DissertationpreparedfortheMAofferedatthe

FacultyofReligiousStudies,UniversityofAmsterdam2006 2007.

Firstreader:Prof.dr.WouterJ.Hanegraaff

Secondreader:Dr.MarcoPasi

AlexandraH.M.Nagel

(xnagel@yahoo.com)

studentnumber0051101

Eindhoven,August12,2007

1

1.Introduction(p.3):TheHermeticOrderoftheGoldenDawndevelopedaritualto

marryoneofitsmemberswithanelemental.Thisseemsaverystrange,evenpeculiar

thingtodowhatcouldbebehindit?Oneof thekeystomakesenseof thematter

appearstobe(1670)byMontfaucondeVillars,butwhoishe,

andwhatdoesthenovelconvey?

2.Generalbackground(p.7):Intimaterelationshipsbetweenhumansandnonhumans

gobacktoGreekmyths,andMedievalstoriesofthedevilwhointheshapeofsuccubi

andincubi,seducesmenandwomen.

3.Specificbackground(p.11):ItturnsoutthatthelifeandworksoftheAbbVillars

areintriguing:

a.Hispersonallifeischaracterisedbyfamilydrama.

b. Religious tensions are addressed humoristically in by

enlightened advocating that elementals, in order to gain a soul, ought to marry

humans.

c.Itisoneoftheoccultrelatedideasfloatingaroundinthesecondhalfofseventeenth

centuryEurope:theairwascrowdedbycreatures.

4.Reception(p.27):Attheendofthenineteenthcentury,worksleadingbackto

arenumeroussince

a. the theme of love between humans and elementals introduced by Villars had

developedcontinuouslywithinthearts,and

b. within esoteric discourse, people like liphas Lvi andMadame Blavatsky had

ponderedonthewisdomofferedbyVillars.

5. Assessment (p. 53): Knowing the above, it makes sense as to how Samuel L.

MacGregor Mathers, chief of the Golden Dawn, must have come to view human

relationshipswith elementals seriously instead of satirically, as has beenVillars

intent.

2

6. Epilogue (p. 58): Interestingly enough, in modern times

occasionallyisacknowledgedasasourceofinformationwithinUFOdiscourse.

Appendix1. Theeditionsofanditssequels(p.62)

Appendix2. WasVillarspartofthecircleofdAubignac?(p.69)

Appendix3. LudovicoM.Sinistrariand(p.70)

Appendix4. Illustrations(p.73):

1.Paracelsusonelementalsandmarriagewithhumans

2.SaintAnthonytemptedbydemons

3.AerialbeingsinBishopAgobardsLyon

4.Thefairytale

5.(1782)andHenryFuseli

6.(1798)byThomasStothard

7. (1789)byFuseliandErasmusDarwin

8.!

(1811)byBaronMottedelaFouqu

9.MaryTaglioniand"(1832)

10.#(1842)byEdwardBulwerLytton

11."

(1842)byCharlesMackay

12.GeorgvonWellingon

13.GeneralEthanAllenHitchcockon

Acknowledgements(p.90)

Bibliography(p.92)

Cover !

$(c.1819 1823)byHenryFuseli.

3

!

TheOrdermost responsible for the survivalofmuchofWestern esotericism in the

twenty first centuryhasbeen theHermeticOrderof theGoldenDawn,whichcame

intoexistenceduringthe1880sinLondon.At theendof1895theinitialarguments

aroseoverwhatdevelopedintoaseverecrisiswithintheGoldenDawn.Theconflict

beganwithAnnieHornimansstrongreactiontoEdwardBerridgesadvancestowards

female adepts in the Order, and Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers teaching

concerning the relationbetweenmenandelementalsand theirpossible intercourse.1

Berridge advocated ideas developed by Thomas Lake Harris, who believed in a

dyadicdeity,fays(fairies),groupmarriage,andthesearchforasoulmate.Healso

taughtatechniquewherebythepractitionerschargeeachotherwithdesirebutrefrain

fromorgasmand/orejaculation.2Suchintimateteachingsweredifficulttoacceptfor

the sensitive,wealthy and generous spinsterHorniman, particularly in combination

withrumoursthatBerridgebroughtit,orpartsofit,orpartswhichheconsideredto

berelatedtoHarristeachingsintopractice.Besides,Hornimanhadexperiencedhow

Berridge attempted, inappropriately, tokissher.3 Shewrote three letters toMathers

concerning the matter, demanding in one of them that something be done about

Berridge.Furthermore,MaryGreerinformsabouttheepisode,Horniman

wrote Mathers that she could not accept the propriety of the teachings [Mathers

paperconcerninganimportantdogmaonthesubjectoftherelationbetweenmenand

Elementals, even for the purposes of procreation] nor contemplate making such

allianceseitheronherownpartoron thepartofanyofher friendsorcompanions.

Mathershadrecommended thatMrs.AnnCarden,knownas%, takepart inan

Elemental marriage, because she was in & danger of invoking an incubus

instead of a Fay, through want of self control. Annie expressed doubt about the

1Schuchard1975:641;Cogdill&Cogdill1990;Greer1995:160.2Hulett1943:747;Colquhoun1975:149;Greer1995:160,431note24.3 Greer 1995: 160. Greer adds that another adept, Helen Rand, backed up Hornimans experience:

Berridgehad tried tokissher,Rand, too,uponwhichRand, togetherwithWynnWestcott,drafteda

lettertoMacGregorMathers.Itisunknownwhethertheletterwasreallysentornot(Howe1972:120

121).

4

wisdomofsuchteachings, implying thatMathersmayhavepervertedthemthrough

someimpurityofhisown,orevenmoreshockingly,of's[theadeptsname

ofMatherswifeMoina,AN].ShethengaveMathersanultimatum,sayingthatshe

wassuspendingherselffromtheOrderuntilMatherscouldbesufficientlyawakened

from[his]habituallethargy,toactwithenergyanddecision.4

Obviously, the latter was a provocative insult. Horniman received a reply to her

complaints,aletterwrittenbyMoinaBergsonMathers.Now,whatdoesnotconcern

mehere is thedevelopmentof theargumentbetweenHornimanand theMatherses,

and consequently Hornimans resignation from the Order a year later.5What does

concern me is the content and the background of the Elemental Theory issued by

Mathers, and, inparticular, themarriage ritual recommended toMrsCarden,which

suggestsintercoursebetweenmenorwomen,andnonhumanbeingscalledelementals.

For,asMoinatackledtheconflict,theElementalTheorywastheprincipalsubject

of Hornimans letters.6 Once considered to be a plausible option, the topic is an

intriguingoneandbound tostirup intensedebates,even inwideroccultcircles.At

leastatsomepointHelenaP.Blavatsky,founderoftheTheosophicalSociety,accused

Hiram Butler a sexual magus, astrologer, and publisher of the magazine

7andThomasLakeHarrisofbegettingchildrenontheastralplanethrough

suchintercourse.8

Unfortunately,MatherspaperElementalTheoryislost,Greernotes,9areasonforher

to quote Moinas letter of December 31, 1985 to Annie Horniman in full.10 The

additional bits and pieces on the elemental teaching derived from it can be boiled

downtothefactthatHornimangottheideaofhavingbeenaskedtogiveupherself

4 Greer 1995: 161, quoting from the letter written January 14, 1895 by MacGregor Mathers to

HornimaninHowe1972:124.5 Money was an underlying aspect of the conflict. Horniman sent the Matherses, always short of

income,achequeonaregularlybasis,butshedidntseehermoneyspentwisely(Cogdill&Cogdill

1990).6Greer1995:161.SeealsoOwen2004:101 102.7Godwin,Chanel&Deveney1995:213.8Deveney1997:251.SeealsoGodwin,Chanel&Deveney1995:72,andDeveney1997:225.9Greer1995:160.10Greer1995:161 162,quotingfromHowe1972:117 119.

5

respect; thatMoina consideredHorniman,being aTheoricusAdept,not tobe ina

position to give an opinion on the subject of elemental and human sexual

connections;andthatifelementalsformaconsiderablepartofyou,theyarenotso

incongruoustothehumanasHornimanimplied.Regardingherownpositiontowards

theissue,MoinasharedwithAnniethatsheandMathershadstayedperfectlyclean,

i.e.theyhadnotconsummatedtheirmarriage.Hereuponshecontinued:

ToreturntotheElementals,thestoryofMelusina,Undine,andothersyouwillknow

ofallrefertomarriagesbetweenhumanandelementalandyouthinkthemprobably

verycharmingstories,becausetheyhaveahaloofpoetryroundthem.11

Aspreviouslyremarked,thetopicisintriguing.Anditraisesquestions.Forexample,

howtoenvisionmarriagewithanelemental?Whatwouldbethedifferencebetweena

fay,anincubus,andanelemental?Howcanelementalsformapartofthehumans

composition?Isperhapstheirmutualoffspringsomewhereinplay?Whatisbehind

Blavatskys accusation to Hiram andHarris?What do the stories ofMelusina and

Undineconvey?Or,morebasic,whatistheoriginoftheideasaboutelementalsand

theirrelationshipwithmankind?

Noneof thesematters iselaboratedonbyGreer.Almost thesame isvalid forJohn

PatrickDeveney.InhisbiographyonthesexualmagePaschalB.Randolph,Deveney

refers on various occasions, each time in a slightly different setting but related to

Randolphs ideason sexualunionbetweenhumans andelementals, to thenovel

(1670) by Nicolas Pierre Henri Montfaucon de Villars.12

Mentionedtooarethepoem"

(1842)byCharlesMackay,Alexander

Popesepic(1717),thefairytale!

(1811)byBarondela

Motte Fouqu, a work on incubi and succubi by Father Sinistrari,13 and the Abb

Boullans advocation of the Christian duty of celestializing elementals through

unions of life and of being celestialized in turn by similar unions with superior

11Greer1995:162,quotingfromHowe1972:118.12Deveney1997:122,225,251,401note61,441note5,501note12.13Deveney1997:251.PerhapsthemanuscriptDeveneyrefersto,,publishedfirstin

1875,isaforgery,seeAppendix3.

6

entities.14 But then, who are these authors? What do their works concern? Why

wouldthey,orwhywoulditbeofimportancetosexualesotericdiscourse?

Consultingthe(enlightenedmeslightly

furtherthroughanextensivefourfoldentryentitledIntermediaryBeingsofwhicha

relatively short section is devoted to Elementals and Desincarnated Entities.15

Although in fact knownmuch earlier in European folklore, this category of beings

wasraisedtoprominencebyParacelsusin1530.16Elementalspiritsarethenymphs,

sylphs,gnomesandsalamanders.Eachofthemisbelievedtoliveinoneofthefour

elements water, air, earth, and fire respectively; the spirits consequently share the

naturesof theelements.Thepopularityof theelementalswasenhanced,Jean Pierre

Brachpointsout, byMontfaucondeVillars, which enjoyed

considerablefameandwastofosterawholeoccultisticandliteraryposterityonthe

subject,alloverEuropeanduptoourday.17

While Ididnotknowwhat thebookbyVillarsconveyed, it seemedobvious ithad

beenaninfluentialone,andpresumablyhadlinkstotheworksbyPope,Fouqu,and

Mackay.Henceforth,Ihadenoughleadstogetstarted.Therewereseveralnamesand

worksIcouldlookintoinordertoanswermymainresearchquestion:Howtoexplain

thattheGoldenDawndesignedaritualtomarryoneofitsmemberstoanelemental?

Aswastobeexpected,theleadsledtootherleads,whichledtoevenmoreleadsand

information.Achoicehadtobemadeaswhattoinclude,whattoexclude.Theresult

ofmydecisiontokeepareasonableamountofdatacomingfromdifferentanglesa

decisionmade inorder tosketch thediverse influencesVillarsnovelhad,andhow14Deveney1997:225.Godwin,Chanel&Deveney1995:72 73: ThebizarreAbbBoullan,whose

ideassodividedFrenchoccultistsattheverytimethattheH.B.ofL.[HermeticBrotherhoodofLuxor]

was spreading there, taught his disciples to perform sexual unions of life with superior celestial

beings and the souls of thedead, so as to celestialize themselves; andwith Elementals so as to

celestializethem.SeealsoIntrovigne1997:113.15Brach2005.TheparagraphElementalsandDesincarnatedEntitiescoversahalfpageonly.16AccordingtoRobertBlaser,KurtGoldammer,andAndreasKilcherthebookwaspublishedfirstin

1566(Paracelsus1960:5;Goldammer1980:113;Kilcher2004:190),adiscrepancyIhavenotlooked

into.17Brach2005:626 627.

7

theseinterferewithoneanotheristhatpartofthematerialisincludedasvisualor

literal illustrations to the threadof the thesis.Summariesorexcerptsofnovels, and

paintingsof elementalshavebeenput inframes inAppendix4.Theyenliven the

multi facetedbeddingwhichsurfacedonceIhadbeguntofollowtheoriginalleads.

Thatsaid,afterofferingsomegeneralbackgroundinformation(2),myfindingsand

argumentunfolds.The lifeandmajorworkofMontfaucondeVillarsandhis times

aredescribedin3.Fromtherethetrailistrackedinthearts,

i.e.inpoems,paintings,andfairytalesinwhichsylphs,undinesorsalamandersplaya

majorrole(4a).Severalofthesearecreatedbyartistswhohadaninterestinesoteric

knowledge, but the emphasis here is on the visualisation and portrayals of the

elementals within the arts. In 4b the focus shifts towards esoteric discourse. The

appearances of Villars is particularly highlighted and discussed in the writings of

liphasLvi,andMadameBlavatsky.

Although it is still difficult for modern day people to view the subject matter

seriously, knowingwhat I knownow, even if quite abit of thenitty gritty remains

obscure,itdoesmakesenseMacGregorMathersdevelopedamaritalritualinvolving

ahumanbeingandanelemental(5).Andperhapsjustasunexpected,inamoreor

lesssimilarwayitmakessensethatcurrentlyhasbeentakenup

intheflowofstoriesrelatedtoUFOabductions(Epilogue,6).

"# $%

%&$

SoonaftermyinitialincredulousreactiontotheGoldenDawnsmarriageritualfora

woman and an elemental, I had to admit this may be acceptable from a practical,

commonsensepointofview,fromamythologicaloneitcertainlyisnot.Infact,the

notionof relationshipsbetweenhumans andnonhumanbeings, even the conceptof

marriageandintimacy,isinitselfanancientoneembeddedinrichtraditions.Greek

mythology relatesmany liaisonsbetween gods andmortals resulting in semi divine

8

offspring.18AmongthetalesistheoneofAchilles,sonofthemortalkingPeleus,and

thedivineseanymphThetis,oneofthefiftyNereids,daughtersoftheseagodNereus

andtheOceanidDoris.LegendarythroughtheTrojanwar,Achilleswaskilledbythe

shotofanarrowinhisheel,thesinglevulnerablespotofhisphysicalbody.Another

tale involvesZeus (Jupiter),who in theguiseof a swanhad intercoursewithLeda,

queen of Sparta.After their copulation Leda produced two eggs. From one sprang

Polydeuces(bytheRomansknownasPollux)andHelen,fromtheotherCastorand

Clytemnestra.CastorandPolluxarethecelestialtwinbrothers,twostarsinthezodiac

signGemini,andPatronsofRome.

OriginallyinancientGreektexts,thewordmeansdivinebeing,anditisnot

always clearwhat its distinction iswith , god. Later in theHellenistic period,

becomes fairly common for evil spirit. As Georg Luck explains, whose

writing on daemology is illuminating, in the New Testament, as well as in the

pagan texts, we hear of that entered into persons and caused illness,

especially mental illness.19 Exorcists were believed to be able to cure people by

drivingbadspiritsout.Thetermoriginallymeantmessenger,andwhetherit

wasagoodorbadspiritdependedonwhomitwassentby,anangeloradaemon.In

ordertoconfusepeople,occasionallylowerspiritspretendedtobehigheronesonly

advancedtheurgistscouldtellthedifference.Ideaslikethesedevelopedovertime.So

around1200ADGervaseofTilburycouldwrite:

Apuleius,however,inhisbook)",saysthatbetweenthe

moon and the earth dwell unclean spirits which are called incubi, from their

oppression (incubatio) of the mind; for they afflict peoples minds in their sleep,

makingthembelievetheyarefallingfromaheightorsuffocating.Theyhavepartly

thenatureofhumanbeingsandpartlythatofangels,andwhentheywishtheyassume

humanformandsleepwithwomen.Merlin issaid tohavebeenfatheredbyoneof

these,forhewasborn,accordingtotheHistoryoftheBritons,ofawomanbuthadno

humanfather.AndtheysaythattheAntichristwillbebegotteninthisway,andwill

claimonthisaccounttobethesonofavirgin.Weknowthatmanythingsareseen

everydayrelatingtothesephenomena.Wehaveactuallyobservedthatsomedemons

18AmongthemanybooksonGreekmythologyIchoseWillis2000.19Luck1987:164.SeealsoBrach2005:617.

9

lovewomenwithsuchpassionthattheybreakintounheard ofactsoflewdness,and

when they come to bed with them they bear down upon them with extraordinary

pressure,andyetareseenbynooneelse.20

All through theMiddleAges people believed an incubus to be a demon loverwho

preyedonyoungwomenbynight.Todeceiveawoman,theincubuswouldtakeona

human form, sometimes disguising himself as the womans husband. Its female

equivalentwasthesuccubus,seekingoutmalevictims.Therewerediversetheoriesas

towhetherornot thedevil could impregnatewomen. If so, themostvoiced theory

wasthatthedevil as a succubuscouldcollectsemenfromaman,and,changinginto

anincubus,coulddischargeitinawoman.OnceconceivedbytheDemonslove,soa

more than once rehearsed case of a girl had shown, the child could turn out to be

monstrous. One of the theoretical problems theologians had to deal with was the

statusofsuchoffspring:didithaveasoul?Towardstheendofthefifteenthcentury,

linked to theappearanceof the (c.1486)byHeinrichKramer

andJacobSprenger,amajorchangeinperceptionoccurred.Peoplebecameconvinced

of theexistenceofsorcererswhohadsignedapactwith thedevil,authorsofwitch

studies inform.21 The conviction persisted for three centuries. Sorcerers, it was

believed,gatheredinnocturnalsabbathsduringwhichtheyworshippedthedevil.The

feastsendedwithagreatbanquetatwhichchildrenweredevoured,followedbyan

orgyinwhichsorcererscoupledwithdemonsuccubiandwitcheswithincubi.22Yet

asWalter Stephens has argued, what really interested the interrogators of the evil

doerswastheknowledgetogainaboutthenatureofdemons.Witchesintimacywith

incubi supposedly gave them facts or insight the clergy was deeply interested in,

thereforewitcheswereinterrogatedadnauseam.23

Countertotheideasabouttherelationshipbetweenwitchesandthedevilaretheideas

baseduponthe"".ThelanguageofmysticslikeOrigen,Hadewych,and

Bernard of Clairvaux is clearly erotic. Jesus as bridegroom, Jerusalem as bride,

embracesandkissesbetweenbrideandgroomhaveledtoastreamwithinmysticism

20GervaseofTilburycitedinMeyrone2006:46.21SeeforinstanceMackay1962:480 481;Masters1962;Sallmann1993;Stephens2002.22Sallmann1993:446.23Stephens2002:14ff.

10

earmarked as bridal mysticism. Frequently erotic in nature is also the complex

relationshipbetweentheUnicornandtheVirginMaryorayoung,beautifulwoman,a

theme carrying a long tradition in Christian symbolism. Albertus Magnus (1200

1280) for instance acknowledged the creature with overwhelming horn power as

Christ,andvividlystated:

[T]heUnicornragedinheavenandearthuntilourradiantLadytookHiminherlap

whenHepenetratedhercitadelthatistosay,intothelapofherchastebody,sothat

shecouldnurseHimatherbreastanddressHiminhumbleflesh...24

Anothersourcewherehumansencounternonhumanbeingsisofcoursetobefoundin

folklore.Therearemanystories inwhichfairiesstealhumanbabiesandswapthem

withtheiruglyown,thesocalledchangelings;25mutualoff springcanbeillustrated

bythetaleofTomThumb;26theimportanceofintimateaffectionbythestoryofthe

princess who had to kiss a frog. Paracelsus treatise * "*

+ " " (Appendix4,Frame1)basically

mingles folklore inclined tales likeMelusina (Appendix 4, Frame 4)with those on

incubi and succubi. Although % , is all about fairies

interactionwith humans, Shakespeare actually does not seem to have knownmuch

and cared less about such popular beliefs.27 Nevertheless, once adapted by

Shakespeare,folkloristicbeliefsaboutthefairykingOberon,thefairyqueenTitania,

and the changeling Puck (RobinGoodfellow)were brought to an artistic level.28%

, challenged stage directors to be creative and inventive.

Theplaywasperformedovermostof the timeduring acenturyandahalfafter its

creationaround1595,andagaininthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyuptothe

24AlbertusMagnuscitedinGotfredsen1999:37.25 For an extensive explanationon changelings seeBriggs1976: 69 72, andSilver 1999: 62 78 (the

latter includes a series of photos of uncanny faces of babies that may explain the folklore around

changelings);forbriefonesconsultRose1998:64,orSimpson&Roud2000:53.26Briggs1976:402 404;Rose1998:311;Simpson&Roud2000:362 363;Wood2001:31 32.27Dobson2001:134.28ThefiguresOberon,Titania,andPucktracebacktothethirteenthcenturyFrenchromance$

-&. Another source % , owes to is Apuleis %

()ofthesecondcentury,translatedintoEnglishin1566(Dobson2001:297).

11

twentiethcentury.29ThemesfromitbecamevisualisedinpaintingsbyHenryFuseli,

and the visionaryWilliam Blake, the forerunners of the Victorian fairy painters.30

Many of the nineteenth century paintings depict fairies as beautiful thinly clothed

womenwitheerie,transparentinsect typewingsthereby,intentionallyorotherwise,

arousing attractive, intimate fantasies in men, which is a notion ultimately linking

backintimetoVillars.

'%( )$*

'*+$$

Details about the life of Nicolas Pierre Henri Montfaucon de Villars are merely

scatteredthroughouttheliterature.FromwhatIhadaccesstosomepromisingworks

remained out of reach31 my conclusion is that most authors repeat a few facts

written down first in the late seventeenth, and early eighteenth century;32 only

centurieslaterahandfulofscholarsunearthednewbitsandpieces.33Puttogether,the

availableinformationoffersanunusualcombinationofactivitiesandcharactertraits

oftheman.29Dobson2001:298 299.Theplayinspiredothers tomoreorlesssimilarstageperformanceswhere

fairies,dryads,sylphs,halfhumanandhalfnonhumanbeingsplayarole(Lambourne1997).30Maas1997:11 12;Phillpotts1999:13,46;Silver1999:20ff;Wood2001:11,18.31Ihavebeenunabletoobtaina.Doyon1942(perhapsnotsopromisingsinceLauferinVillars1963:

62judgeditaspirituelleversionromanceofDoyonsintroductiontoVillars1921);b.Mot1970;

andtheintroductionsbyc.ClaraMiccinelli&CarloAnimato,d.HoracioVazquezRial,ande.Ramos

Gmez&MaraTeresa(Table2,Nos.3,4and6inAppendix1).32 Many refer to the remark about Villars by Vigneul Marville (penname of Pre Bonaventure

dArgonne) in.,$.,Paris,1699(quoted in fullbyLaufer inVillars

1963:10note3),acommentwritteninaletterbyMadameSvigntoherdaughteronSeptember16,

1671(citedamongothersinVillars1921:XIX,andMcKenna1990:236 237),andPierreBayleinhis

$//.33ThethreescholarsaddingnewdatatoVillarspersonallifeareDoyoninVillars1921:V XLII,Nelli

1978:127 145,McKenna1990:230 250,andMcKenna1998.Mot1970isconsultedbyNelli1978:

128,133. Itbrought some familydetails to the forenotmentionedbyanyoneelse. (Descotes1980,

McKenna1990,andMcKenna1998refertoneitherNelli1978norMot1970.)AntoineAdamrelates

VillarstotheAbbdAubignac,seeAppendix2.

12

BornattheestateduVilar(diocesedAlet,southofCarcassonne)in1638,34asthird

sonofJean FranoisdeMontfauconandJeanneFerrouildeMontgaillard,twonoble

familiesfromtheLanguedoc,NicolaswasdestinedtotheChurchbyhismother.He

was named after the bishop and count of Alet, Nicolas Pavillon.35 Assigned the

position in 1637, Pavillon arrived inAlet in 163936 and found the people occupied

withallkindsofillegalpleasuresoflife,inaregioncontrolledbythecapricious

Jacques dAoustenc, and, later, his sons Pierre andBernard.37Notwithout dispute,

Pavillon turned thediocese intoaplaceofpilgrimagefor friendsofPort Royal, the

monasteryclosetoParisknownforitsinvolvementwiththetheologicaldoctrinesof

CorneliusJansenius(1585 1638),andBlaisePascal(1623 1662).38

FromcorrespondencebetweentheBenedictinemonkandarchaeologistDomBernard

deMontfaucon(1655 1741)tohissisterMadamedAoustenc,andtheirgenealogy,it

isdeductedthatthetwowererelatedtoNicolas Pierre HenriMontfaucon.Bernardde

Montfaucon had an older half brother named Jean Franois de Montfaucon de La

Pjan, who thus had family ties to Nicolas Pierre Henri as well.39More about the

latterinduecourse.

Having received his education at the diocese seminary, and the University of

Toulouse,andapparentlybright,ambitiousbutpoor, theyoungAbbdecided to try

34ThebestdiscussionaboutVillarsyearofbirthanddeathispresentedbyNelli1978:133 134,who,

however,didnotofferthedateApril30,1673forVillarsdayofpassingthatMcKenna1990:238note

37,sawinamanuscript.Theyearsmostoftenmentionedforhisbirthare1635,1638,and1640.See

notes36and61.35Nelli1978:127.36AlthoughNelliwasawarePavillonsordainmentasbishopofAletin1637,hedidnottakethisinto

accountwhendiscussingVillarsyearofbirth,which,incaseVillarswasnamedafterPavillonindeed,

seemsmorelikelytohavebeen1638,not1635or1640,theotheryearsmentionedinsources.Adding

35, theageatwhichVillars is said tohavedied, to1638sumsup to1673,whichcorroborateswith

McKennasreferencetoVillarsyearofdeath,seenotes34and61.37McKenna1998;seealsoMcKenna1990:238.OnthedubiousfinancialaffairsofdAoustencs,see

Larguier2005.38MostinformativeonPort RoyalareLesaulnier&McKenna2004.39McKenna1990:238;McKenna1998;McKenna2004.SeealsoOmont1892:85.

13

hisfortunebypreachinginParis,wherehearrivedat theendof1660.40Hequickly

began to meet libertines regularly at the tavern at the Porte de Richelieu, a group

actively distributing des nouvelles et libelles against the King and the State.41 It

landedhimintrouble:PierredeVillars,asheisrecordedinfiles,wasarrestedinearly

1661. Considered un provincial plus maladroit que dangereux he was set free,

togetherwithothersconvictedfor thesame reason,soonafter thedeathofCardinal

Giulio Mazarin, the libertines opponent. The following year the Abb Villars is

spottedinToulousethroughanotherpolicerapport.AccusedbytheirnephewPierre

de Ferrouil, Nicolas Pierre Henri, his two brothers Gabriel and Louis, their sister

Anne, and a valet, were condemned August 12, 1662 for the murder on Pierres

father,PauldeFerrouil.Now, the reasonwhy the fourMontfauconchildrenandan

accomplice must have killed Paul de Ferrouil is that Paul de Ferrouil, sieur de

Montgaillard, previously had murdered his sisters husband, Jean Franois de

Montfaucon,i.e.thefatherofGabriel,Louis,Nicolas Pierre Henri,andAnne.(Ren

Nelli suspects theywanted to recuperate their part of theirmothers inheritance.42)

Thefourdisappeared;onlythevaletwasconvicted.TheAbbtravelledtoParisagain,

butwasbackinToulouseanewwhenPierredeFerrouilsoughtrevenge,andplaceda

newcomplaint.Probablywith the intention toend thefamily feudonceandforall,

thechildrenMontfauconsetouttoassassinatetheirnephew,

maisilsnerussissentaprsavoirblessmortunefemmedegarde,quincendier

le chteau de Montgaillard, dune faon si complte, il est vrai, qui tous les

membres de limmeuble furent consums. Un nouvel arrt du Parlement de

Toulouse condamna, le 2 dcembre 1669, les Montfaucon tre attachs, briss,

rompus sur roue jusqu lamort, plusune indemnitde sixmille livres accorde

Ferrouil.43

Againwithoutgettingcaught,VillarstookofftoParisforathirdtime.Hemusthave

continuedhisparticipationintheliterarycircleswhichVieul Marvillecharacterisesas

40DoyoninVillars1921:VI.41DoyoninVillars1921:VII;Nelli1978:128.42Nelli1978:129.43Nelli1978:129.

14

unecabaledegensdebelesprit&debellehumeurcommelui.44HubertJuinkeenly

concludes Villars to be an abb de hasard et non de vocation; Roger Laufer an

abbdesalon.45DominiqueDescotesbelievesheprobablyfrequentedlacadmie

dAubignac.46 All three descriptions seem to fit for Villars participated with an

erudite, polemical, and even quite original manner in the complex debate between

Jesuits, Jansenists, Pascalisants, and friends of Port Royal. Complex because it is

difficult to sort out the differences between the Jansenists, Pascalisants, friends of

Port Royal, and others.47 The broad range of contemporary theological issueswere

criticizedbyhimfromalibertineandenlightenedpointofviewinasatiricalstyleof

writing.Tofullyassessthisstyle,anditsnovelty,afurtherstudyisneeded:theremay

beanimportantkeyinthemilieuoftheAbbdAubignac,butasfarasIamaware,

no one has looked into this in depth (Appendix 2). Anyway, the writing brought

Villarsoncemore in trouble,and,althoughnot fairlyacknowledged, italsobrought

himlastingfame.

*"0,anonymouslypublished

first on September 28, 1670,48was an instant hit.A second printwith the authors

namewas issued before the end of the year, andmanymore followed, proving its

success which lasted for over a century (Appendix 1).

polemicisedthecontroversy,initiatedbyIsaac LouisLeMaitredeSacystranslation

of the New Testament in 1667,49 between Jansenists (Port Royal) and Jesuits by

introducing a third party to the scene, the obscure occultists, personified in the

character of the Count de Gabalis. Since the novel satirically challenged common,

contemporary religious views, and carried some dangerous implications,Antoine

44Vigneul MarvillecitedbyLauferinVillars1963:10note3.Seenote32.45LauferinVillars1963:54;JuininVillars1966:11.46Descotes1980:4.47InamuchmoreextensivemannerthanRabbe1870andDescotes1980,McKenna1990:230ff,1998

presentsVillarsinthetheologicaldiscourseofParisduringthesecondhalfoftheseventeenthcentury.48Doyon inVillars1921:XI;Wagner1939:201 202note2.Laufer inVillars1963:7 says that the

booksfirsteditionwasregisteredonNovember28,1670.49 McKenna 1990: 230; McKenna 1998. and Villars .

contributed to the complicated controversy betweenGillesMnage andDominiqueBouhours. Their

quarrelattheendof1672portraysthetableausatiriquedescritiqueslittrairesetdesgrammairiens

atitsheight(McKenna1998).

15

Arnauld (1612 1692; brother of the sistersMreAngelique, andMreAgnes,who

bothservedasabbessofPort Royal)chaseVillarsawayfromeitherlHteldeLionne

orlHteldeLiancourt,50andbannedthebook;51thearchbishopofParis,Guillaume

DuPlessisdeLaBrunetire,forbadeVillarstopreachatSaintThomasonJanuary28,

1671.52AccordingtoAntonyMcKennatheeventswerereportedbysomeonenamed

MonsieurdelaPranie,whomhe,aidedbyresearchfromJeanLesaulnier,identifies

asJean FranoisMontfaucondeLaPjan,therelativeoftheAbbVillarsmentioned

above!53OntherecommendationofNicolasPavillon,thebishopofAletafterwhom

the Abb Villars was named, Jean Franois Montfaucon de La Pjan had become

tutortothechildrenofPrincedeContiinParisin1669.Consequently,Jean Franois

wasafriendofPort Royal.MostlikelyMontfaucondeLaPjanplayedaroleinthe

tensionbetweenVillarsandfriendsofPort Royal.Heevenmayhavebeenbehindthe

decisionstochasehiscousinaway,tobanfurtherpublicationofthebook,and/orto

interdictVillarstopreach.

Nonetheless, within a year a reprint of was issued in

Amsterdam,54 andNicolas Pierre Henri wrote three, probably four,more works. In

early 1671 / -.. (in two parts) appeared, on September 25 the

treatise.cameout,andsomewhereduringthesameyear thenovel

,% was printed. Actually, the latter contains two novels.55

,/-..,and.arerelativelyshort

treatises, whereas ,% consists of c. 750 pages written, Laufer

expounds, bcls et embrouills, in a hasty and confusing style, implying that

50McKennassourcenoteslHteldeLionne,buthewonderswhetheritnotequallycouldbelHtel

deLiancourt(McKenna1990:236note30).Namedaftertheowner/financer,respectivelyMarquisde

Lionne,andMarquisdeLiancourt,botharemansions(and/orpublicbuildings)inParis.51McKenna1990:235.52MmeSvigncitedinMcKenna1990:236;McKenna1998.53McKenna1990:236note30;McKenna1998;McKenna2004.SeealsoOmont1892:85,89who

knowsthegovernorofthetwoprincesdeContibythenameofJean FranoisdeLapejean.54 Among others seeWolfstieg 1912: 954; Laufer in Villars 1963: 56, No. 4; Coumont 2004: 358,

M84.4.55 Laufer in Villars 1963: 16 17: the first volume is entitled %

-

,%

,thesecond..SeealsoTreske1933:13;Declercq1984.

16

Villars combined and/or used texts previously prepared.56 Interesting to note is the

observationbyscholarsthatthefifthandlastdialogueof.formulates

the first systematic critique to Pascals +., a fact not unknown among

Pascalisants.57

Mentioned in the literature occasionally is the fourth title, another short treatise,

.&,%alsopublishedin1671.58Its

authoristheAbbdeLignages,saidtobethepseudonymofN. P. H.Montfauconde

Villars,59who tries to justify the reinstallation of severe rules on abstinence by the

Abb de Ranc for the Abbey of the Trappists, a procedure giving rise to lively

resistanceamongmonks.Lauferconsiders theworknot inaccordancewithVillars

other writings it seems too profane and he offers a few more objections but

ultimately has no decisive arguments to refute Villars as the man behind the

pseudonym.60

Afterthesepublicationsitbecamequietaroundthewriter priest.Villarswaskilledby

uncoupdepistoletattheageofthirty fivebyoneofhisrelatives(wasitPierrede

Ferrouil?),ontheroutefromParistoLyon.61Presumably,thefamilyfeudhadledto

hisunfortunatedeath.Shortlythereafterrumourshaveitthathewaskilledbygnomes

56 Laufer in Villars 1963: 15.Mme Svign, cited inMcKenna 1990: 237, remarked critically: Il

[Villars]faitunlivreen15jours.57 Rabbe 1870; Bremond 1921; Doyon in Villars 1921: XXIII ff; Laufer in Villars 1963: 167 168;

Descotes1980;McKenna1990:230ff;McKenna1998.Readingintothissubject,i.e.thetheological

disputeconnectedtoPascals+.,andtheroleVillarsworksplayedin this, leadstoofarastray

fromthepurposeofthisdissertation.58DoyoninVillars1921:XXXI;Treske1933:13;MarielinVillars1961:21;LauferinVillars1966:

13;Nelli1978:132;Declercq1984.Treskeknows twootherworksascribed toVillars:/

+. +, and 1 % aus denen eine den Lehren von Port Royal

feindlicheEinstellungspricht,worksIhavenotlookedinto.59DoyoninVillars1921:XXXI.60LauferinVillars1966:13.61BaronTrouvcitedinNelli1978:134.SeealsoBremond1921:911,andnotes34and36.

17

and sylphs in disguise, as punishment for having made public secrets about the

elementalstheCountdeGabalishadentrusteduponhim...62

' , $

$

The tale of , by far Villars most famous work, is told as a

dialogue.FivechapterscoverthefivemeetingstheAbbclaimstohavehadwiththe

protagonist,theCountdeGabalis,amysteriouseruditepersonfromGermanyowning

an estate close to the borders of Poland. Briefly after their encounters the grand

Seigneur&grandCabalistediedofanapoplecticfitatleast,thatiswhattheFather

tells his readers on the very first page. Prior to the five encounters, the reader is

informed,hehadcorrespondedwith the illustriousGerman.Beingonhisway from

GermanytoEngland,theso calledCountofKabbalah63hadstayedawhileinParis,

andwereitnotforSaturninanangle,inhisownhouse,andretrogradeinVillars

horoscope,andJupiter intheAscendant(somethingwelearnintheCabalathe

wisestofallmenhave),theCountmighthavedecidednottomeetVillars.64

On various occasions either the Count or the Abb uses the word Cabaliste or

CabalesupposedlyKabbalisticsecretsarerevealedanddiscussed.ButtheJewish

wisdomispassedonbysheernamedropping:RaymondLulle,PrincedelaMirande

[sic],GuillaumePostel.ThesuggestionthatVillarsoccultinspirationstemsfromtwo

letters written by the alchemist Gioseppe Francesco Borri (1616 1695), letters

eventually published in Borris 2

, has been refuted on the

62Voltaire,citedbyMariel inVillars1961:31.Due toitswittiness,almostallauthorswritingabout

VillarsIamnoexception!mentionthispeculiarexplanation.SeeamongothersDoyoninVillars

1921:XXX;Treske1933:12;MarielinVillars1961:21;LauferinVillars1963:10note3;Nelli1978:

133;Descotes1980:4.63AboutGabalis=KabbalahseeTreske1933:13note14;Seeber1944:74;MarielinVillars1961:18;

LauferinVillars1963:161;Peuckert1967:460ff,497ff.64Villars1997:3.ThelinescarryingastrologicalterminologymuststemfromJeromeCardan,seefor

instanceCardansaphorismsrelatingtonativitiesinBonatus&CardanofMilan1993:77.

18

groundsthatithastobetheotherwayaround.65Strandsofideasof,andreferencesto

quiteabunchofother,oftenquitewellknownauthorswereaddedbyVillarsandgive

the text an erudite flavour. Yet it is Paracelsus, whose complete oeuvre had been

published in Latin, in Genova, 1658, the most learned man who ever lived, the

divine,thealmosttobeworshippedParacelsus,accordingtotheCount,whoinspired

Villars.66

The plot, the secrets revealed by the Count, concern the four Peoples of the

elements inhabiting the seas, rivers, air, flames,andearth.Theyare long livedbut

mortalcreatureswithoutasoul.Sincetheywereveryunhappywiththis,God,whose

mercy is boundless, let the creatures have the awareness that just asman, by the

alliancewhichhehascontractedwithGod,hasbeenmadeaparticipantinDivinity,so

theSylphs,Gnomes,Nymphs,andSalamanders,bythealliancewhichtheyhaveitin

their power to contract a man, can become participants in immortality.67 In other

words, theelementalswerecapableofBeatitude if theywere fortunateenough to

marryasageoroneofourdaughters.Precisely thesefewbasic ideasoriginate in

Paracelsus111. (Appendix4,Frame1).FromhereonVillarsbuilds

his own story.Whereas Paracelsus emphasises thewater elementals (undines), and

woodcreatures,Villars focusesonthesylphs.Thealterationmakessensewhenone

considers that the element air had become a topic of scientific research for Blaise

Pascal.PascaldisagreedwithRenDescartesaboutthenatureofair(wasitavacuum

or not?), and had his brother in law climb mountains carrying a recently invented

pieceofmeasuringequipment, thebarometer.ToPascalsfindings,airhadafinite

65Villars1788:iv;Treske1933:22 23;Seeber1944:75;Mackay1962:211;LauferinVillars1963:

24, Juin in Villars 1966: 25; Schuchard 1975: 171 172; commentaries in Villars 1997: xiii xiv.

PresumablyBorricopiedfromin(madeup)letters,antedatedtheseto1666,and

thenincludedthelettersin2

whichwaspublishedfirstin1781.

NB.According toMarcoPasi (emailAugust 9, 2007), in an Italian editionof

(Appendix1,Table2,No.3)apparently somenewevidence ispresented in supportof the thesisof

VillarsplagiarisingBorri.66Villars1997:63.ForthelinkagesbetweenVillarsandParacelsians,seeLauferinVillars1963:26

31,andGoldammer1980:89ff.AnexceptiontoviewParacelsusassourceofinspirationforVillarsis

Wagner1939:202,whoarguesVillarsfourfoldofelementalstobeasynthesisofideasdevelopedby

MichaelPsellusandAgrippa.67Villars1997:35.

19

weightaconclusionDescartesneverbecameconvincedof.68Bychoosingsylphs,

theelementsoftheair,insteadofwaternymphs,VillarshintstoPascalthescientist,

one of the men he was arguing with in the novel as a theologian. Sylphs suit the

publicdiscoursemuchbetterthannymphs,or,forthatmatter,salamandersorgnomes.

Then, the Count teaches, ever since Adam sinned with Eve, the elementals, in

particularthesylphsandsalamanders,haddevelopedloverelationshipswithhumans.

Once upon a time a sylph had been advised by the sages to take the likeness of a

manswife,so themanwouldnotdiscover thatheactually lovedasylphan idea

directlyderivedfromtherichbedofstoriesaboutdemonsintrusivewaystoseduce

women. The couples even brought forth great children. During the discussions the

Count de Gabalis mentions several. Zoroaster, Romulus, Servius Tullius, and

Hercules were sons of salamanders, Plato, Alexander the Great, Melchizedek, and

Merlinofsylphs.

Wittiness in the tale occurs when the Count brings up magic in the format of

Porphyrus fire oracles, and a Prayer of the Salamanders.When advising his new

pupil,anadvicebasedupontheAbbshoroscope,communionwithaSalamander,

andmarriagewithaSylph,Gabalisexplainsthattoattractthespirits,one

has only to seal a goblet full of compressed Air,Water, or Earth and to leave it

exposed to theSunforamonth.Thenseparate theElementsscientifically,whichis

particularly easy to do withWater and Earth. It is marvellous what a magnet for

attractingNymphs,Sylphs,andGnomes,eachoneofthesepurifiedElementsis.After

takingthesmallestpossiblequantityeverydayforsomemonths,oneseesintheair

theflyingCommonwealthoftheSylphs,theNymphscomeincrowdstotheshores,

theGuardians of theTreasures parade their riches.Thus,without symbols,without

ceremonies, without barbaric words, one becomes ruler over these Peoples. They

exactnoworshipwhateverfromtheSage,whosesuperioritytothemselvestheyfully

recognise. Thus venerable Nature teaches her children to repair the elements by

68Rupp2006:137 138.

20

meansoftheElements.Thusmanrecovershisnaturalempire,andcandoallthingsin

theElementswithouttheDevil,andwithoutBlackArt.69

Ever a sceptic, ever a free, enlightened kind of thinker Villars has difficulties

imagining the elements not as imps of Satan but as beautiful beings. Besides, how

could a single elemental furnish blood, flesh and bones? Throughout their

conversations Villars remains critical towards the Counts teachings. Still, Gabalis

continuesstoically,occasionallyshowingemotionthroughasmileorashrugwiththe

shoulders.HeonlyslightlygivesintotheFathersworriesabouttheDevil,whenhe

confessesthattheelementalstenderness

isapttobesomewhatviolent.Butifexasperatedwomenhavebeenknowntomurder

theirperjuredlovers,wemustnotwonderthatthesebeautifulandfaithfulmistresses

flyintoapassionwhentheyarebetrayed,andallthemoresosincetheyonlyrequire

men to abstain fromwomenwhose imperfections they cannot tolerate, and give us

leave to love as many of their number as we please. They prefer the interest and

immortalityoftheircompanionstotheirpersonalsatisfaction,andtheyareveryglad

tohavetheSagesgivetotheirRepublicasmanyimmortalchildrenaspossible.70

WiththeobviousintenttoconvinceVillars,theGreatKabbaliststatesatsomepoint

tosummontheSylphsofCardan. Itdoesnothappen,at leastnot in thestory,but

again, it is a humorous element tying in with public knowledge of the occult. For

Fazio Cardan, the father of Girolamo (Jerome) Cardan, one of themany historical

figuresflittingthroughthenovelandwellknownforhisastrologicalalmanacs,71had

beenvisitedbysevenunknownbeings,clothedindifferentcolours,whomaderather

strangestatementstohimastotheirnatureandoccupation.72Theseunknownbeings,

69 Villars 1997: 51. The description the flying Commonwealth of the Sylph in French is la

rpubliquevolantedesSylphes(Villars1900:18).70Villars1997:137 139.Notethewordrepublic:ahinttoVillarscriticismtowardsthemonarchy?71Seenote64.72 Villars 1997: 15.The commentaries inVillars 1963: 162, andVillars 1997: 208 210 inform that

JeromeCardan (1501 1576)discovered a note amonghis fathers papers,datedAugust13,1491, in

whichhedescribedanencounterwithsevenmenthathadlastedforoverthreehours.FaciusCardan,

Jeromes father,hadasked themwho theywere theyweremencomposed,as itwere,ofair, and

subjecttobirthanddeath,buttheirlivesmightevenreachtothreehundredyearsofduration,they

hadanswered.Theyweremorecloselyrelatedtothegodsthanmankind,butwereyetseparatedfrom

21

the Count explains, had been Sylphs. Other legendary figures mentioned are the

divine Anthony (Appendix 4, Frame 2), the celebrated Magdalen of the Cross,

AbbessofaMonasteryatCordovainSpain,theblessedDanhuzerus,theworthy

Agobard,BishopofLyons(Appendix4,Frame3).Mostlythecontentofthelegends

is not explained; the figures are used in arguments and the reader is supposed to

immediatelyknowthebasicdetailsattachedtothesedevoutmenandwomen.Asis

the case with Cardan, de Gabalis explains each and every peculiar case as if it

involves elementals, not demons, not witches.While talking about the Comtes de

ClevesVillars interrupts theCount, Iverilybelieve,Sir,hedeclares, thatyouare

about to tell me the fairy tale of Melusina.73When comparing the reaction, alias

interpretationofdeGabalisconcerningthestoryof thewaternymphwithamodern

dayencyclopaedia entryonMelusina, it isobviousVillarsagain inanamusing

wayaltersthetaletofithisownagenda(Appendix4,Frame4).

Towards theendof thebookVillarsseemswilling togoalongwith theuncommon

teachingsoftheCount.ButthisisinwordsutteredtotheCount;tothereaderVillars

talksotherwise.Werehecertainthathisreaderswouldhavetheproperspirit,and

nottakeitamissthatheamuseshimselfattheexpenseoffools,theFatherwould

love to publish a series of similar conversations (something he did not, others

pretendingtobehimdid,seeAppendix1).74Villarsevenemphasisesthereaderought

not to suspect him of giving credit to occult sciences under the pretence of

ridiculing those sciences. The warning has been to no avail. Over the centuries

severalpeopledidcometobelievetheCountofGabalistohavebeenarealsage.In

case someonehaddoubts, ithasevenbeenadvised to leave thequestionopenand

attendtotheteachingsofthebook,foritallhadmeaningtotheinnerlife;itwasin

them by an almost immeasurable distance. The source of the authors of the commentaries: Cardan

1550:bookXIX.

In'+JeromeCardanwroteaboutthedemonhisfatheropenlyconfessedattended

him;Cardansenioraccepteditasafamiliarspirit(Cardan1962:10,297note3).73Villars1997:153.SeealsoLauferinVillars1963:173 174.74Villars1997:201.

22

theinnerlifewheretheCountandthenovelcouldleaveasubtleinfluenceuponthe

mindandprepareitforaflightupwards!75

Duetothepopularityofthenovel,ideasdevelopedbyVillarshavebeenpickedupby

diverseauthorswhohaveuseditinverycreativeways.Intheirturn,thosenewworks

were read and used by others after them, and it is through this chain of reading,

getting inspired, creatively making use of particular ideas and constructing

innovativelyfreshyetrelatedworksthathasevolvedoutofits

original setting into something with an existence of its own. It enabled the

elementalstodevelopintorelatedbutseparategenreselaboratedonin4.

'$ $ $ $

$

Ithasbeensaidbefore that thebasic ideasof theCountofGabalis teachingswere

taken from Paracelsus. The novel then was spiced up with sentences filled with

astrological terminology, conjuring practices, and references to legendary and

folkloristic figures involving incubi and succubi. During the second half of the

seventeenth century, tales and theories about witches, Satan, (elemental) spirits,

intercourse,andtheprobableoffspringofinterracialcopulationwereanintegrated

partofsocietysdiscourse.Theairandtheearthwere,sotospeak,crowdedwithall

kindsofnonhumanbeings,and,asa result, thereweremoreauthorsaddressing the

subjectofthebeingsinteractionswithhumans.Millionsofspiritualcreatureswalk

the Earth / Unseen, both whenwewake, and whenwe sleep, JohnMiltonwrites

metaphoricallyinhisfamousdrama+ (1667)about theentranceofevil

(and its beings) into the world and Gods war against Satan.76 These millions of

spiritual creatures get a more concrete shape in Johannes Prtorius eccentric

% *

2

75Seeber1944:76note17,quotingfromaTheosophicarticlebyBjerregaard1914.NotealsoWaite

1923:37,39 40;Hall1939:7;Goldammer1980:159note3.Treske1933:26, referring toGardner

1923:Althoughwritteninasatiricalvein,yetitcontainsprofoundtruths;possiblytheauthorfoundit

necessaryinthosedaystodisseminateknowledgeinthisfashion.76Lines677 678ofbookIVbyMilton1999.

23

3(1666),alargecollectionofrareandwellknownlegendsand

myths of elemental spirits like Alpmnnergen, Drachenfinder, Feuer , Stein ,

undWaldmnner, Luftleute undWindmenschen, Pflanzleute, and Zwerge.77

(Almost 160 years later, in 1834,HeinrichHeine,writing about Elementargeister

himself,characterised,tomyopinionstillaccurately,%asa

Wust von Unsinn, grubbed up superstition, learned quotations, melancholic and

adventuroushistories.78)Besides,notonlyinbooksoccultanddivinepowers,and/or

the interaction between humans and demons, and/or the existence of intermediary

beings were brought to the fore. In her PhD dissertation, Julitte van den Elsen

convincinglyarguesmonsters,demons,verystrangestories,malformedbabies(were

those theresultofcopulationbetweenhumansandnonhumans?),and the like tobe

sinceretopicsdiscussedinpublicnewspapersandperiodicals.79

Ontheonehand,showingtheairinhabitedbyallsortsofnonhumancreaturesbacks

up the argument Villars addressed contemporary popular discourse about the

supernaturalandmagic, i.e.theera,PierreMarielpoignantlycharacterises,inwhich

quatre cents femmes faisaientbien leurs affairesen regardantdans lesmains, and

peopletirait lhoroscopedechaqueenfantenmmetempsquonlebaptisait.80On

theotherhand,zoomingintoparticularbooksillustrateshowauthorsgroundedinthe

same rich bed of anecdotal and exemplary cases did address ideas and issues in

specificways.ParticularthemesdirectlyorindirectlyhintedatbyVillars,andnames

droppedbyhim,lightupquitedifferentlyinworksofothers.Thiswillbehighlighted

bymeansofafewdetailstakenfromtwoassociativelycomparablemanuscripts,and

thenightmare.

Asbadinageandamusement,JeandeLaFontaine(1621 1695),mostfamousforhis

fables in which animal characters were modelled after diverse personae in French

society,wrote anewversionofApuleius ancient taleofPsyche andEros (Cupid),

% +. . It was published in 1669 by Claude Barbin in

Paris,ayearbeforeBarbinprinted.Set incontemporarytime,77Prtorius1666.JohannesPrtoriuswasthewritersnameofHansSchulz(1630 1680).78Heine1834:21 22.Floeck1909:14talksaboutdersensationslsterneJoh.Praetorius.79vanderElsen2003.80MarielinVillars1961:11.

24

LaFontaineunfoldsthetaleoftheyoungprincessPsyche(psycheisGreekforsoul),

thegoddessVenus(utterlyjealousofPsychesbeauty),Cupid(sonofVenus;Venus

asks him to cause Psyche to fall in love with the ugliest man on earth, but he

accidentally pricks himself so Psyche falls in love with him), Zephyrus (the west

wind,caretakerofPsyche),andahostofadditionalcreaturessuchassatyrs,dryads,

fauns, nymphs, Jupiter, Pan. Psyche and Cupids love story is read by the friends

Polyphide, Acante, Ariste and Glaste. After Psyches parents consultation of an

oracle, somewhere along the line an episode follows in which Psyche fears she is

expecting a child from a monster. The drama ends with the couples marriage in

heavenandthebirthoftheirbeautifulchild,Volupt.Stagingthefriendsmeetingin

Versailles,LaFontainemakesthefourdiscusselementsofthetale,andletthemwrite

somepoems,oneofthemwiththelines

Assemblez,sansallersiloin,

Vaux,Liancourt,etleursnaads,

Yjoignant,encasdebesoin,

Ruelavecquessescascades.81

Thetopoiofanaffairbetweenamortalandagod,mythiccreatures,oracles,andthe

fear of a monstrous offspring are pictured vividly and in a modern way by La

Fontaine, not only through major elements like the four friends against the

environmental background of Versailles, but also through minor details like the

cascades in Richelieus park at Rueil, and statues in the gardens of Vaux and

Liancourt.Villarsdidtheverysame.HelocatedthemeetingsbetweentheCountand

himself in present time, and during their secondmeeting the twowent to Ruel, a

pleasantplace,wheretheCountmadestraightforthegardenslabyrinth.82Whilstthe

taleswerestagedinthenatural,physicalworld,strictlyspeakingbothauthorswrote

fantasy,agenreforwhichLaFontaine,especiallythroughhisfables,isappraisedas

itsinitiator.Villarssetthetrendforromanticreveriesbetweenhumansandsylphs,or

undines, or salamanders, elaborated on in 4a. Still, even though subjects in both

novels are similar, the major subjects themselves are treated rather differently. La

81LaFontaine1965:413.82Villars1997:21,23,71.Notbeingwell informed(seeonthegardensatRueilWoodbridge1981),

Scarboro1985:237considersRuelacity.

25

Fontaines usage of the ancient tale is a novelty83 but the intimacy between, and

marriage of, Psyche and Cupid, and the birth of Volupt, does not question the

possibility of such a relationship proper, nor the quality of a child from mixed

parental bloodlines.Thewhereabouts of a god and humanultimately remain in the

realmofmyth;nosecretsaboutthesupernaturalarerevealed.

A complex topic connected to sexual affairs between humans and nonhumans, one

alsohavinga longhistoryandnowadaysexplainedasahealthdisordercalledsleep

paralysis, is thenightmare.84 In the thirteenthcenturyGervaseofTilbury (see the

citation on p. 8 9) considered spirits unclean incubi, partly human, partly angelic.

Someincubi,GervaseofTilburybelieved,could lovewomenwithsuchpassionthe

women experienced something then identified as a nightmare.Three centuries later

Paracelsusthoughtnightmarestostemfromincubiandsuccubi,beingshebelievedto

bespiritsformedofthesemenofthosewhocommittheunnaturalsinofOnanby

which he seems to have meant masturbation.85 Villars did not use the word

nightmare,butsinceits impliedmeaningwascommonlyknown,hemusthavebeen

aware of it, and addressed the subject. Above all, he advocated marriage, hence

intercourse with elementals, stated that the tenderness of elementals is apt to be

somewhatviolent(i.e.elementalshaveanevilstreak),andheconsidereditdifficult

toimagineelementsnotasSatansimps.Bywritingso,Villarschallengedtheideaof

witches copulation with the devil, and precisely therefore

carriedsomedangerousimplications.

CompletelydifferentinfocuscomparedtothetwonovelsofVillarsandLaFontaine,

is"3,amanuscriptaboutabnormalphenomena,oftendealing

withsuper andsubterraneaninhabitantswitnessedintheScottishHighlands,written

by Minister Robert Kirk (1644 1692). Spurred through curiosity about the natural

83%+. est un conte rotique,merveilleux, une romance spirituelle et

enleve, une tude de lme et des interdits du mariage. Ce roman a compltement drout contemporaine, par son mlange de prciosit, dhumour, de galanterie et dallusions

mythologiques(Fontimpe2001:30).84Broughton1968:1071;Schneck1969.SeealsoPowell1973:42ff;Blackmore1998;Bown2004:

152 153,161ff;Appendix4,Frame5.85Masters1962:8.

26

philosopher Robert Boyle (1627 1691), the text of Kirk and his notion of pre

cognition(clairvoyance,secondsight)haveledtoourmodernunderstandingofthese

words.Fromaclairvoyantasopposedtoasylphpointofview,Kirkreferstoastory

ofJeromeCardansfather,afigureVillarsalsobringsup:

Cardanspeaksofhisfatherhis

thespeciesofhisfriendinaMoonshynenight

riding fiercelybyhiswindowonawhetthorse, theverienighthis frienddydata

vastdistancefromhim,3 thatsomalterationwouldsuddenly

ensue.86

PickingfromthesamepoolofanecdotesVillarshadtohisdisposal,obviouslyKirk

choseanincidentoutofFazioCardanslifesuitedtohissubjectofinterest.Notein

addition theway inwhichKirkputs together thenightmare, succubi, ladiesof the

aerealorder,andaerelneighbours,i.e.thespiritsoftheairwhodonotchangeinto

beautiful,romanticallyinclinedsylphs:

AndthemostfurioustribeoftheDmonsarenotpermittedbyprovidencetoattacke

men so frequentlie either by night, or by day: For in our High Lands, as there be

manyfairLadiesofthisaerealorderwhichdoeoftentrystwithlasciviousyoungmen

inthequalitieofsuccubiorlightsomparamoursandstrumpets[]sodoemanieof

ourHighlanders(asifa stranglingbythenightMare,pressedwithafearfuldream,or

ratherpossessedbyoneofouraerelNeighbours[)].87

Inbrief,Prtoriuscuriouscompilationofstories, theusageofApuleius talebyLa

Fontaine,Kirks"3, (andmodernacademicstudies likeMichael

HunterofKirksmanuscript,andvandenElsen,neitherelaboratedonhere),help

muchingaininginsightinthediscourseofthetimeconcerningthesupernatural.They

provetheintensityofdiverseideasabouttherealityofelementalsandaereal,mythic

or devilish creatures at the end of the seventeenth century, the era in which

MontfaucondeVillarscomposed. It is to theAbbscredit to

havemadeoccultknowledgeand teachings soundhilariousandseriousat the same86Hunter&Kirk2001: 97,my .Hunter notes to this passage:The Italiannatural philosopher

GirolamoCardan(1501 1576)doesindeedrecordthepreternaturalabilitiesofhisfather,Fazio(1444

1524),seeCardan1550:bookxix(Dedmonibus),andCardan1558:bookxvi,ch.93.87Hunter&Kirk2001:98.

27

time.Hence, tobelieversears thenovelwhisperssecret truthsandwisdom,tonon

believersitsparksenlightened,humorousinsights.

- ( $& % $%

As a result of its success the novels plot of romantic love relationships between

humans and elementals, mostly sylphs, was taken up and expanded on. Currently

sylphsarerecognizedasatoposinFrenchliterature,poetry,andcomedies;88closely

related are thewater fairies,orundines, inGerman romantic literature andmusic;89

English literature and visual arts reveal intertwined connections between fairies,

sylphsandundines.90At first sight, theoccasions inwhich is

acknowledgedtohaveplayedaroleinthe(romantic)portrayalofelementalsarenot

manifold; a few authors mention or refer to Villars themselves, other authors,

especiallythosewhopreparedintroductionstoneweditionsof,

showits influencetoahighdegree. Inhindsight itevenseemsthatover theyearsa

reasonable amount of academics have paid attention to Villars: I could compile a

muchlongerlistthanIhadoriginallyanticipated.Still,whatismissingisanupdated,

scholarly study, one that integrates the various studies, bits and pieces loosely or

strongly related to the impact of in esoteric discourse.What

follows isa first attempt tobringorder to the relativelywide rangeofmaterial, the

elementsdiscoveredtoanswermyresearchquestion.

The first half of this section covers the artistic works inspired by Villars story

wherebyattentionisalsogiventoesotericconnections.Themainfocusofthesecond

halfofthesectionisthewayinwhichhasappearedinliterature

earmarked as esoteric. Through both lines works surfacewhichmust have had the

interestofmembersoftheGoldenDawn.

88 Doyon in Villars 1921: XIV ff, XXXIV ff; Seeber 1944; Laufer in Villars 1963: 48 52; Juin in

Villars1966:13ff;Delon1999:7ff.89Goldammer1980;Krieger2000.90SeethestudiesbyMaas1997;Silver1999;Bown2001;Purkiss2001;Wood2001.

28

-(*+./%$

The author regularly referred to as theone indebt toVillars is, becausehe said so

himself, the famousEnglish poetAlexander Pope (1688 1744).Hismock epic

,asatiricalpoemoffivecantos,waswritteninseveralphases.After

the initial version in 1711, the first two cantos were published in 1712. The final

versionappearedin1717,andthethird,alreadyextendedtofiveparts,in1714.91The

latterincludesadedicatorylettertoMrsArabellaFermorinwhichPopeexplainshow

he came to signify an important part of the poem to the Machinery, a term

inventedbytheCriticsbywhichhemeansthesectionenactedbydeities,angels,or

demons:

These Machines I determined to raise on a very new and odd foundation, the

RosicruciandoctrineofSpirits.(...)ThebestaccountIknowofthemisinaFrench

bookcalled,whichbothinitstitleandsizeissolikeanovel,

that many of the fair sex have read it for one by mistake. According to these

gentlemen[theRosicrusians], thefourelementsare inhabitedbyspirits,whichthey

callSylphs,Gnomes,Nymphs,andSalamanders.TheGnomesorDaemonsofEarth

delight in mischief; but the Sylphs, whose habitation is in the air, are the best

conditioned creatures imaginable. For they say, any mortals may enjoy the most

intimatefamiliaritieswiththesegentlespirits...92

In1680twomen,independentfromoneanother,translatedinto

English.ThebetterknownonebyPhilipAyreswaspublishedbyB.M.,printertothe

CabalisticalSocietyoftheSages,attheSignoftheRosyCrusian(Appendix1,Table

1,No.2).WhereasthenovelwasnotwrittenasaRosicruciannovelVillarsdidnot

hintatsecretbrotherhoods,nordidhedropthenameChristianRosenkreuz93,andit

91Theamountofversionsof differs.Cummings2005countsthree;Schuchard

1975: 171, and Constantine 1997 are more precise and count four. Rogers 2004: 241, 245 246

describesthesequenceofversionsinevenfurtherdetail.92Pope1967:86 87.IhavenocluewhichcriticsinventedthetermRosicrucianMachinery.93ThepossibilityofVillarshavingknowntheapothecaireJacobRose,whofoundedaRosicrucian

groupin1660whichlastedtill1676,ashypotheticallysuggestedbyMarielinVillars1961:15 17,and

Nelli1978:131,isunlikely.PerhapsVillarswasawareofRosicrucianthought,butifso,itmusthave

29

wasunderstoodatthetimeofpublicationVillarsamusedhisaudiencebymakingfun

ofallkindsofbeliefs in thesupernatural,94manynot longafterwardshavecome to

consider as a Rosicrucian novel. Ayres even altered the

translation to that effect he added lines to it, among them the sentence It must

needs be a Ravishing sight, (said I [Villars], smiling) to see a 4

+,inaChairpreachingtoalltheselittleGentle Folke.95Theincorporation

ofthenovelwithinRosicrucianismisnotsostrangeifoneconsidersthatParacelsus

forms an integral part of its thought, and one of its three founding documents is

entitled$5(1616)amulti layeredtaleaboutmarriage.Ithas

to be noted though, that this chemical wedding is alchemical (and mystical) in

nature, it does not concern the idea of elementals opportunity to gain a soul; the

novel by Johann Valentin Andreae symbolizes a sacred marriage between the

materialandthespiritual,itisaboutregeneration,thebirthingofnature,andthe

comingofaperfectlypureman.96

Anyway, since Pope explicitly claims to have set on the

Rosicruciandoctrineofspirits,hemusthavereadtheeditiontranslatedbyAyres.A

question lingers nonetheless:why does Pope state that many of the fair sex read

Villarsnovelasa2,henceinsinuatingthatthosepeopledidnotreaditasastory

containingserious(esoteric)knowledgewhereashedid?PatRogersbelievesthereis

little chance the poet was hoodwinked by this opportunistic and in some ways

mischievous book.97 Perhaps he is right, but by the same tokenRogers projects a

biasedpersonalopinionontohimsincehedoesnotoffera reasonwhyPopewould

not have beenmisled. Be that as it may, contributed to the

beenoneofthemanyoccultlinesofthoughtheusedtoengagepolemicallyinthedebatebetween

Jansenists,Pascalisants,Jesuits,etcetera.94ChristianHuygensinformedhisbrotherLodewijkinaletterdatedJuly31,1671,aboutanewbook

hehadcomeacrossinParisthatpeopleconsideredbienescritetdunemaniereagreable,andseemed

tohavebeenpreparedtomockcabbalisticvisions(LauferinVillars1963:47).95Villars1680:169.96 Edighoffer 2005: 1012.According toEdighoffer 2005: 1010 all of Paracelsus elementary beings

recur in the Rosicrucian novel (1614), indicating that from the very start of

Rosicrucianism the nymphs, sylphs, pygmies, salamanders, and other spirits have been part of the

Rosicruciandiscourse.SeeforexampleMackay1962:196.97Rogers2004:66.

30

perception of as a text revealing secret Rosicrucian insights.

ThoseinvolvedorinterestedinRosicrucianismwouldwanttoknowwhattheCount

ofGabalishadtaught.

Popessatire,summarizedinanutshell,tellsofthestunninglybeautifulBelindawho

awakes one morning and is warned by her guardian air spirit named Aerial to be

careful during the day. Foreseeing disaster, Aerial doesnt know what it might

convey, sowhenBelinda prepares herself she is to go out on a boat trip on the

ThamesAerialsummonsfiftyofhiscompanionsylphstoguardBelindaspetticoat

andtheringletsinherhair.AmongtheadmirersawaitingBelindaattheriverbankisa

young,adventurousBaronwhohassethimselftowinthetrophyoftrophies,oneof

Belindasgolden locks.Tomakesurehewins, theBaronpreviouslyhad lightedan

altarfire,andprayedtothegods.AllthesylphswarningstoBelindaweretonoavail.

Theterriblecrimecommittedonher, the rape,happenswhentheBaronsucceedsin

snippingoffalock(Appendix4,Frame6).

Muchcanbesaidandhasbeensaidaboutthepoem.98Regardingtheskilfulmannerin

whichPopeusesimplicationsofPatriciaBrckmanelucidates

onBelindaslapdogShock.AtsomepointShockisequatedwithahusband.Awareof

the Count de Gabalis Rosicrucian philosophy, it is obvious to Brckman that

Shock is a sylph in disguise. Since ordinary men and women may mistake the

friendlysylphsfordemons,shenotes,

the sylphs often appear in animal shape to diminish this Aversion, which is had

againstthem.Intheseforms,saystheCount,they

addressthemselvestothewantonFrailtyof;whoareaffrightedata

Lovely",butnotata,or.IcouldtellyoumanyTalesof

yourlittle-,andcertainprettyintheWorld...99

The observation by Brckmann is sharp. She is not aware, however, of Ayers

amendments to Villars text: Villars did not say sylphs transformed in dogs or

98SeeRogers2004:240 246;Cummings2005,andmanyothers.99Brckmann1964:262,quotingfromVillars1680:156 157(Appendix1,Table1,No.2).

31

monkeys(orbears,forthatisinthe1680versionalso).100ItisAyerscomicaddition

to the novel, one that, viaPope, found expression again inRobert Southeys poem

2(1799).101

Saveromancebetweenasylphandahumanbeing,Popesvividwritingspurredthe

developmentofthevisualizationofhumansinvolvedwithelementalsengravingsof

Belinda, theBaron and sylphs illustrated several publication of the poem.When in

1798 a new edition was planned by Francis Isaac Du Roveray (1772 1849), Du

RoveraywrotetoHenryFuseli(1741 1825)requestingthefavourofapaintingtobe

reproduced and incorporated in the new edition.102 Fuseli complied.103 Prior toDu

Roveraysrequest,theSwissbornpainter,educatedtobecomeaZwinglianminister

(afunctionheneverprofessed),hadenvisionedelementsofin

his paintings - and -, %3.104 To -

(1791),poemswrittenbyhis friendErasmusDarwin(1731 1802),105Fuseli

contributedthefrontispiece,offeringvisualexpressiontothedoctrineofelementals

whichDarwin, influenced by Pope, explained in theApology, thought to afford a

propermachinery for aBotanic poem (Appendix 4, Frame7).106 The subjects and

datesoftheseworksareindicationsthatFuselihadatleasttakennoticeof

100UnawareofBrckmansarticle,DonnaScarboroalsostudiedtheinfluenceof

upon,andobservedthedogsimilarity(Scarboro1985:235).Hersourceisthe

1680EnglishtranslationbyA.Lovell,aneditionIhavenothadaccessto,butseenfromhernotes,it

comesacrossasverysimilartoAyers.ThissurprisesmesincethetwoEnglishtranslationsaresaidto

be made independent from one another. Based upon other remarks by Scarboro, for instance the

statement that the object of Villars satire was alchemical material and Rosicrucian philosophy

(Scarboro1985:236,239),itisobviousthatmuchofheranalysisisoffthemark.101 Southey 1850: 114 116. The poet within the poem first obtains Delias pocket handkerchief,

invokesinverse2thespiritsoftheelements,andcastsDeliasfuryinverse4whilescissorsdividea

fair lock.ThereuponDeliacries: YoustupidPuppy, ..youhavespoildmyWig!(Southey1850:

116).102Weinglass1982:180 181.103Tomory1972:112 113,plateVIII2"

;Weinglass1982:191.104 Constantine 1997; Weinglass 1982: 180 note 3. - was probably painted

between1780 1790.105Schuchard1975:447.SeealsoFrayling2006:15.106Tomory1972:166,quotingfromDarwin,therebyreferringtoand

.

32

severalyearsbefore1798.Inconjunctionwithhisworksdepictingscenes

from%,,Fuseliisnowadaysreveredasaforerunnerofthe

Victorian fairy painters. His portrayal of romantic yet sinister scenes filled with

nonhumancreatures tookoff thevisual artof fairies;due toFuseli thenymphsand

airycreaturesgainedastrongimpetustoenterourthreedimensionalworld.

Now, from the perspective of the present research several personae, their works,

friendshipsandconnectionsconglomeratearoundFuselialthoughnotnecessarilyon

a personal level namelyThomas Stothard,Motte Fouqu,WilliamBlake, E.T.A.

Hoffmann (through Fouqu), and Theodor von Holst. Goethe, interested in

Rosicrucianism and influenced by the alchemist Georg vonWelling (Appendix 4,

Frame12),isneglectedforIdidnotseehimmentionedincombinationwithVillarsin

the literaturestudied,nordid I locateobvious tracesof inhis

. Except for Goethe, of whom I am not completely certain, all of these men

created novels, poems or paintings that substantiate love relationships between

humansandelementals.

OtherthanFuseli,DuRoveryinvitedThomasStothardtoprepareillustrationstothe

1798 edition of . He complied too, and by intentionally

envisioningsylphsinthepossessionofbutterflywings,hebecamethefirsttoportray

sylphs like fairies.107 Stothards sylphs look like little cherubs not equipped with

wingsmadeoffeathersbutbythetypeinsectshaveanartisticnoveltyinspiredby

Popes poetic description of the sylphs guarding Belinda (Appendix 4, Frame 6).

Eventually, in combination with the development of novels and performances on

stagelike",astorywrittenforaballet(Appendix4,Frame9),Stothards

puttisgrewuptosensuous,femalebeauties.

Towardstheendofhislife,around1819 1823,Fuselicreatedaseriesofworksbased

on!

, a story about a love relationship between awater nymph and a knight

107 Halsband 1980: 39. See also Phillpotts 1999: 32 33. Several engravings made by others before

Stothard to illustrate showsimilarputtis (see figures9,16,62 64 inHalsband

1980),yet,asHalsbandpointsout,Stothardpurposelywentoutintothefieldtostudyinsectwingsto

equiphisputtis.Perhaps,Halsband1980:39note20adds,BlakehadsuggestedthisideatoStothard,

andBlakemayhavebeeninfluencedbyFuseliwhohadbeenanentomologistsincetheageoftwelve.

33

(Appendix4,Frame8).108Thecouplemarriesbutthecommitmentendsintragedyas

soonasHuldbrand,theknight,divorcesUndinetomarryBertaldainstead,whereupon

Undine loses her chance to obtain a soul. The author,Baron Friedrich de laMotte

Fouqu (1777 1843) published the fairy tale in 1811. Although Fouqu explicitly

stateshedrewinspirationfromParacelsus,itis,duetothedramaticstoryline,unlikely

hewouldnothavedrawnfromaswell.109Fouqucouldhave

readtheGermantranslationof1780andsourceditbacktoParacelsussincetheCount

ofGabalissohighlypraisedtheman.Hemayalsohavereadstoriesaboutsylphsfrom

eighteenth century France that had entered the literary scene after the Count had

revealedsomesecretstoVillars.Or,asOswaldFloeckrightlysuggests,Fouqucould

have taken notice of Christoph Martin Wielands first prose novel (fable),

%"222 (1764).110Theprotagonistof the latter,Don

Sylvio,modelledafterCervantesDonQuijote,confusestheworldoffactswiththe

worldoffantasy,buthismarriagetothefairyprincessDonnaFeliciabedeutetdie

Umkehr aus der Phantasiewelt in die Wirklichkeit des Lebens.111 On several

occasionsWielandreferstoVillarsorderbegeisterteGrafvonGabalis.112

ThethirdpersonentangledwithFuseli isWilliamBlake,pupilandfriendofFuseli,

whose esoteric interests have been unravelled byMarshaKeith Schuchard.Among

herfindingsarelinesinBlakes(1804)sheconnectsto:

TheFairies,Nymphs,Gnomes,andGeniioftheFourElements,

Unforgiving&unalterable,thesecannotbeRegenerated

108 Tomory 1972: 182;Browne 1994: 19, 22, 57 58.Browne considers Fuselis follower and friend

Thomas Griffiths Wainewright (1794 1847) a likely candidate to have directed Fuseli to Fouqus

!

,butalsoproposesFuselispupilTheodorvonHolst.Theboywasbarely ten(!)yearsofage

whenFuselimusthavereadthetale.WainewrighthimselfpaintedFouquswaterspritetwice,in1821

and1823(Browne1994:48note35).109Seeber1944:74note10;Peuckert1967:498,504;Goldammer1980:89,96;Delon1999:31.110Floeck1909:1;Seeber1944:80 82.111Jahn1981:314.112Wieland1984(Band11):67note20,172note3;(Band12):200note1,205,208note3.Wielands

source is Villars 1742 Tome 1 (which is confusing, see Table 1, Nos. 11 14, in Appendix 1).

Through his poem) (1780),Wieland also conglomerates to Fuseli (Silver 1999: 18;Myrone

2006:116).

34

ButmustbeCreated,fortheyknowonlyofGeneration.

ThesearetheGodsoftheKingdomsoftheEarth113

In another work, 6 (1804 1820), Blake uses, according to Schuchard the

Rosicrucianelementsinamoreextensiveandevenritualisticsense:

Andsixty fourthousandGenii,guardtheEasternGate:

Andsixty fourthousandGnomes,guardtheNorthernGate:

Andsixty fourthousandNymphs,guardtheWesternGate:

Andsixty fourthousandFairies,guardtheSouthernGate.114

AsentenceinthesameplateofthispoemcontainsafewwordsSchuchardconsiders

related to , namely the Cities of the Salamandrine men, a

highly technical Rosicrucian term which referred to the Salamanders particular

protectionofoccultphilosophers.115

TakingintoaccountBlakesattractiontoawiderangeofauthorsonehastothinkof

Swedenborg, Paracelsus, JacobBoehme, FrancisMercurius vanHelmont and the

socialmilieuhewasengagedin,116thenotionofthefourelementalsmusthavebeen

so common to him that it is difficult to connect these passages toVillars only. To

suggest a direct connection seems merely wishful thinking on Schuchards side.

Besides, the ideaof elementalsnotbeing able to regenerate themselves stems from

neither Paracelsus norVillars, for their focus is on the elementals intent to obtain

immortality,somethingtobegainedbythelifelongloveofahumanbeing.Yeteven

thoughIconsiderSchuchardssuggestionsofVillars influenceonBlakenotstrong

andhighlycolouredforsheviewsVillarsasaRosicrucian,shemayhaveapoint.Itis

113Blake 1978: 113; the spelling ofBlake cited bySchuchard 1975: 472 is slightly different. In an

earlierpassageinthesamework,Blake1978:107talksabouttime,itsmoments,minutes,hours,days,

months,yearsandages,andendsthesection:AllaretheworksofFairyhandsoftheFourElements.114Blake1953:14,Plate13;thepunctionofBlakecitedbySchuchard1975:472isslightlydifferent.

SeealsoBlake1953:36,Plate32,wherehespeaksoftheFourElementsseparatingfromtheLimbsof

Albion:/ThesearetheirnamesintheVegetativeGeneration.(...)AndtheydividedintoFourravening

deathlikeForms,/Fairies&Genii&Nymphs&GnomesoftheElements.115Blake1953:14,Plate13;Schuchard1975:473.116Spector2005:173 174.

35

veryplausibleBlakewasawareof.His sincere interest in the

esotericismmusthavemadehimfamiliarwithideasaboutelementals;eitherthrough

his own endeavours or through Fuseli and/or others, hewill have come across the

novel.

ThefourthfigureisthetalentedandinGermanliteraturewellknownErnstTheodor

AmadeusHoffmann(1776 1822),whowasbefriendedbyFouqu.117Inanincredibly

richandimaginativemanner,Hoffmannminglesandmergestogetherinthefairytale

(1814) strands of esoteric thought and practices, among them

alchemy,118 animal magnetism,119 and the use of magical mirrors.120 The main

characterinthestory,thestudentAnselmus,isinlovewithSerpentina,thedaughter

ofAnselmuspatron, thearchivistLindhorst.Serpentina isabrightgreensnake.By

sheercoincidenceAnselmusseesheronAscensionDaywhensheisplayingwithher

twosistersinatree.Heimmediatelyfallsforherdeepsparkling,gorgeouseyes,and

crystal clear voice. About two thirds of the way into the tale, Serpentina informs

Anselmus that her father belongs to the lineage of Salamanders; hermotherwas a

greenSnake.121TheylivedinwonderfulAtlantis.Sheelaboratesonthingshappened

inthepast,and,as thingsought tounfoldinfairytales,acluefollows. IfSerpentina

marriesaman,sheandher lovecanreturntoAtlantis.Thesameispossibleforher

sisters.Afterelevenchapters,Hoffmann, thenarrator, isatastandstill,orsohelets

the reader know. Just then he receives a letter from the royal archivist, the

Salamander Lindhorst enlightening him onmatters not of importance here, except

foratinyreferenceHoffmannputsin,namelythattheelementalspiritsnachGabalis

117Havingcorrespondedforsome time,HoffmannandFouqufirstmet inperson inBerlin in1814.

TheirfriendshiplastedtillHoffmannsdeatheightyearslater(Wittkop Mnardeau1983:114 115).118Lindhorst,acharacterinthestory,issaidtoownachemicallaboratoryandrare,ancientArabicand

Copticmanuscripts(Hoffmann1982:21 22).119Rightatthebeginning,theprotagonistAnselmusispicturedashuggingthetreewherehehadseen

the storys character Serpentina, a scene Tatar 1975: 368 369 convincingly connects to the tree

magnetisedbyMarquis dePuysgur inBuzancy.ForHoffmanns interest in animalmagnetism, see

Wittkop Mnardeau1983:93 94.120 In the tale the girl Veronika, having an eye on Anselmus, used a magical mirror to capture

Anselmusfancy,seeWhrl1982:77 78.121Hoffmann1982:57.Whrl1982:36relatesthispassagetoand!

.

36

undSwedenborgarenottobefullytrusted.122Inotherwords,Hoffmannwasaware

ofVillars.

A year after the appearance of!

,Hoffmann requested Fouqu to convert the

text intoa librettosomethingFouqufollowedupon.!

*#

%, composedbyHoffmann,had its premiere inBerlinonAugust3, 1816.123A

century before, the folktale

had been performed as a comedy in Paris.

Probablyasa resultof thepopularityof!

as taleandopera, in thenineteenth

century

becomes an opera by Karl Freiherr von Perfall, a fairy play by

Ferdinand Langer, and the overture of an unfinished opera fromMendelssohn and

Bartholdi.124AndFouqustalehadmorespin offs.AccordingtoCaroleSilver,Hans

ChristianAndersensfamous(1837)isareworkingofthemesin

!

,125and "(1891)byOscarWilde(1854 1900)126is

seenbyherasadirectcommentonAndersen:

Invertingthetraditionthatelementals,includingundinesandmermaids,seekhuman

loversinordertogainsoulsandthechanceofsalvation,Wildemakeshisfisherman

discardhissoulandrenouncetheclaimsofsocietyreligion,andcommerceallfor

love. The fishermans reward is union with his fairy bride, though hemust die to

attainit.127

However, it is easy to connect Wildes novel directly to Fouqus!

, and I

cannot think of a reason (other than neglect) why Silver did not link the two

together.128Itmayhavebeenunfamiliaritywith,forthemeslike

122Hoffmann1982:132;Goldammer1980:115.123ThepremierewasperformedzumGeburtstagdesKnigsFriedrichWilhelm III (Krieger2000:

13;seealsoWhrl1982:36;Wittkop Mnardeau1983:84;Maas1997:32).124Krieger2000:128 129.125Silver1999:107.126Wilde1909:69 134.127Silver1999:223note26.128Twosimilarities:1.UndineslastkisstoHuldbrandtakesHulbrandssoulaway(hedies).~When

thefishermankissedwithmadlipsthecoldlipsoftheMermaidhisheartbreaks(hediestoo),but

preciselyinthatmomentthefishermanssoul,whichhaddepartedhim,couldfindanentranceinit.2.

37

elementals, the gain or loss of a soul throughmarriage ultimately do stem from

(and Paracelsus). Besides, Wilde must have had a leaning to

esoteric thought throughconnectionswith theTheosophicalSocietyand theGolden

Dawn. Wilde, his brother Willie and their mother attended meetings at the

TheosophicalSociety,andhiswifeConstancebrieflywasamemberoftheSociety.129

HisfriendsWilliamB.YeatsandJ.H.FitzgeraldMolloyweremembersoftheGolden

Dawn, aswereMaryE.Haweis,whose bookon dress reformWilde admired, and,

again, his wife, who was initiated in November 1888, and left the Order a year

later.130Elementalswereanintegralpartofteachingsinoccultmilieus.IfWilde,asa

writer,hadaninterestinsuchthought,andwassurroundedbypeoplewhodidtoo,he

will have been familiar with either !

or (or both),

probablyenjoyeditasagoodread,andtookastorylinefromit.

There is another line from the cluster around Fuseli leading to Theosophy and the

GoldenDawn. It runsvia the fifthperson tied inwithhimhispupil andadmirer,

TheodorMatthiasvonHolst(1810 1844).131VonHolst,whobythewayalsoadmired

E.T.A. Hoffmann,132 painted twice -

(1830 and

1830 1835),sceneshe tookfrom!

(Appendix4,Frame8).The firstBertalda

paintingwas purchased in 1832 byBulwer Lytton, patron of vonHolst.133 Edward

GeorgeBulwerLytton(1803 1873)wasinterestedinfolklore,andportrayalsofitin

thearts.134Healsohadasincereinterestinesotericthought,andcertainlyhadread

At the day of Huldbrands funeral a well springs forth at the cemetery. ~ Three years after the

fishermansdeathapriestseesstrangeflowersofacuriousbeautyandwithsweetodour.129Owen2004:108.130Gray1990:2 3.131VonHolstpaintedbetween1820 18302"

,envisioningthescenefrom

whichFuseli had envisioned to illustrateDuRoverys 1798 editionof thework (Halsband

1980:plateI).132 Browne 1994: 17 18. One of the pictures sold after von Holsts death is entitled

%(Brown1994:107,No.121),thenameofmaincharacterin

.133Browne1994:56;Meyrone2006:164.ThepaintingpurchasedbyBulwerLyttonenvisionsinfront

ofBerthaldaapairoftramplinglegs,presumablyagnomes.TheseresemblethearmsFuseliinvented

fortheelementalpresentingFlorawithgiftsfromtheearth,seeAppendix4,Frame7.134BulwerLyttononcerequestedhisfriendDanielMaclise(1806 1870)tomakehimapaintingofPan

anddancingfairies.AnengravingofthispaintingwasincorporatedinBulwerLyttons+

38

, as he quotes it, and uses it in his novel # (1842). A

Rosicruciannovel,itisastoryaboutaninitiatenamedZanoniwhofallsinlovewith

Viola.135 Their relationship is blessed by the birth of a gifted child, but because of

lovingViolaZanonilooseshisimmortality.

Alovestorybetweenamanandanelementalpublishedinthesameyearas#

waswritten by the journalist, poet, songwriter and linguistCharlesMackay (1814

1889),quitewellreadinesotericloreashis

3(1841)testifies.His

poem "

about the immortalization of the lovely fire spirit

(elemental) by her love for a man is in no way as literary rich compared to

;136whatmakes the novel noteworthy is the introduction to the second

edition, in 1853,whereMackay refers toPopes , and cites a

longpassageoftoshewwhencetheauthorderivedtheideaof

theSalamandrine.137

What these works of art show is that in England and Germany the elementals,

especiallythewaterandfiretypesromanticallyinvolvedwithhumans,vividlyandin

abundanceenteredthearistocratic,andartisticmilieuof thenineteenthcentury.The

many stories of fairy brides, more so than fairy grooms, fascinated Victorian

folklorists,whostudiedthemendlessly.ItisadevelopmentSilverrelatestotherights

androlesofwomenintheirtime.138InFranceadifferentyetcomparabledevelopment

took place. Soon after the elementals romantic debut in Villars tale, the sylphs

(1834), a booknotably influencedbyFouqus!

, combining contemporaryGerman

folklore,travelwriting,andromance(Maas1997:89;Zaczek2005:24;Meyrone2006:164).Bulwer

Lyttonwasnottheonlyoneinterestedinartdepictingelementals.Maclise,anotheradmirerofFuseli

(Wood2001:65),painted"

!

in1844.PerhapshewasinspiredbyvonHolstswork

seen at Bulwer Lyttons, or, more likely, by the ballet )

by Jules Peron which had been

performedinLondonfirstin1843.MaclisespaintingwaspurchasedbyQueenVictoriaasabirthday

presentforPrinceAlbert(Gere1997:66;Bown2001:72;Wood2001:64,65;Zaczek2005:24).135SeeAppendix4,Frame10.Adrawingentitled%"#byvonHolstwasposthumous,

in1845,exhibitedattheBritishInstitution(Browne1994:52,111).136Deveney1997:501note12.Forasummaryof"

,seeAppendix4,Frame11.137Mackay2006:v vi.138 Silver 1999: 89 ff.Owen2004: 85 ff showshow the same topicofwomens rights and (sexual)

freedominterferedwiththenewoccultismofthelasttwodecadesofthenineteenthcenturyEngland.

39

infiltratedsociety:theyappearedinliteratureandwereonstageevenbeforetheend

of theseventeenthcentury.139Thiscontinuedthroughout theeighteenthcentury,and

then, in 1832, a very pretty young lady with wings dancing on tiptoes stunned the

audience. Performed first in Paris, then London, " initiated the romantic

ballet.ItbroughtMarieTaglioni(1804 1884),thedancerforwhom"was

written,famelikeamoderndaymovie orpopstar.Sheinspiredpoets,painters,and

designers;taglioniserbecameaFrenchverbmeaning to imitateMarieshairdoor

styleofdressing.WhenTaglioniretired,aseriesofwatercoloursweremadeinher

honour,worksnowadaysincludedinstudiesoffairyart(Appendix4,Frame9).

Naturally,duetothepopularityofdramaticstoriesofhumansinlovewithelementals,

the themewas embroidered on in a variety of ways. Sylphs portrayed as guardian

angels for instance,140 or elementals conservatively interpreted as evil creatures.141

PerhapsbecausethegnomesassociatebestwithSatansimps(Appendix4,Frame5),

they have not marked the visual arts to the degree the sylphs and undines have.

Amongthemanynovels,plays,ballets,paintingsfeaturingelementalsitissometimes

easytotraceassourceof(deluded)inspiration.Theconnection

is not always obvious, but those looking into issues definitely trace Villars

influence.142

- ./ *$$

As explained earlier, soon after the initial editions became

interpretedasaRosicruciannovel.When enhancedinterest in

139Seeber1944:72ff;JuininVillars1966:12ff;Delon1999:7ff.140 de Lichtfield 1796. Originally written in English, the author, whose real name is identified as

lisabethJ.P.Montolieu,translateditintoFrench.Theslimbookletisillustratedwithtwoengravings,

andapieceofmusic(staves)entitled.(Seeber1944:82datesthenovelto1784.)141Cazotte2003.ThemajorsourceforCazottewas(seeamongotherreferences

thenotesbyYvesGiraudinCazotte2003).Winkler1988analysestheinfluenceof&

on Hoffmanns novel (1822). His article brings more connections to the fore

betweentheRomanticGermanauthorsandCazottestale,thus.

Bulwer Lytton turned Cazotte, the author of %&, into a character in his novel

#(BulwerLytton1853:bookI,chapter6).142Seereferencesinnote88 90.SeealsoMaurevert1920:227ff;Eigeldinger1969;Kilcher2004.

40

,anewEnglishtranslationwaspreparedin1714,introducedby

MonsieurPierreBaylewhoacceptedVillars, just likeAyresandPope, tobelong to

the Rosicrucian sect. The conviction that is a Rosicrucian

novelhassurviveduntilthetwentiethcentury.BothErikaTreske,andMarshaKeith

Schuchard,respectivelyintheir1933and1975dissertations,markandtreatitassuch,

as do Christopher McIntosh and Pat Rogers in more recent academic works.143

Schuchardmakes a connection toKabbalahwhen she linksVillars to the visionary

EmanuelSwedenborg(1688 1772)andGioseppeBorri:

In1931ActondiscoveredinSwedenborgsunpublishednotebooksmanyreferences

to the Cabala, including notes on the Sephiroth, and quotes from the Roscrucian

novel, The Comte de Gabalis. Swedenborg also owned a rare copy of Borris

Cabalistic work, The Key to the Cabinet, which was believed to be the source of

Gabalis.144

Inmyview she is here similarlymistaken aswithherRosicrucian interpretationof

Villars.TheformulationsuggeststocontainKabbalisticsecrets

buttheFrenchpriestonlyhinteduponthesubject.Asaresultofsuchinterpretations,

andofcoursethesupposedveiledseriousnessofVillarsconjuringpracticesanda

prayer of salamanders (see p. 19), Villars has been read by esotericists with

particularmindsets.AmongthosewhostudiedthesecretsrevealedbytheCountwere

the alchemistsGeorg vonWelling andGeneral EthanAllenHitchcock. The former

considered V