pentecostal and charismatic christianity in ethiopia - core ·...

Hatem Elliesie (ed.): Multidisciplinary Views on the Horn of Africa. Studien zum Horn von Afrika, 1, Köln 2014, pp. 109–127.

Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity in Ethiopia:

A Historical Introduction to a Largely Unexplored Movement

Jörg Haustein

*

Abstract Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity has become an increasingly noticeable phe-

nomenon in Ethiopia, which coincides with the significant rise of Protestantism in the

past two decades. In contrast to the ubiquity of this new religious factor and the public

debates it inspires, the movement has hardly been addressed in Ethiopian Studies. This

contribution seeks to provide a concise historical introduction to the origins of Ethiopi-

an Pentecostalism, its development under the governments of Ḫāylä-Səllase, the Därg, and the Ethiopian Peopleʼs Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), as well as its impact on the Ethiopian religious composition today. The argument will be made that

Ethiopian Pentecostalism should not be seen as simply another instance of the “mis-

sionary factor”, but that it needs to be understood first and foremost as an Ethiopian

movement, answering to the country’s political and cultural dynamics in the last dec-

ades, signifying as well as amplifying Ethiopia’s inherent religious plurality.

A. Introduction

There is a new religious factor in Ethiopia, which attracts considerable public atten-

tion, invites dispute, influences social behavior, and has produced new Amharic

phrases. It is visible in the multitude of church signs in any town or even small vil-

lages, displaying names like “Full Gospel Believers Church” (ሙሉ፡ወንጌል፡አማኞች፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Mulu Wängel Amañočč Betä-Krəstiyan), “Paradise Church” (ገነት፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Gännät Betä-Krəstiyan), “Light of Life Church” (ሕይወት፡ብርሃን፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Ḥəywät Bərhan Betä-Krəstiyan), “Deliverance Church” (አርነት፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Arənnät Betä-Krəstiyan), and many more. It is audible every Sunday morn-ing, when the public broadcast of Orthodox liturgy and the morning call of the Mu-

ezzin are joined by the sound of electric guitars, drums, and the joyful cries of ʾələlta (እልልታ). One can read about it in a recent church history by the Orthodox Sunday School Movement, warning of the detrimental effects of a certain renewal (ተሐድሶ,

* Jörg Haustein is Lecturer in Religions in Africa at the Department of the Studies of Religions at

the School of African and Oriental Studies (SOAS), University of London.

Jörg Haustein

Studien zum Horn von Afrika

110

täḥaddəso) for the life of the church and public morale in general.362F1 The more com-mon label for this new religious factor is “änṭe” (ጴንጤ), and its use often signals a deep social and cultural divide. For example, declining a beer may lead to the ques-

tion whether one is a änṭe, and an internet search of this term reveals spirited de-bates and even vigorous polemics about this phenomenon and its meaning for Ethi-

opian identity.

Despite its fairly ubiquitous presence, there are hardly any academic publications

about this new religious factor. The standard Amharic dictionaries do not yet include

the term ጴንጤ (änṭe)363F2, and its correct spelling is not solidified.364F3 Obviously, the word is derived from the Amharic term for Pentecost (ጰንጠቆስጤ, änṭäqosṭe), or the English “Pentecostal,” and as such it points to the Pentecostal movement. But how

did Pentecostalism come to Ethiopia in the first place? Why has it become such a

notable phenomenon only now, whereas in other African countries, such as neigh-

boring Kenya, it has been around for much longer365F

4

? Why are mainline Protestants,

such as Lutherans and Baptists labeled as änṭes as well? What is the significance of these developments for the religious landscape of Ethiopia as a whole?

The following remarks seek to address these and similar questions in an historical

overview of the Ethiopian Pentecostal movement that will look at its origins, spread,

and impact. In detailing these developments, the paper seeks to show that the dy-

namics underlying the inception and spread of Ethiopian Pentecostalism are not

sufficiently understood by the prevalent dichotomy between indigenous Christianity

(i.e. Orthodoxy) and foreign or missionary Christianity (i.e. Protestantism). Instead,

the argument will be made that despite early missionary origins, Ethiopian Pentecos-

talism is first and foremost an Ethiopian phenomenon, pointing to important recent

transformations in its religious discourse.

1

Mängəśtu/Kaśa: የቤተክርስቲያን፡ታሪክ፡ቁጥር ፪, yä-betä-krəstiyan tarik [,] quṭər 2 (2008), pp. 164ff. 2

So far, the term can only be found in supplement dictionaries such as www.amharicdictionary.com

or Girma Y. Getahun: Advanced Amharic Lexicon (2003). 3

The most common is the spelling used here (ጴንጤ), which also corresponds with the first written instance of the term in Mulu Wängel Amañočč Betä-Krəstiyan, ሙሉ፡ወንጌል፡አማኖች፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን፡ክልደት፡እስከ ... መቸስ፡ሰወ፡ጌታ፡ኢየሱስን፡ፈልጎ፡ሲመጣ፡ተመለሰ፡አይባል!!!, Mulu wängel amañočč betä-krəstiyan kä-lədät əskä … mäčäss säw geta Iyyäsus-ən fälləgo s-i-mäṭṭa tämälläs ay-ball!! (The Full Gospel Church from Birth until ... Well, it is Impossible to turn back the People when they come wanting Jesus‼), Addis Abäba 1978, p. 12. Due to a flawed Wikipedia transliteration, a common internet spelling is also “ፔንጤ”. The fairly comprehensive online Amharic Dictionary (www.amharicdictionary.com) opts for the spelling “ጰንጤ”which, however, is hardly in use any-where else. For a detailed history of the term and its application see Haustein: Writing Religious History (2011).

4

Pentecostal missionaries had arrived in Kenya as early as 1912, cf. Anderson: An Introduction to Pen-tecostalism (2004), p. 111.

Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity in Ethiopia

Multidisciplinary Views on the Horn of Africa

111

B. Origins

Ethiopian Pentecostalism does not have American roots, but began with Finnish and

Swedish Pentecostal mission initiatives, which entered the country in the 1950s. At

the time of their arrival, a number of other Protestant and Evangelical mission groups already were well-established in the country, and founded their own churches

in the following decades, most notably the “Kale Heywet Evangelical Church” (ቃለ፡ሕይወት፡ወንጌላዊት፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Qalä-Ḥəywät Wängelawit Betä-Krəstiyan, KHC), the “Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus” (የኢትዮጵያ፡ወንጌላዊት፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን፡መካነ፡ኢየሱስ, Yä-Ityoya Wängelawit Betä-Krəstiyan Mäkanä-Iyyäsus, ECMY), and the Meserete Kristos Church (መሠረተ፡ክርስቶስ፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Mäsärrätä-Krəstos Betä-Krəstiyan, MKC).366F5

The first Pentecostal missionaries with a long-term presence in Ethiopia were the

Finnish couple Anna-Liisa and Sanfrid Mattson who arrived in Addis Abäba in

1951. They opened a vocational school in Wolmera, a town approximately 35 km

west of the capital. Their organization was called “Scripture Publishers to Every

Creature” and was structured like an umbrella organization for otherwise indepen-

dent Finnish missionaries. In 1956 a female missionary belonging to this organiza-

tion opened a work centre in the Addis Abäba Märkato area and began spiritual

meetings there, which allowed her to connect with some Ethiopian youths, mostly

high school and university students.367F

6

The second group of missionaries was Swedish Pentecostals, who embarked on a

number of mission initiatives from 1959 onward. The most important one of these

was the work of the Swedish Philadelphia Church Mission, established in the south-

ern town of Awasa in 1960. While the main work of this mission was a vocational

school, they also conducted spiritual meetings and formed a small congregation. The

importance of the Swedish mission in Awasa for the early Pentecostal movement in

Ethiopia, however, lies in the annual summer Bible conferences conducted there.

These meetings lasted several weeks and were attended by students from all over the

country during their summer break. The mission thereby functioned as an important

hub for the emerging Pentecostal groups in the following years.

The Pentecostal movement gained momentum toward the middle of the 1960s,

with a number of mostly young Ethiopians claiming to have experienced the central

Pentecostal initiation experience: baptism in the Holy Spirit. Ethiopian Pentecostals

usually anchor this first proliferation of Pentecostal practice in a story of “initial out-

5

For the origins of the KHC, see esp. Fargher: The Origins of the New Churches Movement (1996). For the ECMY, see Arén: Evangelical Pioneers in Ethiopia (1978); Arén: Envoys of the Gospel (1999). For the MKC, see esp. Hege: Beyond Our Prayers (1998).

6

For details about these early Pentecostal mission endeavors, cf. Haustein: Writing Religious History (2011), pp. 46–51.

Jörg Haustein


112

pouring” of Holy Spirit baptism, which is connected to the ministry of a Kenyan

evangelist at Swedish and Finnish mission revival meetings.

7

The story of this Ken-

yan man is often used to denote the inherently African origin of the movement,

instead of a presumed Western missionary one, making the case for a certain

indigeneity or at least non-European origin of Ethiopian Pentecostalism.

8

From 1963 to 1966, Pentecostal experiences and practices spread to a number of

mission-independent prayer groups across the country, most notably at the Teacher

Training Institute in Harär, at the Nazret High School, and among university stu-

dents in Addis Abäba. A number of these initiatives converged in Addis Abäba and

led to the foundation of the “Full Gospel Believers Church” (ሙሉ፡ወንጌል፡አማኞች፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Mulu Wängel Amañočč Betä-Krəstiyan, FGBC) in 1967. During this process, the students selected seven leaders from the different revival groups and

asked two Swedish missionaries to ordain them as “elders” for the new church. The

involvement of missionaries in the ordination was a controversial decision since the

group wanted to maintain their independence, yet they apparently also saw the need

to obtain an authoritative ordination through established Pentecostals.370F

9

However,

the FGBC kept its distance from the Swedish missionaries in the following years and

asserted its independence in conflicts with them.371F

10

There are three important observations to be made with regard to these origins.

First, the early Ethiopian proponents of Pentecostalism were members of the young

and highly mobile student elite. The international and arguably modern style of Pen-

tecostal Christianity matched their educational experience, and their travels, e.g. for

home visits, student campaigns, conferences, or educational purposes, enabled them

to quickly spread their faith and to form a national network. Secondly, while the

theological origin of Ethiopian Pentecostalism certainly lies with the Pentecostal

missions, the Ethiopians quickly developed a strong sense of mission independence,

partially because their own leadership ambitions clashed with the setup of the mis-

sions, and partially because they did not want to be seen as a foreign faith. Thirdly,

the somewhat unguided convergence of different revival groups with youthful ambi-

tion resulted in interesting and quite energetic church politics right from the start,

which continue to the present day as different parties assert their historical influence

in the inception of Pentecostalism to Ethiopia.372F

11

7

For the first written instance of this narrative see Engelsviken: Molo Wongel (1975), p. 29. 8

Cf. Haustein: Writing Religious History (2011), pp. 69–79. 9

Cf. ibid. Ethiopian Pentecostal histories tend to not mention the Swedish missionary contribution

to their foundation, cf. e.g. Mulu Wängel Amañočč Betä-Krəstiyan, ሙሉ፡ወንጌል፡አማኖች፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን [...], op. cit. (fn. 3).

10

See Haustein: Writing Religious History (2011), pp. 132–136. 11

These arguments revolve around the central initiatory event and different contributions regarding

the establishment of the FGBC, cf. ibid, pp. 91–136.



113

Only a few months after its foundation, the FGBC applied for registration as a re-

ligious association. This was a bold attempt reflecting the modernizing impulses of

the Pentecostal youths because in public sentiment and political reality the Ethiopian

Orthodox Church (የኢትዮጵያ፡ኦርቶዶክስ፡ተዋሕዶ፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Yä-Ityop̣ya Ortodoks Täwaḥǝdo Betä-Krǝstiyan, EOC) was the only legitimate representative of Ethiopian Christianity. All other Christian groups were operating under the “Regulations Gov-

erning the Activities of Missions” from 1944

12

. However, there had been recent leg-

islative changes, which made this Pentecostal request possible. The 1955 revision of

the constitution, while proclaiming the EOC as the state church, also contained first

tenuous provisions for freedom of religious practice

13

. The Civil Code of 1960

14

took

up this basic provision, outlawed discrimination on the basis of religion, and laid the

foundation for registering religious groups outside the EOC as legal associations

15

. In

1966 the “Legal Notice No. 321”

16

followed up with guidelines for this registration

process. Only less than a year later, the Ethiopian Pentecostal youths explicitly in-

voked this legal framework in the registration request for their church, and became

the first religious group to test the new legislation. The Ministry of the Interior

apparently did not know what to do with such an application and forwarded it to the

Ministry of Education, which had been in charge of registering foreign missions.

However, since the FGBC was not connected to a mission, the Ministry of Educa-

tion did take on the case, and after some months, the application was rejected by the

Interior Minister, which also entailed the closure of the church’s meeting places

17

.

The Full Gospel Church at first complied with this ruling and relied on smaller

meetings in private homes. For a time, the group also gathered at the Swedish mis-sion property in Addis Abäba, who also attempted to use some of their Imperial

contacts to intervene on their behalf. During this time, the Ethiopian Pentecostal

movement encountered its first doctrinal division, when one of its evangelists teamed

up with Oneness Pentecostal missionaries from the USA and subsequently founded

the “Apostolic Church of Ethiopia” (የኢትዮጵያ፡ሐዋርያዊት፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Yä-

12

A copy of these regulations can be found in Aymro/Motovu: The Ethiopian Orthodox Church (1970), p. 174.

13

Ethiopia: Revised Constitution (1955), art. 40.

14

Ethiopia: የፍትሐ፡ብሔር፡ሕግ, yä-Fətḥa Bəḥer Ḥəgg (1960). 15

Aklilu Habtä-Wäld [Ṣäḥafe Təʾəzaz]: Civil Code of the Empire of Ethiopia (1960), see esp. art. 407. 16

Aklilu Habtä-Wäld [Ṣäḥafe Təʾəzaz]: Legal Notice No. 321 of 1966. Regulations Issued Pursuant to the Control of Associations Provision of the Civil Code of 1960 (1966), pp. 1–10.

17

See Engelsviken: Molo Wongel (1975), p. 65. Engelsviken also mentions a riot against Pentecostals in Debre Zeit in connection with this refusal, but it is doubtful whether the authorities really knew

enough about the movement to connect this incident to the application, cf. Haustein: Writing Reli-gious History (2011), p. 230.

Jörg Haustein


114

Ityoya Ḥawaryawit Betä-Krəstiyan, ACE).18 Oneness Pentecostalism denies the doc-trine of the trinity, which of course was an extremely problematic outlook in Ortho-

dox Ethiopia.

From the end of 1971 onward, the government increased its pressure on religious

groups without a permit. In November 1971, the Security Department in the Minis-

try of Interior sent a circular letter reminding local governments to enforce the

meeting ban against Pentecostals and Jehova’s Witnesses. In the spring of 1972, the

ACE in Awasa was shut down following a rather brutal mob attack.

19

This incident

also made the Pentecostal missions nervous, who now increasingly sought to com-

municate the distinction between them and the anti-trinitarian beliefs of the ACE

20

.

Swedish Pentecostal missionaries also were still hoping for negotiations to resolve

the status of the FGBC, but the Ethiopian youths decided to wait no longer and

resumed public meetings again, insisting on what they believed to be their constitu-

tional right.

21

However, this attempt failed and led to the arrest of approximately

250 worshipers on Sunday, August 27, 1972. Alongside the Pentecostals, the gov-

ernment also rounded up Jehovah’s Witnesses in Addis Abäba. The arrested individ-

uals were charged with illegal assembly, and those who pled guilty were sentenced to

a fine, whereas the others, who insisted on their right to meet, received a prison

sentence of six months

22

. They immediately appealed their case to the High Court and were released on bail in the following weeks.

During this time, the Ethiopian Pentecostals managed to bring considerable in-

ternational attention to their case. At first, only Western Christian magazines took

up their case, most prominently Christianity Today, but in January 1973, the interna-tional edition of Newsweek also printed an article, which even prompted a govern-ment response in the Ethiopian Herald23. Moreover, with the help of some Lutheran supporters, they sparked an investigation by the World Council of Churches (WCC)

18

For Oneness Pentecostalism in general see Reed: Oneness Pentecostalism (2002), p. 944. The ACE

is a very strong church, especially in southern Ethiopia, and was featured in a number of English

Oneness publications, see Freeman: Unseen hands (1987); Freeman: Then Came the Glory, (1994); Gezahegne: Acts of God in Ethiopia, (2007).

19

Cf. Freeman: Unseen Hands (1987), p. 143. 20

Since the Americans had called their mission United Pentecostal Mission, Swedish missionaries

began to worry that they might be seen to deny the trinity as well, see Haustein: Writing Religious History (2011), pp. 160–164.

21

See Haustein: Writing Religious History (2011), pp. 172f. 22

According to the Penal Code, this was the maximum sentence for so-called “ringleaders, organizers

or commanders” of illegal assembly. Täfärra-Wärq Kidanä-Wäld: The Penal Code (1957), art. 476.

23

See Rayner: Persecution in Ethiopia (1972), pp. 54ff.; Persecuting the Sects (1973), p. 32;

Newsweekʼs Report on Pentecostalists Unfounded (1973), p. 2. The Editorial in the Ethiopian Her-ald actually predates the release of the Newsweek report in an attempt to preempt its impact.



115

into the matter, and in June 1973, the issue was raised in a private meeting between

the General Secretary of the WCC and the Ethiopian Patriarch. However, all this

international attention did not bear fruit in Ethiopia. In July 1973, the High Court

upheld the ruling against Pentecostals, but commuted the sentences to a probation,

which also strictly prohibited further meetings. Therefore, the FGBC congregated in

small “underground” groups until Ḫāylä-Səllase’s government came to an end two

years later.

C. Under the Därg Regime

When the popular revolution of 1974 began, Pentecostals hoped that now they could

realize their aspirations to religious liberty and freedom of assembly. The FGBC

resumed public meetings in the summer of 1974 and immediately set up a new na-

tional structure. The renewal of central leadership also entailed the second doctrinal

division in the church, when a group began to emphasize exorcisms more than be-

fore and contended that even born-again and Spirit-filled believers may be possessed

by demons.

24

They were forced out of the church and established the Gospel Deliv-

erance Church.

The FGBC meetings in Addis Abäba continued until 1976 when they were sus-

pended on account of a neighborhood riot. In 1977, the church was granted land by the city and completed their first own building in October 1978.

25

However, this was

already at a time when the Därg turned toward ‘scientific socialism’, violently co-opted the Orthodox Church, and settled internal differences in the bloody campaigns

of the Red Terror (ቀይ፡ሽብር, qäy šəbbər).26 Many of the liberties that the revolution had initially brought were revoked. In the country side, a number of rural FGBC

congregations had already been shut down and leaders imprisoned

27

, and a few

months after its opening, the Addis Abäba church was closed as well, and its proper-

ty was taken over by the government. Once again, the FGBC relied on home meet-

ings until almost the end of the Därg time. 24

The Pentecostal controversy of whether or not born-again Christians may be possessed by demons

began in the USA with the teachings of the popular evangelist Derek Prince. The Deliverance

group had listened to some of his audiotapes and began to spread his teaching. The whole issue had

a peculiar twist in that one of the elders of the FGBC suffered from epilepsy, which the Deliverance

group, among them another elder of the church, attributed to demon possession. See Haustein:

Writing Religious History, pp. 210f. 25

See the jubilee magazine issued by the church for the completion of the building, Full Gospel Be-

lieversʼ Church: ሙሉ፡ወንጌል፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን [...], op. cit. (fn. 3). 26

Cf. Elliesie, Hatem: Different Approaches to Genocide. Recht in Afrika (2009), p. 36. 27

Some were held for many years without a trial, for example the Yərga Aläm FGBC pastor Tesfaye

Gabbisso, who spent seven years in prison and today is a popular Pentecostal singer.

Jörg Haustein


116

During the initial years of the Därg, the Pentecostal missions began to turn over their work to Ethiopians. The Swedish Mission invited representatives from its dif-

ferent congregations to the yearly mission meeting in Awasa in 1975 where they

agreed to form the Ethiopian Hiwot Berhan Church (የኢትዮጵያ፡ሕይወት፡ብርሃን፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Yä-Ityop̣ya Ḥəywät Bərhan Betä-Krəstiyan, HBC), with its headquar-ters in Addis Abäba. Their application for registration as a religious association,

however, was not received favorably by the revolutionary rulers. In 1978, the Swedish

missionaries were forced out of the Kaffa province, and the churches there were

closed. One year later, the Addis Abäba HBC was shut down as well. The Awasa

mission station and church continued until 1983 when they too were closed and the

property was taken over by the government.389F

28

The Finnish Mission at Märkato in Addis Abäba appointed Ethiopian leaders for

their work in 1976 who less than one year later notified the mission of their desire to

be established as a financially independent national church. In 1978, the Därg forced the Finnish Pentecostal missionaries out of their development projects in the Kaffa

and Šäwa provinces, and subsequently, the mission decided to leave Ethiopia. A fel-

lowship of Finnish mission-related churches was formed in June 1978, which took

on the name of “Ethiopian Gennet Church” (የኢትዮጵያ፡ገነት፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Yä-Ityop̣ya Gännät Betä-Krəstiyan, GC), and the last missionaries departed in July 1978 after appointing the lead pastor as their representative. In 1979, the Därg closed the Addis Abäba GC and imprisoned its leaders for some months, and a number of other

Gännät congregations throughout the country were shut down as well. While many of the GC congregations had to rely on private house meetings and secret programs

in the following years, its southern branch in the Sidamo province flourished and

operated publicly throughout the Därg.390F29 The political repression of Ethiopian Pentecostalism also had serious repercus-

sions in the mainline Protestant churches. The MKC and the ECMY had already

seen some Pentecostal influence with the emergence of Charismatic groups in their

midst, which now were in a somewhat precarious position. The considerable public

visibility of Pentecostals and Charismatics, as well as their defiant attitude toward

worldly authorities, had made them a target for the revolutionary rulers. For exam-

ple, Charismatic youths on different occasions were arrested for publicly refusing to

chant socialist slogans like “The revolution above all!” maintaining that they should

not put anything above God.391F

30

Therefore, when the Därg began to attack the main- 28

For details on the Swedish mission during the Därg, see Nyberg Oskarsson: Svensk Pingstmission i Ethiopien (1959–1980) (1997).

29

For the Finnish mission churches during the Därg see Ashebir: The History of Ethiopian Guenet Church (1993); Roininen: A Condensed History of the Finnish Mission in Ethiopia (2001).

30

See Eide: Revolution and Religion in Ethiopia (2000), pp. 247f.; Tibebe: The Evangelical Movement in Ethiopia (2009), p. 248.



117

line churches, officials increasingly applied the derogatory term änṭe to all Protestants, though it originally had denoted Pentecostals only. Some of the Luther-

ans or Baptists so labeled had never even heard of Pentecostalism before.

31

In a

number of instances this caused the mainline churches to draw a clear distinction

between them and Pentecostals, for example, by not allowing Pentecostals from al-

ready shut-down churches to participate in their services, or by exiling their own

Charismatic groups.

When mainline Protestant congregations were shut down as well, many set up

their own secret cell groups as well. It is likely that the more Charismatic elements

in the churches led the way, and there may have been some conflation with Pente-

costal cell structures under such circumstances. However, the amount of contact

between cell groups strongly depended on local conditions. Especially in areas with

high political pressure, security concerns among cell group leaders were too high to

admit people from other denominations in fear of government spies.

32

However, it is

possible that in certain areas and over time cell groups were structured less by de-

nominational boundaries and more by interpersonal relationships and local proximi-

ty, so that as church identification lessened, spiritual practices became more homog-

enous.

33

Altogether, it appears that the Därg regime furthered the spread of Pente-costalism in an indirect way. The strong repression of Pentecostals and their rela-

tively defiant attitude toward government power resulted in the creation of fairly

stable underground structures that effected significant church growth. On account of

these developments, Pentecostal and Charismatic Christians began to be seen as a

political alternative to the more accommodating attitudes of some established

churches

34

. Moreover, government propaganda increasingly identified all Protestants

as Pentecostals, and this hegemonic practice effectively altered public discourse: to-

day many Protestants call themselves änṭe. The churches’ attempts to counter this identification by excluding Charismatic groups enabled the latter to produce a his-

torical narrative of moral superiority after the Därg had been brought down. As they

31

Donham: Marxist Modern (1999), pp. 144, 164. 32

Cf. Haustein: Writing Religious History (2011), p. 200. 33

Cf. Bäqqälä: ሪቫይቫል. 2002, pp. 107, 160. 34

The Ethiopian Orthodox Church was forcefully appropriated by the Därg fairly early on, symbolized perhaps most of all by the murder of Patriarch Theophilos. The ECMY also began to adapt to the

political structures of the Därg in the 1980s, for example, by participating in the drafting of the new constitution and taking up a seat in the parliament. See Haustein: Navigating Political Revolutions:

Ethiopia’s Churches during and after the Mengistu Regime (2009), p. 136.

Jörg Haustein


118

tell of persecution brought on them by the government and their own congrega-

tions, they cast themselves as representatives of the true and unblemished church.

35

D. Current Developments

After the fall of the Därg, Ethiopia began to see an unprecedented measure of reli-gious plurality. While the core of the present government, the Tigray People’s Lib-

eration Front (ሕዝባዊ፡ወያነ፡ሐርነት፡ትግራይ, Ḥəzbawi Wäyyanä Ḥarənnät Təgray, TPLF), had been no less Marxist in orientation than the Mängəśtu regime it

fought,

36

it took a more tolerant stance on religion early on, since its armed struggle

against the Därg was built mostly on rural support and had to accommodate their religiosity.

37

Therefore, when the TPLF-led EPRDF took over power in 1991, their

new governing philosophy of “ethno-regional federalism” was extended to religions

as well. Article 13 of the constitution states that “[t]he national emblem on the flag

shall reflect the hope of the Nations, Nationalities, Peoples as well as religious com-

munities to live together in equality and unity.” Accordingly, Article 11 marks a clear

separation of religion and state, rules out a state religion and provides the assurance

of no government interference in religious matters and vice versa. Article 27 warrants freedom of religion, belief, and opinion, which includes the right of believers to “es-

tablish institutions of religious education and administration in order to propagate

and organize their religion.” Based on these constitutional provisions, the legal

framework for the registration of associations, already set up by the 1960 Civil Code

and the “Legal Notice No. 321” of 1966, was now put into practice, allowing and

mandating the official registration of all religious bodies.

Like all Protestants, Pentecostals immediately took advantage of the changes the

new government brought and re-emerged in public space, discovering that their

following had grown significantly under the Därg regime. The FGBC, for example, reclaimed its Addis Abäba church building from the government within a few

months after the EPRDF had taken over the city and held its first public worship

service there with an estimated attendance of 15,000 worshipers.

38

The HBC re-

35

See for example Assefa: A Clean Hearth for the Fire to Blaze (1997), p. 23; Jeto: “Troubled But Not Destroyed” (1999), p. 33; Mintesinot Birru: The Impact of Charismatic Movement (2002), p. 27.

36

Mäläs Zenawi renounced Marxism-Leninism at about the same time as Mängǝśtu Ḫāylä-Maryam,

see Tiruneh: The Ethiopian Revolution 1974–1987 (1993), p. 362. 37

See Young: Peasant Revolution in Ethiopia (1997), pp. 177ff. 38

See Addis Abäba Full Gospel Believers’ Church: የ40ኛ፡ዓመት፡የወንጌል፡አገልግሎትና፡የምስጋና፡ በዓል፡ መጽሔት / ሐምሌ 1958–1998 ዓ.ም. (Yä-40-ñña ʿamät yä-wängel agälgəlot-nna yä-məsgana bäʿal mäṣhet / hamle 1958–1998 ʿa.mə / “Magazine of fourty years of Gospel Ministry and of the An-niversary Celebration (July 1966–2006)”), Addis Abäba 2006, p. 15.



119

claimed the former mission compound in Awasa within two months after the new

regime came to power and resumed public services. Moreover, despite occasional

local difficulties, it became much easier for all Protestants to secure land for church

buildings and burial grounds, which had been impossible before. This is especially

significant in areas they previously had hardly any access to. In the largely Orthodox

town of Baḥər Dar, for example, Protestants erected tall churches, which appear to

compete in visibility with Orthodox buildings.

39

The increased public presence of

Protestantism in Orthodox areas has led to a number of clashes and riots, during

which government forces have usually protected Protestant gatherings.

40

The mandate for the registration of religious associations was largely welcomed by

Pentecostal churches, since for them this was the first time they could obtain official

recognition. Moreover, the organizational requirements for registration and the legal

recognition this process awards are largely compatible with Pentecostal modes of

organizing and their tendencies to grow via fragmentation. A list of registered associ-

ations obtained from the Ministry of Justice in 2004 indicates the mushrooming of

Pentecostal associations. Of the 291 religious denominations, churches, and minis-

tries in this list, the absolute majority belongs to the Protestant fold and many of

them are Pentecostal or Charismatic. The most relevant recently established Pente-

costal denominations are the “Assemblies of God” (ኢትዮጵያ፡ጉባኤ፡እግዚአብሔር፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Yä-Ityop̣ya Gubaʾe Ǝgziʾabəḥer Betä-Krəstiyan), the “Bible Army Church” (የመጽሐፍ፡ቅዱስ፡ሠራዊት፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Yä-Maṣḥaf Qəddus Särawit Betä-Krəstiyan), the “Gospel Light Church” (የወንጌል፡ብርሃን፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Yä-Wängel Bərhan Betä-Krəstiyan), the “Harvest Church of God” (መከረ፡እግዚአብሔር፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Mäkkärä-Ǝgziʾabəḥer Betä-Krəstiyan), the “Maranata Church” (የኢትዮጵያ፡ወንጌላዊት፡ማራናታ፡የቤት፡ክርስቲያን፡ኀብረት, Yä-Ityop̣ya Wängelawit Maranata yä-Bet Krəstiyan Ḫəbrät), and the “Winners’ Chapel” (አሸናፊ፡መቅድስ፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Aššännafi Mäqdäs Betä-Krəstiyan).402F41 The largest trinitarian Pentecostal denomina-tions are the FGBC and the HBC with approximately 500,000 members each.403F

42

The

39

In the predominantly Protestant south, such representative buildings are rarely to be found.

40

For examples of such occurrences in Baḥər Dar (1994) and Mäqällä (2003), see Tsega: Protestant

Mission Activities and Persecutions in Bahǝr Dar (2005), p. 220; U.S. Department of State: Ethiopia: International Religious Freedom, www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/23705.htm (last access 7 Jan. 2011).

41

For an annotated list of the most important Pentecostal and Charismatic churches, see Haustein:

Pentecostal and Charismatic Churches in Ethiopia (2011). See also Schröder: Äthiopien. Religiöse Gemeinschaften (1997).

42

Most churches do not have reliable statistical information about their membership. For the FGBC

estimates obtained in interviews with church leaders ranged from 500,000 to one million. Especially

smaller churches tend to offer greatly exaggerated estimates, in hopes of recruiting foreign support.

Jörg Haustein


120

ACE is comparable in size.

43

Most other Pentecostal churches are considerably

smaller with membership in the five-figure range or below.

The proliferation of Pentecostal theology, and practices into mainline Protes-

tantism continued at an accelerated rate in the last two decades. Almost all Protes-

tant churches now are deeply influenced by Pentecostal/Charismatic Christianity and

have adopted central Pentecostal propositions in their theological statements and

regulations. The Baptist KHC, for example, whose founding organization, the Sudan

Interior Mission, was decidedly anti-Pentecostal in the 1970s.44 published a revision of its Doctrinal Statement in 2004, which defines Pentecostal terms like “baptism in

the Holy Spirit” and regulates in detail Charismatic practices, like speaking in

tongues, prophesy, or laying on of hands.

45

The ECMY officially welcomed the

Charismatic movement in 1993 and found it compatible with its own Lutheran

teachings and traditions.

46

In 2008, the church published a liturgy reform, which

outlines a number of issues with regard to Charismatic practices, but in general af-

firms their use if applied in the right way. Likewise, the Mennonite MKC confirms

the belief of the church in the “fullness of the Holy Spirit” and the work of “spiritual

gifts” in their Statement of Faith.

47

There are a number of Charismatic movements within the Ethiopian Orthodox

Church as well. However, they are routinely a point of contention, not least because

whole Charismatic groups have left the church in the past and became independent

Pentecostal churches.

48

In other cases, charismatic groups tended to function as a

sort of transit point for Orthodox Christians turning Protestant.

49

However, there

still are a number of Charismatic groups who wish to maintain a distinctly Orthodox

identity, but due to their precarious position, they mostly keep a low profile.

The theological alliance between mainline Protestants and Pentecostals has its

organizational correlate in the Evangelical Churches’ Fellowship of Ethiopia.

50

It is the only significant ecumenical body on the Protestant side and almost all the major

43

In an interview, the leader of the church estimated the number of his congregations at over 5,000

with altogether 2 million members. A more conservative estimate by a trinitarian Pentecostal still

puts the number at around 600,000.

44

See Baliski: Case Studies from the Bible (2004), pp. 19.

45

Qalä-Ḥəywät Wängelawit Betä-Krəstiyan: የእምነት፡አቛም, yä-əmnät aqwäm (2004), p. 32. 46

See Fogi: The Charismatic Movement in the EECMY, (2000), pp. 97f.; Alemu: Reflection Paper, p. 1. 47

See Mäsärrätä-Krəstos Betä-Krəstiyan (Ed.): መሠረተ፡እምነት, mäśärätä-əmnät (1995), p. 6. 48

The most prominent example of this was the Ammanuel Fellowship (now እማኑኤል፡ህብረት፡ቤተ፡ክርስቲያን, Ǝmanuʾel Həbrät Betä-Krəstiyan; “Ammanuel Fellowship Church”) which began as a prayer fellowship in a Nazret in 1991, left the church in 1995, and became increasingly Protestant in

the following years until it finally joined the Evangelical Churchesʼ Fellowship in 2004. 49

See Haustein: Die pfingstlich charismatischen Bewegungen (2011).

50

For the history of the ECFE, see Fite: The Challenges of Denominational Conflicts (2001), p. 22.



121

(trinitarian) Pentecostal churches participate in it. The Fellowship facilitates theo-

logical discussions as well as cooperation in evangelism, development projects, or

practical matters such as burial grounds, and, to some extent, it seeks a common

political representation of Protestants. As an ecumenical body, it also functions as a

platform for Pentecostal and Charismatic theologies. However, these hardly appear

to be a dividing issue anymore, rather the controversial topics are proselytism and

infant baptism versus adult baptism.

This conflation of Pentecostal and Protestant Christianity coincides with the sig-

nificant growth of Protestantism in the last 25 years. In the 1984 census, roughly

2.1 million people identified as Protestant, which was 5.5 % of the total popula-

tion.

51

By 1994 the number had more than doubled to 5.4 million, or 10.2 % of the

overall populace,

52

and by 2007 Protestants had more than doubled again, amounting

to 13.7 million people, or 18.5 % of the population.

53

Most of this increase appears

to have come at the cost of the Orthodox Church, whose share declined from

54.0 % in 1984 to 50.6 % in 1994, and 43.5 % in 2007. Though Protestantism out-

grew the population increase in all regions except Somali by large margins between

1994 and 2007,

54

its growth has not fundamentally altered the map of Ethiopia’s

religious composition because of the vast differences between regions. In Təgray, for

example, only about 1,100 people self-identified as Protestant in 1994 (0.04 % of the

population there), which increased to roughly 3,600 (0.08 %) in 2007. Protestantism

is mostly a religion of the south and the west, over 97 % of all Protestants live in the

Southern Nations, Nationalities’ and Peoples’ Region, Oromiya, and Gambella, where they take a share of the population of 55.5, 17.7, and 70.1 %, respectively. These

three regions also grew by more than the country average, which would account for

part of the Protestant increase. In Addis Abäba, Protestants claim a share of the

populace of 7.7 %. Because of this regional distribution, Protestantism is more of a

rural than an urban phenomenon in Ethiopia. Only 11.6 % of Protestants live in

cities or towns, compared to 16.1 % of the overall population. The gender distribu-

tion in Ethiopian Protestantism largely follows the country’s, although women are

slightly overrepresented in age groups under twenty-five and over forty-five. In all

regions of Ethiopia, the population share of Protestants is larger among youths than

51

Ethiopia: The 1984 Population and Housing Census (1991), p. 60. The number of Protestants might be underestimated by this study, given the difficult conditions to identify as such during the Därg.

52

See Ethiopia: The 1994 Population and Housing Census (1998), p. 129. 53

See Ethiopia, The 2007 Population and Housing Census. (2008), p. 17. 54

Islam 2.8 %; Orthodox 1.3 %; Catholicism 1.1 %; traditional religions 1.7 %. Own calculations

based on the detailed census figures released at www.csa.gov.et/index.php?option=com_rubberdoc

&view=category&id=72&Itemid=521 (last access 7 Jan. 2011).

Jörg Haustein


122

older people. Even though the census numbers are debated by some,

55

they indicate

a significant change in Ethiopia’s confessional landscape.

E. Conclusion

With the rise of Protestantism and the “Pentecostalization” of mainline Protestant

churches, Pentecostalism has become a highly public affair, be it in large stadium

conferences, in notoriously loud neighborhood churches, or in the use of the label

änṭe for anyone who does not drink alcohol. This stands in quite stark contrast to the little work produced about this movement in the field of Ethiopian Studies,

which all too often equates Ethiopian Christianity with Orthodoxy only.

However, viewing Pentecostalism simply as another instance of the “missionary

factor”

56

hardly does justice to the historical and social dynamics of this recent reli-

gious change. The core of Ethiopian Pentecostalism sought mission independence

from the start, leading to the foundation of the FGBC and its attempt to register as

an indigenous religious association. When this failed, Ethiopian Pentecostals asserted

their independence wherever possible, most of the time congregating in secret cell

groups rather than mission compounds. The restrictive politics of the Därg further reduced the remaining influence of foreign missions, whose role from then on was

reduced to material support at best, even with regard to their daughter churches,

who since have developed their own identity as mission independent churches.

57

Today, Ethiopian Pentecostals, by all accounts, do not understand themselves as the vanguard of international Protestantism, but as a renewal movement for their coun-

try, heralding the same national heritage and patriotism as their Orthodox counter-

parts.

Even in the mainline Protestant churches, Pentecostal theology and practices

have become a way of marking a difference to the founding missions, especially with

regard to music and liturgy.

58

Pentecostal music, for example, never relied on trans-

lated works, but drew from contemporary Ethiopian popular music early on, which it

complemented with original lyrics. This was and is one of the most popular features

of Pentecostalism in Ethiopia that has transformed music in mainline Protestant

55

Especially Muslims have criticized the census for underestimating their population share, see e.g.

Ethiopia: Muslim Critics Reject National Census for “Missing Millions” (2008).

56

Cf. Getatchew Haile/Lande/Rubenson: The Missionary Factor in Ethiopia (1998). 57

This can be seen, for example, in their historical narrative, which tends to diminish the missionary

impact, see Haustein: Writing Religious History (2011), pp. 38–40. 58

See Domianus: Essay zum TEE-Lehrbuch (2005), p. 16.



123

churches and has become a part of Ethiopian culture in general.

59

Furthermore,

Pentecostal exorcisms connect to traditional cosmology, invoking names and do-

mains of traditional spirits or linking certain diseases to spirit possession. Their heal-

ing services also take up a traditional function of the church and are understood by

some as an alternative to the all too often unattainable Western medicine. Finally,

the combination of modern technology in Pentecostal services with a rather tradi-

tional outlook may be attractive for people aspiring to be part of contemporary global

culture without losing their heritage.

60

Moreover, as the historical overview has shown, Ethiopian politics and internal

affairs have been a very influential factor in the history of Ethiopian Pentecostalism

and its spread to the mainline churches. The modernizing ambitions of Ḫāylä-Səllase

led to legislative reforms, which made the public emergence of other Christian

groups possible. When the Imperial government failed to implement this legal

framework, it implicitly politicized the Pentecostal movement, whose defiant insis-

tence on religious liberties and effective underground structures set them up as an

alternative to the aging Empire. After the revolution, the same dynamic applied.

When the Därg began to suppress Pentecostals and alienated Protestants as änṭe the movement resorted to effective underground structures and began to be seen as a

political and religious alternative to ‘scientific socialism’.

61

The severe repressions

encountered during this time therefore allowed the movement to build a significant

popular base, which emerged in public after the EPRDF came to power in 1991. The

EPRDF's interest in religious pluralism, which corresponds to its philosophy of eth-

no-regional federalism, has allowed the Pentecostal movement to build on this base,

especially since the legal framework of registration and land grants are largely com-

patible with Pentecostal organizational models. Likewise, the incursion of Pente-

costalism into the mainline Protestant churches in the form of the Charismatic

movement is rooted in the precarious position Pentecostals had under Ḫāylä-Səllase

and the Därg, and it accelerated under the present government due to internal

59

Engelsviken notes that the FGBC choir was already featured in national TV and radio in 1971, see

Engelsviken: Molo Wongel (1975), p. 93. Today it is possible to ride a mini taxi in Addis Abäba with Orthodox icons in the windows and a Pentecostal music tape in the car stereo.

60

There is a sizable Ethiopian Protestant exile community, especially in the USA, which originated

with emigrants during the Därg. A number of US pastors travel to Ethiopia and Western Europe frequently, visiting Ethiopian Pentecostal churches or immigrant communities and thereby estab-

lishing an international network, which facilitates the transport of theological ideas, financial re-

sources, music, books, and more.

61

Cf. Eide: Revolution and Religion in Ethiopia (2000), p. 247.

Jörg Haustein


124

Protestant dynamics in a fairly unregulated religious marketplace.

62

With the possi-

bility of land grants, Pentecostals (and Protestants overall) also have gained access to

predominantly Orthodox and Muslim areas, which has caused some unrest, but in

neither case has the religious majority been impacted significantly. The same could

be said of the Charismatic movement within the Orthodox Church.

Since the rise of Pentecostalism is based on its defiance of governments seeking

to suppress religious minorities, since it thrives under the present conditions of reli-

gious liberty, and since its growth coincides with the increase of Protestantism in

certain parts of the country, it is safe to conclude that Pentecostalism amplifies Ethi-

opia's inherent religious plurality. This is precisely why it is important to study Pen-

tecostalism as an indigenous Ethiopian movement. The rise of Pentecostalism gives

insight to important religious dynamics of Ethiopia's recent history, for example

regarding the relationship of religion and politics, the competing articulations of an

Ethiopian cultural identity, the challenges to Christian diversity, or the development

of interreligious relations. Therefore, researching Ethiopian Pentecostalism will likely

become more important as religious plurality remains a significant factor in Ethiopi-

an politics and culture.

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