTUZKJcC&pg=PA489&lpg=PA489&dq=Bandstra,+Barry+L+%282004%29.+Reading+the+Old+Testament:+an+introduction+to+the+Hebrew+Bible#v=onepage&q&f=false),Wadsworth,ISBN9780495391050Barton,John(1997),HowtheBiblecametobe(http://books.google.com/?id=UfU4_9M4N2YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=How+the+Bible+came+to+be+Barton#v=onepage&q&f=false),WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,ISBN9780664257859(2001),"IntroductiontotheOldTestament",inMuddiman,JohnBarton,John,BibleCommentary(http://books.google.com/?id=3surkLVdw3UC&pg=PA6&dq=B.+Collecting+the+Hebrew+Scriptures#v=onepage&q=B.%20Collecting%20the%20Hebrew%20Scriptures&f=false),OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN9780198755005Blenkinsopp,Joseph(1998),"ThePentateuch",inBarton,John,TheCambridgecompaniontobiblicalinterpretation(http://books.google.com/?id=PSHCRgS_SAUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Cambridge+companion+to+biblical+interpretation#v=onepage&q&f=false),CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN9780521485937Boadt,Lawrence(1984),ReadingtheOldTestament:anintroduction(http://books.google.com/?id=LGQNT6G_do8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Reading+the+Old+Testament:+an+introduction#v=onepage&q&f=false),PaulistPress,ISBN9780809126316Brettler,MarcZvi(2005),HowtoreadtheBible(http://books.google.com/?id=39nQafdJ_ssC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Brettler+how+to+read+the+bible#v=onepage&q&f=false),JewishPublicationSociety,ISBN9780827610019Bultman,Christoph(2001),"Deuteronomy",inBarton,JohnMuddiman,John,OxfordBibleCommentary(http://books.google.com/?id=3surkLVdw3UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Oxford+Bible+commentary#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy&f=false),OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN9780198755005Coggins,RichardJ(2003),"1and2Chronicles",inDunn,JamesDGRogerson,JohnWilliam,CommentaryontheBible(http://books.google.com/?id=2Vo
22. Cave,William.Acompletehistoryofthelives,acts,andmartyrdomsoftheholyapostles,andthetwoevangelists,St.MarkandLuke(http://books.google.no/books?id=L5UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA406),Vol.II.Wiatt(Philadelphia),1810.Accessed6Feb2013.
23. Apol.Const.424. TheCanonDebate,pp.41415,fortheentireparagraph25. "BookofJudith".CatholicEncyclopedia.NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany.1913.Canonicity:"..."the
SynodofNicaeaissaidtohaveaccounteditasSacredScripture"(Praef.inLib.).ItistruethatnosuchdeclarationistobefoundintheCanonsofNicaea,anditisuncertainwhetherSt.Jeromeisreferringtotheusemadeofthebookinthediscussionsofthecouncil,orwhetherhewasmisledbysomespuriouscanonsattributedtothatcouncil".
26. Wrthwein1995,pp.9199.27. Barton1997,pp.8081.28. Soggin1987,p.19.29. Wrthwein1995,pp.7990,1004.30. BeyondGoodandEvil,translatedbyWalterKaufmann,NewYork:RandomHouse,1966reprintedinVintage
Books,andaspartofBasicWritingsofNietzsche,NewYork:ModernLibrary,2000,1886(52)31. Farmer1991,pp.57071.32. Juel2000,pp.23639.33. Herion2000,pp.29192.
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11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Chronicles+Richard+J+Coggins#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9780802837110Crenshaw,JamesL(2010),OldTestamentwisdom:anintroduction(http://books.google.com/?id=tKpWNrkO8dEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Old+Testament+wisdom:+an+introduction++By+James+L.+Crenshaw#v=onepage&q&f=false),WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,ISBN9780664234591Davies,GI(1998),"IntroductiontothePentateuch",inBarton,John,OxfordBibleCommentary(http://books.google.com/?id=3surkLVdw3UC&pg=PA12&dq=Oxford+Bible+Commentary+Introduction+to+the+Pentateuch#v=onepage&q=Oxford%20Bible%20Commentary%20Introduction%20to%20the%20Pentateuch&f=false),OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN9780198755005Dines,JenniferM(2004),TheSeptuagint(http://books.google.com/?id=Qv8Riv3QIbQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Dines+Septuagint#v=onepage&q&f=false),Continuum,ISBN9780567084644Farmer,Ron(1991),"Messiah/Christ",inMills,WatsonEBullard,RogerAubrey,MercerdictionaryoftheBible(http://books.google.com/?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA570#v=onepage&q&f=false),MercerUniversityPress,ISBN9780865543737Gentry,PeterR(2008),"OldGreekandLaterRevisors",inSollamo,RaijaVoitila,AnssiJokiranta,Jutta,Scriptureintransition(http://books.google.com/?id=NoCJKyxEujEC&pg=PA301&dq=Old+Greek+and+Later+Revisors:+Can+we+always+distinguish+them#v=onepage&q=Old%20Greek%20and%20Later%20Revisors%3A%20Can%20we%20always%20distinguish%20them%3F&f=false),Brill,ISBN9789004165823Grabbe,LesterL(2003),"Ezra",inDunn,JamesDGRogerson,JohnWilliam,CommentaryontheBible(http://books.google.com/?id=2Vo11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Deuteronomy+John+W+Rogerson#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9780802837110Hasel,GerhardF(1991),OldTestamenttheology:basicissuesinthecurrentdebate(http://books.google.com/?id=yJJ6bE0kt1YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Old+Testament+theology#v=onepage&q&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9780802805379Herion,GaryA(2000),"Covenant",inFreedman,DavidNoel,DictionaryoftheBible(http://books.google.ca/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Old%20Testament&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9789053565032Jobes,KarenHSilva,Moises(2005),InvitationtotheSeptuagint,BakerAcademicJones,BarryA(2000),"CanonoftheOldTestament",inFreedman,DavidNoel,DictionaryoftheBible(http://books.google.ca/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Old%20Testament&f=false),WilliamBEerdmans,ISBN9789053565032Juel,Donald(2000),"Christ",inFreedman,DavidNoel,DictionaryoftheBible(http://books.google.com/?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Eerdmans+Dictionary+of+the+Bible#v=onepage&q&f=false),WilliamBEerdmans,ISBN9789053565032Lim,TimothyH.(2005).TheDeadSeaScrolls:AVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.McLay,Tim(2003),TheuseoftheSeptuagintinNewTestamentresearch(http://books.google.com/?id=41rxTDIF9gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Use+of+the+Septuagint+in+New+Testament+Research#v=onepage&q&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9780802860910
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Miller,JohnW(2004),HowtheBiblecametobe(http://books.google.com/?id=a4VnOtjstoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false),PaulistPress,ISBN9780809141838Miller,JohnW(1987),Meettheprophets:abeginner'sguidetothebooksofthebiblicalprophets(http://books.google.com/?id=mHXM3wjVPgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Meet+the+prophets:+a+beginner%27s+guide+to+the+books+of+the+biblical+prophets#v=onepage&q&f=false),PaulistPress,ISBN9780809128990Rogerson,JohnW(2003),"Deuteronomy",inDunn,JamesDGRogerson,JohnWilliam,CommentaryontheBible(http://books.google.com/?id=2Vo11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Deuteronomy+John+W+Rogerson#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9780802837110Schniedewind,WilliamM(2004),HowtheBibleBecameaBook(http://books.google.com/?id=tCTVc8_2vVQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=How+the+Bible+Became+a+Book#v=onepage&q&f=false),Cambridge,ISBN9780521536226Soggin,J.Alberto(1987),IntroductiontotheOldTestament(http://books.google.com/?id=mqSNsKXnHQgC&pg=PA40&dq=Soggin+Hebrew+bible#v=onepage&q=Soggin%20Hebrew%20bible&f=false),WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,ISBN9780664221560Wrthwein,Ernst(1995),ThetextoftheOldTestament:anintroductiontotheBibliaHebraica(http://books.google.com/?id=FSNKSBObCYwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=W%C3%BCrthwein+The+Text+of+the+Old+Testament#v=onepage&q&f=false),WilliamBEerdmans,ISBN9780802807885
Furtherreading
Anderson,Bernhard.UnderstandingtheOldTestament.ISBN0139483993Bahnsen,Greg,etal.,FiveViewsonLawandGospel(GrandRapids:Zondervan,1993).Berkowitz,ArielBerkowitz,D'vorah(2004),TorahRediscovered(4thed.),Shoreshim,ISBN0975291408.Dever,WilliamG.(2003),WhoWeretheEarlyIsraelites?,GrandRapids,MI:WilliamBEerdmans,ISBN0802809758.vonRad,Gerhard(1982/1984),TheologiedesAltenTestaments[TheologyoftheOldTestament](inGerman),Band12,Munich:AuflageCheckdatevaluesin:|date=(help).Hill,AndrewWalton,John(2000),ASurveyoftheOldTestament(2nded.),GrandRapids:Zondervan,ISBN0310229030.Kuntz,JohnKenneth(1974),ThePeopleofAncientIsrael:anintroductiontoOldTestamentLiterature,History,andThought,Harper&Row,ISBN0060438223.Lancaster,DThomas(2005),Restoration:ReturningtheTorahofGodtotheDisciplesofJesus,Littleton\publisher=FirstFruitsofZion.PapadakiOekland,Stella,ByzantineIlluminatedManuscriptsoftheBookofJob,ISBN9782503532325.Rouvire,JeanMarc(2006),BrvesmditationssurlaCrationdumonde[BriefmeditationsonthecreationoftheWorld](inFrench),Paris:L'Harmattan.Salibi,Kamal(1985),TheBibleCamefromArabia,London:JonathanCape,ISBN0224028308.Schmid,Konrad(2012),TheOldTestament:ALiteraryHistory,Minneapolis:Fortress,ISBN9780800697754.Silberman,NeilAetal.(2003),TheBibleUnearthed(HARDBACK),NewYork:Simon&Schuster,ISBN0684869128,ISBN0684869136(paperback).Sprinkle,JosephJoeM(2006),BiblicalLawandItsRelevance:AChristianUnderstandingandEthicalApplicationforTodayoftheMosaicRegulations(CLOTHBOUND),Lanham,MD:UniversityPressofAmerica,ISBN0761833714andISBN0761833722(paperback).
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5/1/2015 OldTestamentWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
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Externallinks
"TheOldTestamentCanon",Scripture&tradition(http://www.churchfathers.org/category/scriptureandtradition/oldtestamentcanon/),ChurchFathers.Biblegateway(http://www.biblegateway.com/).FulltextsoftheOld(andNew)TestamentsincludingthefullRomanandOrthodoxCatholiccanons."OldTestament",critures(http://www.lafeuilledolivier.com/Ecritures/OT.htm),LafeuilledOlivier.ProtestantOldTestamentonasinglepage."OldTestament",ReadingRoom(http://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/readingrooms/oldt),CA:TyndaleSeminary.ExtensiveonlineOTresources(incl.commentaries)."OldTestament",Religiousstudies(http://oyc.yale.edu/religiousstudies)(VIDEO)(lectures),YaleUniversity,20111130.Bible(http://www.bible.x10host.com/),X10host:OldTestamentstoriesandcommentary.OldTestamentTimeline(http://www.lds.org/gospellibrary/materials/OT_Timeline_000.pdf)(PDF),LDS.TanakhML(http://www.tanakhml.org/)(parallelBible)BibliaHebraicaStuttgartensiaandtheKingJamesVersion.
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