One-child policy 1

One-child policy

"For a prosperous, powerful nation and a happyfamily, please use birth planning." Government

sign in Nanchang.

The one-child policy (simplified Chinese: 计划生育政策; pinyin:jìhuà shēngyù zhèngcè; literally "policy of birth planning") is thepopulation control policy of the People's Republic of China (PRC). TheChinese government refers to it under the official translation of familyplanning policy.[1] It officially restricts the number of childrenmarried urban couples can have to one, although it allows exemptionsfor several cases, including rural couples, ethnic minorities, andparents without any siblings themselves.[2] A spokesperson of theCommittee on the One-Child Policy has said that approximately 35.9%of China's population is currently subject to the one-child restriction.[3]

The policy does not apply to the Special Administrative Regions ofHong Kong and Macau, or Tibet.

The policy was introduced in 1978 and initially applied to first-born children in 1979. It was created by the Chinesegovernment to alleviate social, economic, and environmental problems in China,[4] and authorities claim that thepolicy has prevented more than 250 million births from its implementation to 2000.[2] The policy is controversialboth within and outside China because of the manner in which the policy has been implemented, and because ofconcerns about negative economic and social consequences. The policy has been implicated in an increase in forcedabortions, female infanticide, and underreporting[5] of female births, and has been suggested as a possible causebehind China's gender imbalance. Nonetheless, a 2008 survey undertaken by the Pew Research Center showed thatover 76% of the Chinese population supports the policy.[6]

The policy is enforced at the provincial level through fines that are imposed based on the income of the family andother factors. Population and Family Planning Commissions (Chinese: 计划生育委员会) exist at every level ofgovernment to raise awareness about the issue and carry out registration and inspection work. Despite this policy,there are still many citizens that continue to have more than one child.[7]

In 2008, China's National Population and Family Planning Commission said that the policy will remain in place forat least another decade,[8] although in 2010 it was announced that the majority of the citizens first subject to thepolicy are no longer of reproductive age and it has been speculated that many citizens simply disregard or violate thepolicy in more recent years. In response, the director of the Commission has denied claims that most citizens areallowed to have second children and stated that the policy would remain unaltered until at least 2015.[9]

OverviewThe one-child policy promotes one-child families and forbids couples from having more than one child in both ruraland urban areas. Parents with multiple children aren't given the same benefits as parents of one child. In most cases,wealthy families pay a fee to the government in order to have second children.

Current statusThe limit has been strongly enforced in urban areas, but the actual implementation varies from location to location.[10] In most rural areas, families are allowed to apply to have a second child if the first is a girl,[11] or has a physical disability, mental illness or mental retardation.[12] Second children are subject to birth spacing (usually 3 or 4 years). Additional children will result in large fines: families violating the policy are required to pay monetary penalties and might be denied bonuses at their workplace. Children born in overseas countries are not counted under the policy if they do not obtain Chinese citizenship. Chinese citizens returning from abroad can have a second

One-child policy 2

child.[13]

The Danshan, Sichuan Province Nongchang Village people Public Affairs Bulletin Boardin September 2005 noted that RMB 25,000 in social compensation fees were owed in2005. Thus far 11,500 RMB had been collected leaving another 13,500 RMB to be

collected.

The social fostering or maintenance fee(simplified Chinese: 社会抚养费;traditional Chinese: 社會撫養費;pinyin: shèhuì fúyǎng fèi) sometimescalled in the West a family planningfine, is collected as a multiple of eitherthe annual disposable income of citydwellers or the annual cash income ofpeasants as determined each year bythe local statistics office. The fine for achild born above the birth quota thatyear is thus a multiple of, dependingupon the locality, either urban residentdisposable income or peasant cashincome estimated that year by the localstatistics. So a fine for a child born tenyears ago is based on the incomeestimate for the year of the child's birthand not of the current year.[14] Theyalso have to pay for both the children

to go to school and all the family's health care. Some children who are in one-child families pay less than thechildren in other families. The one child policy was designed from the outset to be a one generation policy.[15]

The one-child policy is now enforced at the provincial level, and enforcement varies; some provinces have relaxedthe restrictions. Many provinces and cities, such as Henan[16] and Beijing permit two "only child" parents to havetwo children. As early as 1987, official policy granted local officials the flexibility to make exceptions and allowsecond children in the case of "practical difficulties" (such as cases in which the father is a disabled serviceman) orwhen both parents are single children,[17] and some provinces had other exemptions worked into their policies aswell.[18] Following the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, a new exception to the regulations was announced in Sichuanprovince for parents who had lost children in the earthquake.[19] [20] Similar exceptions have previously been madefor parents of severely disabled or deceased children.[21]

Moreover, in accordance with PRC's affirmative action policies towards ethnic minorities, all non-Han ethnic groupsare subjected to different rules and are usually allowed to have two children in urban areas, and three or four in ruralareas. Han Chinese living in rural areas, also, are often permitted to have two children.[22] Because of couples suchas these, as well as urban couples who simply pay a fine (or "social maintenance fee") to have more children,[23] theoverall fertility rate of mainland China is closer to two children per family than to one child per family (1.8). Thesteepest drop in fertility occurred in the 1970s before one child per family was implemented in 1979. Populationpolicies and campaigns have been ongoing in China since the 1950s. During the 1970s, a campaign of 'One is good,two is okay, and three is too many' was heavily promoted.[24]

In April 2007 a study by the University of California, Irvine, which claimed to be the first systematic study of thepolicy, found that it had proved "remarkably effective".[25] Other reports have shown population aging and negativepopulation growth in some areas.[26]

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Effects on population growth and fertility rate

Age pyramid for China showing smaller age cohorts in recentyears.

After the introduction of the one-child policy, the fertilityrate in China fell from over three births per woman in1980 (already a sharp reduction from more than fivebirths per woman in the early 1970s) to approximately 1.8births in 2008.[27] (The colloquial term "births perwoman" is usually formalized as the Total Fertility Rate(TFR), a technical term in demographic analysis meaningthe average number of children that would be born to awoman over her lifetime if she were to experience theexact current age-specific fertility rates through herlifetime.)

The Chinese government estimates that it had three tofour hundred million fewer people in 2008 with theone-child policy, than it would have had otherwise.[28] [29] Chinese authorities thus consider the policy as a greatsuccess in helping to implement China's current economic growth. The reduction in the fertility rate and thuspopulation growth has reduced the severity of problems that come with overpopulation, like epidemics, slums,overwhelmed social services (such as health, education, law enforcement), and strain on the ecosystem from abuse offertile land and production of high volumes of waste. Even with the one-child policy in place, however, "China stillhas one million more births than deaths every five weeks."[29]

SuicideThe suicide rate of women in childbearing years (generally between 15 and 34) has increased considerably since thepolicy was implemented, especially in smaller Chinese cities. This is believed to be due to pressure to produce asingle child, as it is usually desired to have a male child.[30] [31]

Non-population-related benefits

Impact on health careIt is reported that the focus of China on population control helps provide a better health service for women and areduction in the risks of death and injury associated with pregnancy. At family planning offices, women receive freecontraception and pre-natal classes. Help is provided for pregnant women to closely monitor their health. In variousplaces in China, the government rolled out a ‘Care for Girls’ program, which aims at eliminating culturaldiscrimination against girls in rural and underdeveloped areas through subsidies and education.[29]

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Increased savings rateThe individual savings rate has increased since the one-child policy was introduced. This has been partiallyattributed to the policy in two respects. First, the average Chinese household expends fewer resources, both in termsof time and money, on children, which gives many Chinese more money with which to invest. Second, since youngChinese can no longer rely on children to care for them in their old age, there is an impetus to save money for thefuture.[32]

Economic growthThe original intent of the one-child policy was economic, to reduce the demand of natural resources, maintaining asteady labor rate, reducing unemployment caused from surplus labor, and reducing the rate of exploitation.[33] [34]

The CPC's justification for this policy was based on their support of Mao Zedong's supposedly Marxist theory ofpopulation growth, though Marx was actually witheringly critical of Malthusianism.[34] [35]

Criticisms

Other available policy alternativesOne type of criticism has come from those who acknowledge the challenges stemming from China's high populationgrowth but believe that less intrusive options, including those that emphasized delay and spacing of births, couldhave achieved the same results over an extended period of time. Susan Greenhalgh's (2003) review of thepolicy-making process behind the adoption of the OCPF shows that some of these alternatives were known but notfully considered by China's political leaders.[36]

Policy benefits exaggeratedAnother criticism is directed at the exaggerated claimed effects of the policy on the reduction in the total fertilityrate. Studies by Chinese demographers, funded in part by the UN Fund for Population Activities, showed thatcombining poverty alleviation and health care with relaxed targets for family planning was more effective atreducing fertility than vigorous enforcement of very ambitious fertility reduction targets.[37] In 1988, Zeng Yi andprofessor T. Paul Schultz of Yale University discussed the effect of the transformation to the market on Chinesefertility, arguing that the introduction of the contract responsibility system in agriculture during the early 1980sweakened family planning controls during that period.[38] Zeng contended that the "big cooking pot" system of thePeople's Communes had insulated people from the costs of having many children. By the late 1980s, however,economic costs and incentives created by the contract system were already reducing the number of children farmerswanted.As Hasketh, Lu, and Xing observe: "[T]he policy itself is probably only partially responsible for the reduction in thetotal fertility rate. The most dramatic decrease in the rate actually occurred before the policy was imposed. Between1970 and 1979, the largely voluntary "late, long, few" policy, which called for later childbearing, greater spacingbetween children, and fewer children, had already resulted in a halving of the total fertility rate, from 5.9 to 2.9.After the one-child policy was introduced, there was a more gradual fall in the rate until 1995, and it has more or lessstabilized at approximately 1.7 since then."[39] These researchers note further that China could have expected acontinued reduction in its fertility rate just from continued economic development, had it kept to the previous policy.

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Human rightsThe one-child policy is challenged in principle and in practice for violating human rights. Reported abuses in itsenforcement include bribery, coercion, compulsory sterilization, forced abortion, and possibly infanticide, with mostreports coming from rural areas.[40] [41] A 2001 report exposed that a quota of 20,000 abortions and sterilizations wasset for Huaiji County in Guangdong Province in one year due to reported disregard of the one-child policy. Theeffort included using portable ultrasound devices to identify abortion candidates in remote villages. Earlier reportsalso show that women as far along as 8.5 months pregnant were forced to abort by injection of saline solution.[42]

There have also been reports of women, in their 9th month of pregnancy or already in labour, having their childrenkilled whilst in the birth canal or immediately after birth.[43] Stephen Moore of the Cato Institute announced that theOne child policy is "an ongoing genocide." He argued that free market capitalism will solve the overpopulation andoverconsumption problems of developing nations.[44]

In 2002, China outlawed the use of physical force to make a woman submit to an abortion or sterilization, but it isnot entirely enforced.[29] [45] In the execution of the policy, many local governments still demand abortions if thepregnancy violates local regulations.The one-child policy includes eugenic regulations. Both partners have to be rigorously tested before they marry. Ifone spouse has an "unsatisfactory" physical or mental condition, ranging from dyslexia to schizophrenia, they arebanned from marrying. The Chinese government claimed that these regulations are intended to "improve the qualityof the Chinese population." In the mid-1990s the Chinese government somewhat backed away on this policy.[46] [47]

According to a UNESCO debate, Chinese genetic testing is conducted with the consent of the individual and is notbased on racist or sinocentric attitudes.[48]

The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) funding for this policy is heavily criticized in the United States.[49]

The United States Congress pulled out of the UNFPA during the Reagan years,[44] and U.S. President George W.Bush referred to human rights abuses as his reason for stopping the US$40 million payment to the UNFPA in early2002.[50] In early 2003 the U.S. State Department issued a press release stating that they would not continue tosupport the UNFPA in its present form because they believed that, at the very least, coercive birth limitationpractices were not being properly addressed. The U.S. government has stated that the right to "found a family" isprotected under the Preamble in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. This, coupled with the InternationalConference on Population and Development's view that it is the right of the individual, not the state, to determine thenumber of children, represents a clear conflict between China's policy and U.S. accepted and adopted human rightsconventions.[51]

President Obama resumed U.S. government financial support for the UNFPA shortly after taking office in 2009.Obama said, "I look forward to working with Congress to restore U.S. financial support for the U.N. PopulationFund. By resuming funding to UNFPA, the U.S. will be joining 180 other donor nations working collaboratively toreduce poverty, improve the health of women and children, prevent HIV/AIDS and provide family planningassistance to women in 154 countries."[52] [53]

The "four-two-one" problemAs the first generation of law-enforced only children came of age for becoming parents themselves, one adult child was left with having to provide support for his or her two parents and four grandparents. Called the "4-2-1 Problem", this leaves the older generations with increased chances of dependency on retirement funds or charity in order to receive support. If personal savings, pensions, or state welfare fail, most senior citizens would be left entirely dependent upon their very small family or neighbors for assistance. If, for any reason, the single child is unable to care for their older adult relatives, the oldest generations would face a lack of resources and necessities. In response to such an issue, certain provinces maintained that couples were allowed to have two children if both parents were only children themselves. As of 2009, all provinces in the nation adopted this new adaptation.[54] [55] However, a majority of women in Jiangsu province eligible for a second child would voluntarily have only one child, according

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to a 2010 survey.[56]

Possible social problems for a generation of only childrenSome parents may over-indulge their only child. The media referred to the indulged children in one-child families as"little emperors". Since the 1990s, some people have worried that this will result in a higher tendency toward poorsocial communication and cooperation skills among the new generation, as they have no siblings at home. However,no social studies have investigated the ratio of these over-indulged children and to what extent they are indulged.With the first generation of children born under the policy (which initially became a requirement for most coupleswith first children born starting in 1979 and extending into 1980s) reaching adulthood, such worries are reduced.[57]

However, some 30 delegates called on the government in the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference(CPPCC) in March 2007 to abolish the one-child rule, attributing their beliefs to "social problems and personalitydisorders in young people". One statement read, "It is not healthy for children to play only with their parents and bespoiled by them: it is not right to limit the number to two children per family, either."[58] The proposal was preparedby Ye Tingfang, a professor at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, who suggested that the government at leastrestore the previous rule that allowed couples to have up to two children. According to a scholar, "The one-childlimit is too extreme. It violates nature’s law. And in the long run, this will lead to mother nature’s revenge."[58] [59]

Unequal enforcementGovernment officials and especially wealthy individuals have often been able to violate the policy in spite offines.[60] For example, between 2000 and 2005, as many as 1,968 officials in central China's Hunan province werefound to be violating the policy, according to the provincial family planning commission; also exposed by thecommission were 21 national and local lawmakers, 24 political advisors, 112 entrepreneurs and 6 seniorintellectuals.[61] Some of the offending officials did not face penalties,[62] although the government did respond byraising fines and calling on local officials to "expose the celebrities and high-income people who violate the familyplanning policy and have more than one child."[61]

Side effects on female populationChina, like many other Asian countries, has a long tradition of son preference.[29] The commonly acceptedexplanation for son preference is that sons in rural families may be thought to be more helpful in farm work. Bothrural and urban populations have economic and traditional incentives, including widespread remnants ofConfucianism, to prefer sons over daughters. Sons are preferred as they provide the primary financial support for theparents in their retirement, and a son's parents typically are better cared for than his wife's. In addition, Chinesetraditionally hold that daughters, on their marriage, become primarily part of the groom's family. Male-to-female sexratios in the current Chinese population are high in both rural and urban areas.[39]

Gender-based birth rate disparityThe sex ratio at birth (between male and female births) in mainland China reached 117:100 in the year 2000,substantially higher than the natural baseline, which ranges between 103:100 and 107:100. It had risen from 108:100in 1981—at the boundary of the natural baseline—to 111:100 in 1990.[63] According to a report by the StatePopulation and Family Planning Commission, there will be 30 million more men than women in 2020, potentiallyleading to social instability.[64] The correlation between the increase of sex ratio disparity on birth and thedeployment of one child policy would appear to have been caused by the one-child policy.However, other Asian regions also have higher than average ratios, including Taiwan (110:100) and South Korea (108:100), which do not have a family planning policy[65] and the ratio in South Korea reached as high as 116:100 in the early 1990s but since then has moved substantially back toward a normal range, with a ratio of 107:100 in 2005.[66] Many studies have explored the reason for the gender-based birth rate disparity in China as well as other

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countries. A study in 1990 attributed the high preponderance of reported male births in mainland China to four maincauses: diseases which affect females more severely than males; the result of widespread underreporting of femalebirths; the illegal practice of sex-selective abortion made possible by the widespread availability of ultrasound; andfinally, acts of child abandonment and infanticide.[5] The number of bachelors in China had already increasedbetween 1990 and 2005, implying that China's lack of brides is not solely linked to the one-child policy, assingle-child families were only enforced from 1979.[67]

In a recent paper, Emily Oster (2005) proposed a biological explanation for the gender imbalance in Asian countries,including China. Using data on viral prevalence by country as well as estimates of the effect of hepatitis on sex ratio,Oster claimed that Hepatitis B could account for up to 75% of the gender disparity in China.[68]

However, Monica Das Gupta (2005) has shown that "whether or not females 'go missing' is determined by theexisting sex composition of the family into which they are conceived. Girls with no older sisters have similarchances of survival as boys. Girls conceived in families that already have a daughter, however, experience steeplyhigher probabilities of being aborted or of dying in early childhood. Gupta claims that cultural factors provide theoverwhelming explanation for the "missing" females."[69]

The disparity in the sex ratio at birth increases dramatically after the first birth, for which the ratios remained steadilywithin the natural baseline over the 20 year interval between 1980 and 1999. Thus, a large majority of couplesappear to accept the outcome of the first pregnancy, whether it is a boy or a girl. If the first child is a girl, however,and they are able to have a second child, then a couple may take extraordinary steps to assure that the second child isa boy. If a couple already has two or more boys, however, the sex ratio of higher parity births swings decidedly in afeminine direction.[70]

This demographic evidence indicates that while families highly value having male offspring, a secondary norm ofhaving a girl or having some balance in the sexes of children often comes into play. For example, Zeng et al. (1993)reported a study based on the 1990 census in which they found sex ratios of just 65 or 70 boys per 100 girls for birthsin families that already had two or more boys.[71] A study by Anderson and Silver (1995) found a similar patternamong both Han and non-Han nationalities in Xinjiang Province: a strong preference for girls in high parity births infamilies that had already borne two or more boys.[72] This evidence is consistent with the observation by anotherresearcher that for a majority of rural families "their ideal family size is one boy and one girl, at most two boys andone girl".[73]

A 2006 review article[74] by the Editorial Board of Population Research (simplified Chinese: 人口研究; pinyin:Rénkǒu Yánjiū), one of China's leading demography journals, argued that only an approach that makes the rights ofwomen central can succeed in bringing down China's high gender ratio at birth and improve the survival rate offemale infants and girls. A section written by East China Normal University demography professor Ci Qinying,"Research on the Sex Ratio at Birth Should Take a Gender Discrimination Approach," argued that researchers mustpay closer attention to gender issues in demography,[75] [76] and a human rights perspective in demographic researchis crucial.[77] [78]

The authors of another review article, "Girl Survival in China: History, Present Situation and Prospects," which waspresented at a 2005 conference supported by the United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA), concludedthat "The Chinese government has already set the goal of achieving a normal gender ratio at birth by 2010, and toachieve preliminary results in establishing a new cultural outlook on marriage and having children. The governmentis working to change the system, way of thinking and other obstacles to attacking the root of the problem. Only ifequality of males and females is strongly promoted ... will the harmonious and sustainable development of society bepossible."[79]

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Abandoned or orphaned children and adoption

Rural Sichuan roadside sign: "It is forbidden to discriminate against,mistreat or abandon baby girls."

The social pressure exerted by the one-child policy hasaffected the rate at which parents abandon undesirablechildren, and many live in state-sponsored orphanages,from which thousands are adopted internationally andby Chinese parents each year. In the 1980s and early1990s, poor care and high mortality rates in some stateinstitutions generated intense international pressure forreform.[80]

According to Sten Johansson and Ola Nygren (1991)adoptions accounted for half of the so-called "missinggirls" in the 1980s in the PRC.[81] Through the 1980s,as the one-child policy came into force, parents whodesired a son but bore a daughter in some cases failedto report or delayed the reporting of the birth of the girl

to the authorities. The one-child policy also caused riots and protests in China resulting in the deaths of 13 familyplanning officials. But rather than neglecting or abandoning unwanted girls, the parents may have offered them upfor formal or informal adoption. A majority of children who went through formal adoption in China in the later1980s were girls, and the proportion who were girls increased over time (Johansson and Nygren 1991).

The practice of adopting out unwanted girls is consistent with both the son preference of many Chinese couples andthe findings of Zeng et al. (1993) and Anderson and Silver (1995) that under some circumstances families have apreference for girls, in particular when they have already satisfied their goals for sons. However, research by WeiguoZhang (2006) on child adoption in rural China reveals increasing receptivity to adopting girls, including by infertileand childless couples.[82]

In 1992, China instituted its first Adoption Law. Officially registered adoptions increased from about 2,000 in 1992to 55,000 in 2001. However, according to one scholar, these figures "represent a small proportion of adoptions inChina because many adopted children were adopted informally without official registrations. . . ."[83]

International adoption rates climbed dramatically after the early 1990s, increasing to the U.S. alone from about 200in 1992 to more than 7,900 in 2005.[84]

According to the Los Angeles Times, many babies put up for adoption had not been abandoned by their parents, butconfiscated by family planning officials.[85]

InfanticideGender-selected abortion, abandonment, and infanticide are illegal in China. Despite the Chinese legal position, theUS State Department,[86] the Parliament of the United Kingdom,[87] and the human rights organization AmnestyInternational[88] have all declared that China's family planning programs contribute to infanticide.Anthropologist G. William Skinner at the University of California-Davis and Chinese researcher Yuan Jianhua haveclaimed that infanticide was fairly common in China before the 1990s.[89] It is unknown how prevalent infanticidehas been in recent years.

One-child policy 9

Fertility medicinesA 2006 China Daily report stated that wealthy couples are increasingly turning to fertility medicines to have multiplebirths, because of the lack of penalties against couples who have more than one child in their first birth; according tothe report, the number of multiple births per year in China had doubled by 2006.[90]

Children born outside of ChinaIn June 2006, documents were presented in the United States in migration disputes which apparently indicated thatChinese nationals with children born abroad will be treated the same as Chinese nationals with Chinese-bornchildren. This evidence has led the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit to remand a litany of casesinvolving Chinese nationals seeking asylum back to the Board of Immigration Appeals.[91]

In August 2007, the Board of Immigration Appeals ruled that the new documents, even assuming that they aregenuine, reflect only "general birth planning policies [...] that do not specifically show any likelihood that [...]Chinese nationals will be persecuted as a result of the birth of a second child in the United States." [92]

See also• After-eighty generation• Demographics of the People's Republic of China• Demographic momentum• Family planning• Human rights in the People's Republic of China• One-dog policy• Only child• Reproductive health• Two-child policy• Urbanization in China

Further reading• Better 10 Graves Than One Extra Birth (ISBN 1-931550-92-1, Laogai Research Foundation)• Greenhalgh, Susan, (2008). Just One Child: Science and Policy in Deng's China (ISBN 978-0-520-25339-1,

University of California Press)

External links• Family Planning in China [93]

• Illegal births and legal abortions – the case of China [94]

One-child policy 10

References[1] Information Office of the State Council Of the People's Republic of China (August 1995). "Family Planning in China" (http:/ / www. fmprc.

gov. cn/ ce/ celt/ eng/ zt/ zfbps/ t125241. htm). Embassy of the People's Republic of China in Lithuania. . Retrieved 27 October 2008. SectionIII paragraph 2.

[2] BBC: China steps up "One-child policy". (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ asia-pacific/ 941511. stm)[3] "Most people free to have more child" (http:/ / www2. chinadaily. com. cn/ china/ 2007-07/ 11/ content_5432238. htm). 7/11/2007. .

Retrieved 2009-07-31.[4] Rocha da Silva, Pascal (2006). " La politique de l'enfant unique en République populaire de Chine (http:/ / www. sinoptic. ch/ textes/

recherche/ 2006/ 200608_Rocha. Pascal_memoire. pdf)" ("The politics of one child in the People's Republic of China"). Université de Genève(University of Geneva). p. 22-8. (French)

[5] For studies that reported underreporting or delayed reporting of female births, see the following:

• M. G. Merli and A. E. Raftery. 1990. "Are births under-reported in rural China? Manipulation of statistical records in response to China'spopulation policies", Demography 37 (February): 109-126

• Johansson, Sten; Nygren, Olga (1991). "The missing girls of China: a new demographic account" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 1972351).Population and Development Review (Population Council) 17 (1): 35–51. doi:10.2307/1972351. .

• Merli, M. Giovanna; Raftery, Adrian E. (2000). "Are births underreported in rural China?". Demography 37 (1): 109 126.[6] "The Chinese Celebrate Their Roaring Economy, As They Struggle With Its Costs" (http:/ / pewglobal. org/ reports/ display.

php?ReportID=261). 2008-07-22. . Retrieved 2009-07-31.[7] Arthur E. Dewey, Assistant Secretary for Population, Refugees and Migration Testimony before the House International Relations Committee

Washington, DC December 14, 2004 http:/ / statelists. state. gov/ scripts/ wa. exe?A2=ind0412c& L=dossdo& P=401[8] " China Sticking With One-Child Policy (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 03/ 11/ world/ asia/ 11china. html)." The New York Times, March

11, 2008. Retrieved on 7 November 2008.[9] "China's one-child policy little enforced -- and set to end" (http:/ / www. marketwatch. com/ story/

chinas-one-child-policy-largely-ignored-2010-03-18). MarketWatch. March 29, 2010. Retrieved March 29, 2010.[10] See Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific report " Status of Population and Family Planning Programme in China by

Province (http:/ / www. unescap. org/ esid/ psis/ population/ database/ chinadata/ intro. htm)".[11] Hu Huiting (18 October 2002). "Family Planning Law and China's Birth Control Situation" (http:/ / www. china. org. cn/ english/ 2002/ Oct/

46138. htm). China Daily. . Retrieved 2 March 2009.[12] PBS (14 February 1984). "Family Planning Law and China's Birth Control Situation" (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ listseason/ 11.

html). NOVA. . Retrieved 13 October 2009.[13] Are the rich challenging family planning policy? (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ china/ 2006-12/ 28/ content_770107. htm)[14] Summary of Family Planning notice on how FP fines are collected (http:/ / commons. wikimedia. org/ wiki/

Image:Sichuan_social_fostering_fee_schedule. jpg#file)[15] Chen Youhua, 6/1999 issue of Population Research [Renkou Yanjiu] "Research on Adjustment of Family Planning Policy" (http:/ / www.

cpirc. org. cn/ yjwx/ yjwx_detail. asp?id=2463)[16] "Regulations on Family Planning of Henan Province" (http:/ / www. unescap. org/ esid/ psis/ population/ database/ poplaws/ law_china/

ch_record060. htm). Henan Daily. 5 April 2000. . Retrieved 29 October 2008. Article 13.[17] Scheuer, James (4 January 1987). "America, the U.N. and China's Family Planning (Opinion)" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.

html?res=9B0DEFD81F3BF937A15752C0A961948260). The New York Times. . Retrieved 27 October 2008.[18] Sichuan, for example, has allowed exemptions for couples of certain backgrounds; see Articles 11-13, "Revised at the 29th session of the

standing committee of the 8th People's Congress of Sichuan Province" (http:/ / www. unescap. org/ esid/ psis/ population/ database/ poplaws/law_china/ ch_record075. htm). United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. 17 October 1997. . Retrieved 31October 2008.

[19] One-Child Policy Lifted for Quake Victims’ Parents (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 05/ 27/ world/ asia/ 27child. html?_r=1& hp&oref=slogin), by Andrew Jacobs. New York Times, 27 May 2008. Retrieved May 28, 2008.

[20] Baby offer for earthquake parents (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ asia-pacific/ 7440480. stm) BBC. Retrieved on 31 October 2008.[21] China Amends Child Policy for Some Quake Victims (http:/ / www. npr. org/ templates/ story/ story. php?storyId=90931455)[22] Yardley, Jim (11 May 2008). "China Sticking With One-Child Policy" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 03/ 11/ world/ asia/ 11china.

html?_r=2). The New York Times. . Retrieved 20 November 2008.[23] " New rich challenge family planning policy (http:/ / news. xinhuanet. com/ english/ 2005-12/ 14/ content_3918776. htm)." Xinhua.[24] "China's One-Child Policy" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ world/ article/ 0,8599,1912861,00. html). TIME. July 27, 2009. Retrieved June

11, 2010.[25] "First systematic study of China’s one-child policy reveals complexity, effectiveness of fertility regulation" (http:/ / today. uci. edu/ news/

release_detail. asp?key=1597). Today@UCI (University of California Irvine). April 18, 2007. . Retrieved 2007-04-19.[26] People's Daily Online - Wuhan sees negative population growth (http:/ / english. peopledaily. com. cn/ 200503/ 02/ eng20050302_175199.

html)[27] CIA World Factbook (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ ch. html#People)[28] Family Planning Law and China's Birth Control Situation (http:/ / www. china. org. cn/ english/ 2002/ Oct/ 46138. htm)

One-child policy 11

[29] John Taylor (2005-02-08). "China - One Child Policy" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ foreign/ content/ 2005/ s1432717. htm). AustralianBroadcasting Corporation. . Retrieved 2008-07-01.

[30] "China's one-child policy: As brutal and hypocritical as ever" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ opinion/ forum/2010-05-29-ling01_ST_N. htm). USA Today. May 29, 2010. Retrieved June 5, 2010.

[31] "China’s one child family policy" (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pmc/ articles/ PMC1116810/ ). British Medical Journal. 1999.Retrieved June 5, 2010.

[32] Barry Naughton, The Chinese Economy: Transitions and Growth, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2007.[33] 全慰天:社会主义经济规律与中国人口问题 (http:/ / www. chinapop. gov. cn/ rkzh/ rk/ rkyjj/ t20040326_2577. htm) Google Translated

Version (http:/ / 64. 233. 179. 104/ translate_c?hl=en& sl=zh-CN& tl=en& u=http:/ / www. chinapop. gov. cn/ rkzh/ rk/ rkyjj/t20040326_2577. htm)

[34] Tain Z (March 1983). "[Studying Marxist theory on population and initiating a new situation in demographic research]" (in Chinese).Renkou Yanjiu (2): 13–4. PMID 12313010.

[35] Wen TZ (July 1981). "[Comrade Mao Ze-dong's contribution to Marxist theory on population--in commemoration, of the 60th anniversaryof the birth of the Chinese Communist Party]" (in Chinese). Renkou Yanjiu (3): 8–11. PMID 12264239.

[36] Susan Greenhalgh. 2003. "Science, Modernity, and the Making of China's One-Child Policy", Population and Development Review 29(June): 163-196.

[37] U.S. Embassy Beijing June 1988 report PRC Family Planning: The Market Weakens Controls But Encourages Voluntary Limits (http:/ /www. usembassy-china. org. cn/ sandt/ POPMYWB. html).

[38] PRC journal Social Sciences in China [Zhongguo Shehui Kexue, January 1988].[39] Therese Hasketh, Li Lu, and Zhu Wei Xing. 2005. "The effects of China's One-Child Family Policy after 25 Years" (http:/ / content. nejm.

org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 353/ 11/ 1171), New England Journal of Medicine, 353, No. 11 (September 15): 1171-1176.[40] The United Nations Population Fund Helps China Persecute Women and Kill Children (http:/ / www. nrlc. org/ news/ 2004/ NRL08/

united_nations_population_fund_h. htm)[41] "Chinese witness: Beijing forces sterilizations, abortions" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ WORLD/ asiapcf/ 9806/ 11/ china. abortion/ ). CNN.

1998-06-11. .[42] Damien Mcelroy (2001-04-08). "Chinese region 'must conduct 20,000 abortions'" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ main.

jhtml;jsessionid=MBO41XZJLB0BDQFIQMGSFFWAVCBQWIV0?xml=/ news/ 2001/ 08/ 05/ wchin05. xml). Telegraph. .[43] Mosher, Steven W. (July 1993). A Mother's Ordeal. Harcourt. ISBN 0151626626.[44] Don't Fund UNFPA Population Control (http:/ / www. cato. org/ pub_display. php?pub_id=5457)[45] "Forced Sterilization" (http:/ / www. webster. edu/ ~woolflm/ forcedsterilization. html). .[46] "China's eugenics law on maternal and infant health care" (http:/ / www. popline. org/ docs/ 117401). Annals of Internal Medicine.

1996-09-01. .[47] "China backtracks on eugenics law" (http:/ / www. healthmatters. org. uk/ issue16/ chinabacktracks). healthmatters magazine. 1993-12-01. .[48] "Is China's Law eugenic?" (http:/ / www. unesco. org/ courier/ 1999_09/ uk/ dossier/ txt07. htm). 1999-09-01. .[49] Smith, Chris (8 August 2004). "The United Nations Population Fund Helps China Persecute Women and Kill Children" (http:/ / www. nrlc.

org/ news/ 2004/ NRL08/ united_nations_population_fund_h. htm). National Right to Life Committee. . Retrieved 2 March 2009.[50] Damien McElroy (2002-02-03). "China is furious as Bush halts UN 'abortion' funds" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ main.

jhtml?xml=/ news/ 2002/ 02/ 03/ wabor03. xml). Telegraph. .[51] Sichan Siv (2003-01-21). "United Nations Fund for Population Activities in China" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20030219115734/ http:/

/ www. state. gov/ p/ io/ rls/ rm/ 2003/ 16790. htm). U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. state. gov/ p/ io/ rls/rm/ 2003/ 16790. htm) on 19 February 2003. .

[52] "UNFPA Welcomes Restoration of U.S. Funding," UNFPA News, January 29, 2009 (http:/ / www. unfpa. org/ public/ News/ pid/ 1562).[53] Haider Rizvi, "Obama Sets New Course at the U.N.," IPS News, March 12, 2009 (http:/ / ipsnews. net/ news. asp?idnews=46093).[54] "Rethinking China's one-child policy" (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ world/ story/ 2009/ 10/ 28/ f-rfa-germain. html). CBC. October 28, 2009.

Retrieved June 11, 2010.[55] "计生委新闻发言人:11%以上人口可生两个孩子 (English: "Spokesperson of the one-child policy committee: 11% or more of the

population may have two children)" (http:/ / news. sina. com. cn/ c/ 2007-07-10/ 154513416121. shtml) (in Chinese). Sina.com. 10 July 2007.. Retrieved 7 November 2008.

[56] "China may ease controversial one-child policy, allowing couples to have multiple kids" (http:/ / www. nydailynews. com/ news/ world/2010/ 04/ 24/ 2010-04-24_china_may_ease_its_controversial_onechild_policy_. html). New York Daily News. April 24, 2010. Retrieved June8, 2010.

[57] Daniela Deane (July 26, 1992). The Little Emperors. Los Angeles Times. pp. 16[58] "Consultative Conference: “The government must end the one-child rule”" (http:/ / www. asianews. it/ index. php?l=en& art=8757&

size=A). AsiaNews.it. 2007-03-16. .[59] "Advisors say it's time to change one-child policy" (http:/ / english. sina. com/ china/ 1/ 2007/ 0315/ 106515. html). Shanghai Daily.

2007-03-15. .[60] "Over 1,900 officials breach birth policy in C. China" (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ china/ 2007-07/ 08/ content_912620. htm).

Xinhua. 8 July 2007. . Retrieved 11 November 2008. "But heavy fines and exposures seemed to hardly stop the celebrities and rich people, asthere are still many people, who can afford the heavy penalties, insist on having multiple kids, the Hunan commission spokesman said."

One-child policy 12

[61] "Over 1,900 officials breach birth policy in C. China" (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ china/ 2007-07/ 08/ content_912620. htm).Xinhua. 8 July 2007. . Retrieved 11 November 2008.

[62] "Over 1,900 officials breach birth policy in C. China" (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ china/ 2007-07/ 08/ content_912620. htm).Xinhua. 8 July 2007. . Retrieved 11 November 2008. "Three officials... who were all found to have kept extramarital mistresses, were allconvicted for charges such as embezzlement and taking bribes, but they were not punished for having more than one child."

[63] Chen Wei (2005). "Sex Ratios at Birth in China" (http:/ / www. cicred. org/ Eng/ Seminars/ Details/ Seminars/ FDA/ papers/ 18_ChenWei.pdf). . Retrieved 2 March 2009.

[64] "Chinese facing shortage of wives" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ go/ pr/ fr/ -/ 1/ hi/ world/ asia-pacific/ 6254763. stm). BBC. 2007-01-12. .Retrieved 2007-01-12.

[65] See the Central Intelligence Agency report Sex ratio (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ fields/ 2018. html).[66] "Where Boys Were Kings, a Shift Toward Baby Girls," New York Times, December 24, 2007 (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2007/ 12/ 23/

world/ asia/ 23skorea. html).[67] "The worldwide war on baby girls" (http:/ / www. economist. com/ world/ international/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=15636231). The

Economist. March 8, 2010. Retrieved May 4, 2010.[68] Oster, Emily (December 2005). "Hepatitis B and the case of the missing women" (http:/ / www. eldis. org/ static/ DOC18588. htm). Journal

of Political Economy 113 (6): 1163–1216. doi:10.1086/498588. .[69] Monica Das Gupta, "Explaining Asia's 'Missing Women,'" Population and Development Review 31 (September 2005): 529-535.[70] This tendency to favour girls in high parity births to couples who had already borne sons was also noted by Coale, who suggested as well

that once a couple had achieved its goal for the number of males, it was also much more likely to engage in "stopping behavior", i.e., to stophaving more children. See Ansley J. Coale (1996),"Five Decades of Missing Females in China", Proceedings of the American PhilosophicalSociety 140 (4): 421-450.

[71] Zeng Yi et al. 1993. "Causes and Implications of the Recent Increase in the Reported Sex Ratio at Birth in China", Population andDevelopment Review 19 (June): 283-302.

[72] Barbara A. Anderson and Brian D. Silver. 1995. "Ethnic Differences in Fertility and Sex Ratios at Birth in China: Evidence from Xinjiang",Population Studies 49 (July): 211-226.

[73] Weiguo Zhang, "Child Adoption in Contemporary Rural China," Journal of Family Issues, 27 (March 2006), p. 306.[74] " China’s Sex Ratio at Birth: From Doubts About its Existence to Looking for a Solution (http:/ / www. usc. cuhk. edu. hk/ wk_wzdetails.

asp?id=5532)." Population Research 1/2006 issue 原载《人口研究》2006年第1期][75] " China’s Sex Ratio at Birth: From Doubts About its Existence to Looking for a Solution (http:/ / www. usc. cuhk. edu. hk/ wk_wzdetails.

asp?id=5532)." Population Research 1/2006 issue 原载《人口研究》2006年第1期."If we do pay more attention to the problem of the rising sex ratio, still the focus is on the rights of males such as the right to marry, andignores women’s rights such as the right to survive, the right to reproduce, the right to health, etc. This approach inflicts even more harm onwomen. If this approach is taken, women will never be able to escape their subsidiary position and their role of satisfying the desires of others.Robbing females of their right to exist [shengmingquan 生命权] is for the sake of giving birth to males – that is putting the right to survive ofmales first. Moreover, protecting women’s right to exist is merely for the purpose of provide a wife to sons. A measure to ensure that acounterpart is available to ensure that male can exercise his right to marry. In both case, the male is primary and the female is subsidiary."

[76] " China’s Sex Ratio at Birth: From Doubts About its Existence to Looking for a Solution (http:/ / www. usc. cuhk. edu. hk/ wk_wzdetails.asp?id=5532)." Population Research 1/2006 issue 原载《人口研究》2006年第1期]."Therefore, how a researcher approaches the question of the sex ratio at birth – from what point for view, considering whose rights – iscritical. This depends upon the values of the researcher, the humanistic orientation of the researcher and the consciousness the researcher hasabout gender and gender discrimination. Protecting the right to exist, the right to reproduce, and the right to health of girls should be at thevery core of policy and action measures to control sex ratio at birth. That is because females are the biggest victims of the rising sex ratio. Therising sex ratio is in fact robbing females of their right to exist and completely discriminates against females."

[77] " China’s Sex Ratio at Birth: From Doubts About its Existence to Looking for a Solution (http:/ / www. usc. cuhk. edu. hk/ wk_wzdetails.asp?id=5532)." Population Research 1/2006 issue 原载《人口研究》2006年第1期]."Social controls on methods of selective reproduction are needed not only because of the higher birth ratio that results but also becauseselective reproduction harms the body and soul of the mother and robs unborn infants (regardless of being boy or girl) of their right to live.Selective reproduction itself should be more closely regulated and brought under control."

[78] " China’s Sex Ratio at Birth: From Doubts About its Existence to Looking for a Solution (http:/ / www. usc. cuhk. edu. hk/ wk_wzdetails.asp?id=5532)." Population Research 1/2006 issue 原载《人口研究》2006年第1期]."Even aside from the question of the rising sex ratio at birth, we should also intervene against and oppose elective abortion. Elective abortionrobs unborn female infants of their right to live and their right to exist, accentuates the social custom of favoring males over females. Not onlydoes it harm women’s bodies it also reduces women to the role of a mere tool for reproduction. Women bodies and spirits are sufferinggrievous wounds. Therefore no matter what the results of an elective abortion might be, we should intervene against and oppose electiveabortion. The rise of the sex ratio at birth is only one among several reasons for intervening on selective reproduction."

[79] http:/ / www. wsic. ac. cn/ Appendix/ Download. aspx?AppendixMainId=SAM-1229 Li Shuzhuo, Wei Yan and Jiang Quanbao, "GirlSurvival in China: History, Present Situation and Prospects", background materials for the August 2005 conference "Women and Health"available online in Chinese. The conference was sponsored by the United Nations Fund for Population Activities.

One-child policy 13

[80] See Human Rights Watch report A Policy of Fatal Neglect in China’s State Orphanages (http:/ / www. hrw. org/ summaries/ s. china961.html) and CHINESE ORPHANAGES A Follow-up (http:/ / www. hrw. org/ summaries/ s. china963. 2. html).

[81] Sten Johansson and Ola Nygren. 1991. "The Missing Girls of China: A New Demographic Account", Population and Development Review17 (March): 35-51.

[82] Weiguo Zhang. 2006. "Child Adoption in Contemporary Rural China", Journal of Family Issues 27 (March): 301-340.[83] See Weiguo Zhang (2006), cited earlier.[84] U.S. State Department report, "Immigrant Visas Issued to Orphans Coming to the U.S.", at http:/ / travel. state. gov/ family/ adoption/ stats/

stats_451. html.[85] Demick, Barbara (20 Sept. 2009). "Chinese Babies Stolen by Officials for Foreign Adoptions" (http:/ / www. latimes. com/ news/

nationworld/ world/ la-fg-china-adopt20-2009sep20,0,491086. story). Los Angeles Times. .[86] See Associated Press article US State Department position (http:/ / www. phillyburbs. com/ pb-dyn/ news/ 27-12142004-416868. html).[87] See publication of the United Kingdom Parliament position regarding Human Rights in China and Tibet (http:/ / www. publications.

parliament. uk/ pa/ ld199697/ ldhansrd/ vo961218/ text/ 61218-08. htm).[88] See Amnesty International's report on violence against women in China (http:/ / www. amnesty. ie/ content/ view/ full/ 1683/ ).[89] Sarah Lubman (2000-03-15). "Experts Allege Infanticide In China 'Missing' Girls Killed, Abandoned, Pair Say". San Jose Mercury News

(California).[90] Associated Press (14 February 2006). "China: Drug bid to beat child ban" (http:/ / www. chinadaily. com. cn/ english/ doc/ 2006-02/ 14/

content_520025. htm). China Daily. . Retrieved 11 November 2008.[91] See Shou Yung Guo v. Gonzales (http:/ / www. ca2. uscourts. gov:8080/ isysnative/

RDpcT3BpbnNcT1BOXDAyLTQyNzVfb3BuLnBkZg==/ 02-4275_opn. pdf), 463 F.3d 109 (2d Cir. 2006).; Jin Xiu Chen v. U.S. Dep't ofJustice, 468 F.3d 109 (2d Cir. 2006). (http:/ / www. ca2. uscourts. gov:8080/ isysnative/RDpcT3BpbnNcT1BOXDA2LTA3NjItYWdfb3BuLnBkZg==/ 06-0762-ag_opn. pdf); Tian Ming Lin v. U.S. Dep't of Justice, 473 F.3d 48 (2dCir. 2007). (http:/ / www. ca2. uscourts. gov:8080/ isysnative/ RDpcT3BpbnNcT1BOXDA2LTIzNTYtYWdfb3BuLnBkZg==/06-2356-ag_opn. pdf)

[92] See Matter of S-Y-G-, 24 I&N Dec. 247 (BIA 2007). (http:/ / www. usdoj. gov/ eoir/ vll/ intdec/ vol24/ 3575. pdf) (on remand from ShouYung Guo v. Gonzales, 463 F.3d 109 (2d Cir. 2006/7)).

[93] http:/ / www. china. org. cn/ e-white/ familypanning/[94] http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?artid=1215519

Article Sources and Contributors 14

Article Sources and ContributorsOne-child policy  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=376361912  Contributors: -Majestic-, -Marcus-, 10metreh, 4dhayman, A little insignificant, A.V., ANZAN, AOC25, AS,Aaronbrick, Aarondimi, Adamoppe, Adrian, Afaprof01, Agathoclea, Ajsfiremouse, Akamad, Alansohn, Aldo L, Ale jrb, Alessgrimal, AlexiusHoratius, Alibipie, Alphachimp, Amberina,Ambuj.Saxena, AmiDaniel, Amog, AnakngAraw, Anaxial, AndonicO, Andrea105, Andris, Anetode, Angela26, AniRaptor2001, Annalise, Antandrus, Apokrif, Arh3sfu, Ark, Armeria, ArturBuchhorn, Asdfasdf1231234, Ash, Audiosmurf, Augest, AussieBoy, Avnjay, AxelBoldt, AzureFury, B1atv, BCSWowbagger, Backslash Forwardslash, Badgernet, Banaticus, Barbutti, BarlimanButterbur, Barracuda57, Bcefjj805, Bcrawf, Before I Die, Beland, Ben Ward, Benjwong, Benlisquare, Benwildeboer, Bhadani, Bianca1975, Big Brother 1984, BigFatBuddha, Bigtop, Bihco,Binary TSO, BlGene, Blackraven42, BlastOButter42, BlueMooon, Bobby fletcher, 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